Literary Review

For this Project different linguistics concepts have been revised:

Input
Input is characterized as language which a learner hears or gets and
from which he or she can learn. (Richards-1989) and its significance is
generally well acknowledge.
Behaviorist views hold that there is an immediate relationship between
input and output.
Keeping in mind that the main goal is to acquire the language, the learner
must be given feedback, which constitutes the input.
Interactionist views of language also holds that verbal language, or input,
is important.

Stephen Krashen (1982) has placed a lot of importance on the Input

Hypothesis. He states that the learner needs to get comprehensible data
to acquire language.
Information about the sentence structure is accessible when the
information is understood.
Krashen contends that the input a first language learner receives is
simple and comprehensible at the beginning and gets slightly more
complicated.
He supports that the information should be a level higher from the
learners language (I + 1), with this the second language learner can move
forward.

The Interactionist Approach states that the verbal interaction is crucial for
language learning.
Krashen argues that learning does not mean acquisition. These are two
very different phenomena. He explains that acquisition may occur in the
classroom when communication is emphasized through dialogues, role
playing and other meaningful interaction.
Affective Factors such as attitudes: Young children dont have enough
attitudes towards language, but still having positive attitudes can enhance
learning, according to Ellis (1994).
The Affective Filter Hypothesis developed by Krashen, accounts for the
different effects of affective variables on second language acquisition.

Affective variables function as a mental block, also known affective filter,

and this represents an obstacle.
When there is no motivation and confidence on the learner, the filter goes
up.
If the learner is not anxious and wants to be an active participant in the
group, the filter goes down.
Young children have the advantage that at their age, the affective filter it is
on a lower position.
Ellis describes a SOCIAL CONTEXT that can be related with this project,
the EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT, submerged in the language classroom, that
is to say, the target language is taught as a subject only and is not
commonly used as a medium of communication outside the classroom.
WHAT WOULD BE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHERS?
As teachers we have to consider that, we can not base our teaching only
in a single theory.
All the different theories provide us with information to help us in our
profession. This can help in the design of the classroom activities, the
syllabus, understanding the learning process of the students so as to
guide them.
Language teachers can teach to their students sample of some useful and
frequently used phrases, so with time the students can be able or choose
to use these phrases in situations that require immediate communication.
THE TEACHER always should help his/her students as much as possible,
providing them with language necessary to pass to the next level of
language competence.
Another author, HAWKINS (2001) states, it is important the interaction
between teacher and students, and peer-interaction, it is through this that
knowledge is built gradually.
Using collaborative activities, for example, pair work or group students,
where negotiation of meaning is required.
However, we must not forget that our expectations regarding acquisition
sometimes are not full filled.

ELSA AVERBACH (1993:29) states, Starting with the L1 provides a sense

of security and validates the learners lived experience, allowing them to
express themselves. The learner is then willing to experiment and take
risk with English.
AVERBACH recommends when L1 should be used:

Negotiation of syllabus and the lesson.

Classroom management.
Spelling.
Explanation of errors.

ATKINSON (1987: 422) gives some arguments for using the mother tongue
in the classroom.
A- He states that is a learner-preferred strategy, this is something I
could notice in my classroom, when my students have the
opportunity will choose to translate without my approach.
B- A Humanistic approach, that means to let the students express
what they want.
COMMUNICATION in the classroom is very important and it is better when
takes place in English, but according to Atkinson (1987:426), there should
be a limit, it may result on the following:

Using translation may become a habit.

Students will tend to not use English in some activities, where
English is mandatory.

Atkinson analyzes some strategies that he had encountered in various

parts of Europe. He divided in three categories (on the basis of the
teachers objective in using L1):
A Facilitating teacher-student communication.
B Facilitating teacher- student rapport.
C Facilitating learning.

A Using time-saving strategies: example, explaining the meaning of

grammatical item (e.g. a verb tense) at the time of presentation, especially
when a certain structure is not the same in the L1.

Explaining the meaning of a word in L1.

Checking comprehension.
Giving individual help.

B When the teacher starts a conversation in L1 before the beginning of

the class, so to reduce students anxiety.
C One of the best sources is given by Duff (1989), he recommends the
use of exercises involving the translation of single words or phrase IN
CONTEXT (1981.51).
Translating out of context encourages student to translate word by word,
translation within a specific context, makes them full aware of the problem
of single-word translation.