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Contents
Editor-in-Chief Facilitating Learning of Engineering Graphics Instead of 2
Dr Puteri Sri Melor Megat Yusoff Learning CAD System by A. Majdi Abd Rani, Azmi Abd. Wahab, Rahmat
Shaarani & Dr. Abd. Rashid Abd. Aziz.
Co-Editors
Suziah Sulaiman Role of Global Positioning System (GPS) in Hydrocarbon 8
Zulqarnain Abu Bakar Exploration – Subsidence Monitoring of the Offshore Platform
Yap Vooi Voon
by Dr. Abdul Nasir Matori & Assoc. Prof. Dr. Halim Setan
The entries range from opinions and views on engineering, technology and social issues
to deliberations on the progress and outcomes of academic research.
Opinions expressed in this journal need not necessarily reflect the official views of the
university.
ISSN 1511-6794
All materials is copyright of Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS. Reproduction in whole or in
part is not permitted without the written permission of the publisher.
ABSTRACT
The advancement of computers in both hardware and software has led to the replacement of hand-held instruments with
CAD system in engineering graphics course. The syllabus of engineering graphics courses has also shifted more towards
learning the CAD system. This paper provides an in-depth examination of engineering graphic course content and
proposed a well-balanced course content between fundamentals of graphics and CAD. It also includes a brief overview of
scheduling and course evaluation methodology.
Keywords
engineering graphics, CAD, facilitating learning, course content
INTRODUCTION A change in the drawing tools, from on learning the CAD software rather
hand-held instruments to computers, than graphics fundamentals. The
Graphics has been heralded as one of has inadvertently led to a shift in challenge to facilitate engineering
the cornerstone in engineering, as an course objective and students interest graphics is further compounded by
effective medium of communication [1]. The syllabuses of engineering the difficulty in scheduling an effective
between engineers and other technical graphics courses have slightly diverted program.
persons in engineering profession. from its main objective of teaching
Almost all engineering schools related students so that they can read and The course content should be well
in mechanical or chemical engineering write the graphic language clearly balanced between fundamentals of
discipline provide for a course in using universally accepted symbols, graphics and computer-aided design.
Engineering Graphics. This course conventions, standards and principles. In the development of an engineering
used to be conducted in a classroom Lately, it was found that more often graphics course, it is necessary to
or laboratory equipped with drawing the course content for engineering consider this new engineering
boards, T-square, set-squares and graphics courses tend to focus more environment and formulate course
other hand-held instruments. The on the need to learn the ropes of the objectives which will ensure that
advancement of computers, hardware software. Facilitators and future engineers will be best prepared
and software, has led to the demonstrators also tend to dwell on to efficiently use CAD tools to
replacement of hand-held instruments the CAD software instead of focusing communicate their ideas and design
with computer-aided design, CAD, as on the fundamentals of graphic solution [2].
a tool for facilitating learning. language. Thus, students tend to focus
This paper was presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education, ICEEE2000, Taipei,14-16 August, 2000.
Dr Raul Herrera [1] in his paper Command entry; Data entry; Sketching – Isometric; Oblique;
acknowledge, “The usefulness of the Draw Commands Perspective
CAD systems in the teaching-learning
process and their utilization in the job Drawing Aids; Entity Selection Pictorials Drawing
market is unquestioned. What
remains to be studied is how much Construct; Modify Multiview / Orthographic
and to what depth these systems Projections
should be taught, so that students Display control; Layers; Linetype;
attention stays focused on training Color Auxiliary view
their minds to improve their
visualization skills and on applying Text Details Drawings / Title Block
graphical solutions to engineering
problems.” Hatching Sectional Views
Accordingly, for engineering graphics, solid hour is allotted for the lab- workstations available. This is to
an hour of lecture is delivered on tutorial session. ensure effective learning, where each
fundamentals and concept of student has a hands-on learning
engineering graphics. Another full Lectures are conducted in the CAD experience when utilizing the CAD to
hour is dedicated on demonstration laboratory so as to allow for continuity implement the fundamentals and
with the CAD system adopted as a with the demonstration and lab- concept learned the previous hour.
tool for completing classwork and tutorial session. The number of Effectiveness of the laboratory session
homework assignments, while two students are limited by the number of can be ensured by the availability of
one or two demonstrators depending years of experience, having the lights and demonstrations session. Instead,
on the number of students in each turned off for the whole lecture the tutors ended having to repeat
session. This is especially so when the session, while using LCD or overhead learning materials presented in the
design of the CAD laboratory can be projector, will definitely put some of earlier session since most students
obstructive to student’s view where the students to sleep. requires a relearning curve in the
those seated at the back can hardly laboratory and tutorial session. Hence,
focus details on the projected screen. The course starts with sketching from this year onwards the session for
techniques, after a short introduction Engineering Graphics is block or
Each lecture session should start with and importance of engineering continuos (Refer Table 5b), which is
fundamental concepts, engineering graphics. These include sketching in more effective. Positive response from
drawing principles, related isometric and oblique. Subsequently, students overweighs those complaints
conventions, symbols and the basic concepts and fundamentals of session being too long. As
abbreviations of that particular topic. of orthographic projections are mentioned earlier, short breaks were
As an example, a topic on sectioning introduced together with CAD as a provided between session to refresh
should begin with section view basics, tool. Students are gradually the students.
purpose of performing sections, introduced to details drawing, title
cutting plane concepts and symbols, block, text and numbering. Later, The materials selected for the lab-
various hatching pattern, scale and its topics on sectioning, dimensioning, tutorial session should differ slightly
representations, types of sectioning, thread and fasteners, gears and cams, from homework materials. While the
and various sectioning applications. assembly drawings with balloons and exercise materials for lab-tutorial
Basically this session describes the bill of materials, and finally completed session is more focus towards what has
what and why issues. with working drawings. been learned in the current lecture
session, the exercises meant as
The demonstration session that In the future other than lecture and homework should try to
follows immediately after the lecture lab-tutorial session video and CD- accommodate or incorporate as much
session can clearly guide students the ROM’s presentation, invited as possible all materials learned the
various commands, steps required, professional speaker and field trip will previous lectures. Utmost importance
execution methodology, simple also be incorporated to improve is that these exercises are training
examples, case example and student’s learning. students on applying graphical
applications. This session solutions to engineering problems and
demonstrates the how issues. SCHEDULING improving their visualization skills.
Length of
Session One hour One hour Two hour Two hour
assignment forms the other major To implement a final examination for To have examination using hand-held
component of coursework, training engineering graphic course will instruments is perfectly easy. Using
students to improve their visualization introduce numerous complications CAD laboratory for conducting a final
skills and applying graphical solutions and controversies. Since the capacity can sometime turn into a complete
to engineering problems. Quiz and for most CAD laboratories are design nightmare. Imagine after painstaking
mid-term assessment are used for for between 30 – 40 students, an preparation and maintaining the
assessing student’s comprehension on examination for any larger number of computers, to still have a student
the subject matter. Instead of a final students will require some scheduling. facing computer breakdown during
examination, which is very Quarantine will have to be finals. Even though technically all the
cumbersome when using CAD as a implemented if the same set of computers are the same, students are
tool, a final semester project is a more problems is meant for all the students. well aware of those particular stations
reliable assessment of student’s ability. Alternatively, multiple set of exam that crawls, with corrupted files,
The final semester project should be problems of “supposedly” similar missing menus, printing
as close to an actual working drawing standard and difficulties have to be misconfigurations and various other
used in industry complete with detail prepared. This approach almost hardware and system problems.
drawings, assemblies and parts lists. always attract complains from
The project selected should require students that the exam questions are
students to apply most of the course of different difficulty levels.
contents learned for that semester.
ABSTRACT
Oil and gas remain the main energy source in Malaysia, where each of them contributes almost 33% and 41% of total
energy generation. In Malaysia, the exploration of hydrocarbon resources (oil and gas) is normally associated with
offshore activities. This is so because our hydrocarbon reserves are mostly located 120 km – 250 km offshore. Hence it
requires a very sophisticated positioning tool in order to position the oil or gas platform/rig at the right location of the oil
and gas well/reservoir. GPS as the most advance and superior positioning tool has proven its capability and superiority
for the purposes of positioning the oil and gas platform/rig all over the globe. It is estimated that at least 40% of the
offshore positioning for this nature were done by GPS. GPS role in the hydrocarbon exploration does not end there,
since once the hydrocarbon especially gas was extracted from its reservoir, there is a possibility that the reservoir will
experience reservoir compaction. This on the other hand will lead to the subsidence of the platform. Again GPS has the
capability to determine this subsidence rate (cm/year) and hence the compaction of the reservoir. It is important to
model the reservoir compaction in order to optimise the extraction of the gas. A study to determine and model the
subsidence rate of one of PETRONAS Gas Platform, which is Gas Platform Duyong, will be done. This study will also
assess the safety of this gas platform against the excessive subsidence, since this phenomena could expose the understructure
of the platform to the sea water against which it is not designed for. This study is for the duration of one year, and will
involve three data collections. The data will be processed and analysed for the above purpose using independence and
sophisticated GPS software. At the end of this study, the rate of subsidence and hence the reservoir compaction of the
hydrocarbon reservoir beneath the Platform Duyong will be known.
Keywords
GPS, Hydrocarbon Exploration, Offshore Positioning, Deformation/Subsidence Analysis.
INTRODUCTION 250 km offshore requires very high seismic surveys and the subsidence or
precision, reliable and highly available deformation surveys/monitoring of
Oil and gas remain the main energy positioning tool in order to perform the offshore oil/gas rig. Global
source in Malaysia, where each of various positioning purposes related Positioning System (GPS) fits well to
them contributes almost 33% and to the hydrocarbon exploration such perform such positioning activities in
41% of total energy generation. The as the positioning of the offshore oil/ the hydrocarbon exploration hence it
fact that our hydrocarbon (oil and gas) gas rig at the correct location of the has involved in at least 40% of the
reserves are mostly located 120 km – oil/gas reserves, positioning during the offshore positioning world wide.
This paper was presented at the Advances in Malaysian Energy Research Seminar, UiTM Shah Alam, 4-5 October, 2000.
METHODOLOGY
Epoch I Epoch J
Baseline Computation
Network Adjustment
Ipoh
Graphical/Numerical Presentation
ABSTRACT
In recent years, the popularity of flat-plate solar collector has increased and are used for domestic and commercial water
heating. Its market gets more competitive as its efficiency keeps on improving. It is evident that there are some components
that influence the thermal performance of the flat-plate solar collector to a certain extent that a thorough analysis is vital.
To ensure that a particular design will achieve a certain level of efficiency that is acceptable, a simulation study is carried
out on the parameters of the flat-plate solar collector, to assist in the selection of the appropriate materials. Simulation
studies were carried out on the following parameters: overall heat loss coefficient, absorber plates made of copper, aluminium
and galvanized iron, tube spacing, mass flow rate, absorber plate thickness and absorptance of the coating material. By
varying these parameters, the effect on the efficiency was obtained that will optimize the thermal performance of the flat-
plate collector.
Keywords
Daily Efficiency, Flat-Plate Collector, Modelling, Solar Energy, Simulation
This paper was presented at Seminar Fizik 2000, Kota Kinabalu, 8 November 2000.
Heat losses poised the main problem, capacity, and FP is the plate efficiency temperature of a solar heating system
which does not just rely on the factor. accurately by using Levenberg-
absorbing surface. It is evident that Marquardt algorithm 2 . Another
heat transfer processes are therefore In order to calculate the daily simulation study carried out in
essential and play a major role in the efficiency of a flat plate solar collector, Tempe, Arizona 3 evaluates the
design of a flat plate collector. The the equation used is as follows8; influence of each parameter on the
design comprises of the front cover(s), performance of the solar collector/
absorber plate with conduit tubes, regenerator with a conclusion that a
insulation, casing and coating (4) warmer inlet solution resulted in
materials. better heat and mass transfer.
The actual useful energy gain of the where Σqu is the total daily useful The concept of simulation in scientific
flat-plate solar collector is as follows, energy gain per unit area and ΣIT is research is strongly based on theories.
with the assumption that the losses the total daily solar influx on an From these theories, mathematical
based on the inlet fluid temperature inclined plane. models are built to resemble the actual
is negligible5; situation as closely as possible, by
METHODOLOGY taking into account the allowed
confidence level. As modelling is an
A simulation study carried out in important aspect of simulation, its
(1) Singapore predicted the storage tank development is done with extensive
where S is the absorbed solar
radiation, UL is the overall heat loss
coefficient, AC is the effective collector
area that is exposed to the incoming
solar flux, Ti is the inlet temperature
of the working fluid, Ta is the ambient
temperature and F R is the heat
removal factor.
(2)
(3)
Fig. 2 shows the reduction of the Fig. 3. Graph of daily efficiency versus number of covers for 3 different absorber plates.
overall heat loss coefficient as the
number of covers is increased with
different absorber plates made of
copper, aluminium and galvanized
iron which is as expected. Although
there is a significant reduction in the
overall heat loss coefficient with the
increasing number of covers, the same
does not apply for the daily efficiency.
Fig. 3 shows the decrease in daily
efficiency with the increase of the
number of covers which however,
contradicts with results shown in Fig.
2. Fig. 4 can be used to explain this
contradiction, where it is noticed that
the transmittance-absorptance
product also decreases as the number Fig. 4. Graph of Transmittance-Absorptance product versus number of covers for 3 different absorber
plates.
CONCLUSIONS
INTRODUCTION mixtures. This test has been used MATERIALS USED IN THE
widely by Kennedy and Hudson INVESTIGATION
The tensile properties of bituminous (1968), Kandhal (1979) and Wallace
mixtures are of interest to pavement and Monismith (1980) amongst Mineral Aggregates,
engineers because of the problems others. The method has been Filler and Bitumen
associated with cracking. The standardised by both the British Limestone aggregates and Ordinary
resistance of bituminous mixtures to Standard Institutions (1993) and the Portland cement filler and a binder of
fatigue cracking is dependent upon its ASTM (1982). nominal penetration 50 were used.
tensile properties, notably its tensile The bituminous mix used is the Hot-
strength and extensibility The tensile characteristics of Rolled Asphalt (HRA) as specified in
characteristics. Fatigue has been bituminous mixtures are evaluated by BS594: Part 1. Some relevant
defined in the literature as the loading the vertical diameter of a properties of these materials are shown
phenomenon of fracture under Marshall specimen with a single or in Table 1.
repeated or fluctuating stresses having repeated compressive load acting
a maximum value generally less than parallel to and along the vertical Synthetic Fibres
the tensile strength of the material. diametrical plane of the specimen. Two types of synthetic polypropylene
This loading configuration develops and polyester fibres were used in this
The layers in a flexible pavement a relatively uniform stress study. The fibres were used as a partial
structure are subjected to continuous perpendicular to the direction of the replacement of the filler; on an equal
flexing as a result of the traffic loads applied load and along the vertical volume basis; at two different
that they carry, resulting in tensile diametrical plane, ultimately causing concentrations of 0.5% and 1% filler
stresses and strains at the bottom of the specimen tested to fail by splitting to bitumen ratio by weight of mix.
the bituminous layers of the along the vertical diameter. The fibres in chopped form were the
pavement. The magnitude of the by-products of the textile industry and
strains is dependent on the overall
stiffness of the pavement.
Measurements of tensile strains in the Table 1: Properties of the Mineral Aggregates, Filler and Bitumen
order of 30-200 microstrains under a Used in the Study
standard wheel load have been
recorded (Brown, 1994). Under these Material Percentage Relative Absorption BS
by Weight (%) Density % Specification
conditions, it is possible for load-
induced or fatigue cracking to occur. Coarse
Aggregate 35 2.75 0.47
Fatigue is one of the failure criteria
considered in pavement design. Fine Aggregate BS 594: Part
(Sand) 55 2.65 1.37 1:1992 Table 3,
Filler (Ordinary Type F wearing
THE INDIRECT TENSILE TEST Coarse
Portland cement) 10 3.15
designation
Penetration Softening Penetration
The indirect tensile mode of testing (0.1 mm) Point (°C) Index (PI)
30/14
can be used to establish the tensile and
Bitumen 52 48.5 – 0.37
structural properties of bituminous
This paper was presented at the 10th Road Engineering Association of Asia & Australasia Conference, Tokyo, 4-9 September, 2000
3 ⁄ 4 σf
(ME)3 ⁄ 4 = –––––
3 ⁄ 4 εf
a a
where:
Deformation (mm)
(ME)3 ⁄ 4 = modulus of
elasticity at three- a = deformation at maximum stress
quarters of the
Toughness = Area 1 + Area 2
tensile failure stress
σf = tensile stress at
failure
Figure 2: Definition of Toughness
εf = tensile strain at
failure
4) Toughness
The toughness of a material is Toughness was determined by DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
defined as the amount of work per integrating the area under the
unit volume required to cause load-deformation curve up to a Indirect Tensile Strength
failure. This does not mean that deformation of twice that The indirect tensile strength is the
toughness can be used to analyse incurred at maximum tensile indirect tensile stress produced by the
specific distress problems in stress (Kavussi and Hicks, 1997) maximum load or load at failure. The
bituminous mixtures such as as shown in Figure 2. For each curves relating variations of tensile
permanent deformation or fatigue curve, the area is divided into two strength with bitumen content for the
behaviour (Little and Richey, parts: corresponding to the various mixtures are given in Figure
1983), however, it can be used to sections before and after the 3. The strength can be seen to increase
compare mixes containing maximum load at break. The first with increasing bitumen content. It
different materials. Specifically in part (1) represents the start of increases up to an optimum value for
this work, comparison is made loading to the maximum at each of the fibre-filler system. As the
between mixes containing fracture, and corresponds to the bitumen content is further increased,
different fibre-fillers (other energy absorbed before cracking. the tensile strength of the mixes started
variables such as bitumen, The second part (2) represents the to decrease.
aggregate and loading time having stored energy in the sample which
been kept constant for all the helps the crack to develop until Lower tensile strength values were
mixes). the end of testing. obtained at low bitumen content as
there was insufficient bitumen to coat
all the aggregate particles, which led
1.2
to a weak bond between the particles. This
is correspondingly accompanied by a
0.018
polyester mixes, which may be responsible,
0.017
for the lower strength obtained. The lower
strength for the fibrous mixtures as 0.016
obtained from this test led one to believe
Strain (mm/mm)
0.015
that the incorporation of fibres into
bituminous mixes does not bring about a 0.014
strengthening of the mix.
0.013
140
reducing the tensile strength, the mix will
be made more flexible. This combination 120
of properties may mean that more energy
is required to produce cracking in the 100
material.
80
20
Toughness 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Figure 9 shows the relationship between
Fibre Content (%)
toughness per unit volume with bitumen
content. Like the tensile strength Polypropylene Polyester
0.040
relationship before, the toughness
0.035 increases with increasing bitumen
content up to a maximum value and
Toughness (Joules/cc)
0.85
WET-DRY INDIRECT
TENSILE TEST 0.80
0.75
The wet-dry indirect tensile test was
moduli have been measured. These 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
strength ratio and a modulus ratio for Control 0.5PP 1.0PP 0.5POL 1.0POL
which the tensile strength and
modulus of the dry specimens served Figure 11: Wet Indirect Tensile Strength vs Bitumen Content
as a reference. Tensile strength ratio
1.2
(TSR) and the modulus of elasticity
ratio (MER) are dimensionless
1.0
numbers used to represent the portion
Indirect Tensile Strength Ratio
MER = –––––––
MER dry Figure 12: Indirect Tensile Strength Ratios vs Bitumen Content
Lottman (1982) used the static Kennedy and Anagnos (1984) were to give marginally higher tensile
indirect tensile strength test to study also of the opinion that mixtures with strength than that of the polyester
the effect of moisture on bituminous less than 70 percent retained strength fibre mix at the 0.5% fibre
mixtures and recommended a are moisture susceptible and would concentration while this increase was
minimum tensile strength ratio of 0.7 require treatment. more distinct at the 1% fibre
to differentiate between a stripping concentration level.
and non-stripping bituminous mix Figure 11 relates the variation of wet
while Maupin (1982) reported values tensile strength with bitumen content. Variations of the indirect tensile
of berween 0.7 - 0.75. Ishai and In the wet state, mixes reinforced with strength in wet and dry conditions
Nesichi (1988) cited values of 60-75 0.5% fibre exhibited greater strength with bitumen content allowed the
percent retained stability values for than that of the conrrol while those determination of the indirect tensile
roads and highway pavements and 75 with 1% fibre continued to show a strength ratios which is shown in
percent for airfield pavements as the decrease in strength as in the dry state. Figure 12. The indirect tensile
quality criteria used in Israel. The polypropylene fibre mix appear strength ratio generally increases with
an increase in bitumen content. The 2. The tensile srrength ratio British Standard Institution, Draft for
control mix showed that they are more indicated that the control samples Standard Development for Determination of
the Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus of
vulnerable to moisture damage and had undergone the greatest loss Bituminous Mixture DD213 , 1993.
revealed a higher level of moisture in tensile strength as compared to
Brown, S.F., “Residential Course on
sensitivity as indicated by the lower the fibre reinforced samples.
Bituminous Pavement Materials, Design and
tensile strength ratios. A low value of Evaluation”, University of Nottingham, 1994.
tensile strength ratio is indicative of 3 . The toughness values obtained
Ishai, I. and Nesichi, S., “Laboratory
more damage in the control sample. from the tensile tests indicated the Evaluation of Moisture Damage to
superiority of fibre reinforced Bituminous Paving Mixtures by Long-Term
It is to be reminded that the fibre bituminous samples over the Hot Immersion”, Transportation Research
incorporated mixes had higher conrrol samples in both the dry Record No. 1171, 1988, pp. 12-17.
porosity and permeability than the and wet conditioning. In these Kamaruddin, I., “The Properties and
control mixes. This will permit easier tests, the 1% fibre reinforced Performance of Polymer Fibre Reinforced Hot-
access to water and thus increase the samples displayed the greatest Rolled Asphalt”, Unpublished PhD Thesis,
University of Leeds, 1998.
potential for stripping. It may thus energy at maximum srrength and
appear that the more viscous binder was also able to withstand the Kandhal, P.S., “Evaluation of Six AC-20
Asphalt Cement by Use of the Indirect Tensile
of the fibre incorporated mixes had a largest strain before failure as
Test”, Transportation Research Record 712,
better cementing and adhesive compared to the other mix types 1979
properties at the binder-aggregate at the expense of a low indirect
Kavussi, A. and Hicks, R.G., “Properties of
interface which resulted in a reduction tensile strength. Bituminous Mixtures Containing Different
in stripping. While no measure of the Fillers”, Proceedings of the Association of
amount of de-bonding or stripping 4. Changes in both the cohesive Asphalt Paving Technologists, Vol. 66, 1997,
was carried out during this study, it properties of the bitumen and the pp.153-186.
was visually apparent that this was adhesion of the bitumen to the Kennedy, T.W. and Anagnos, J.N., “Wet-Dry
more pronounced in the control aggregate surfaces may occur as a Indirect Tensile Test for Evaluating Moisture
mixes. It is believed that de-bonding result of exposing the bituminous Susceptibility of Asphalt Mixtures”, Centre for
Transportation Research, University of Texas
may not have been solely responsible mixtures to moisrure. The fibre at Austin, Research Report 253-8, Novernber
for the decrease in wet tensile strength modified mixes exhibited higher l984.
values but that other moisture damage tensile strength ratios (TSR) and
Kennedy, T.W. and Hudson, W.R.,
factors such as binder matrix softening modulus of elasticity ratio (MER) “Application of the Indirect Tensile Test to
may have been responsible as well. as compared to the control mix. Stabilised Materials”, Highway Research
Record No. 235, Highway Research Board,
CONCLUSION 5 The result of incorporating the 1968, pp.36-48.
fibres in the rnix also act to Little, D.N. and Richey, B.L., “A Mixture
Based on the work done thus far, the decrease the moisture sensitivity Design Procedure Based on the Failure
Envelope Concept”, Proceedings of the
following conclusions can be drawn: of the bitumen to the aggregate
Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists,
bond. This may be due to the Vol. 52, 1983, pp. 378-415.
1. Whilst in the dry condition the srrengthening of the wetted
Lottman, R.P., “Laboratory Test Method for
control mix was found to have binder matrix, in other words the Predicting Moisture-Induced Damage to
higher indirect tensile strength as incorporation of the fibres in the Asphalt Concrete”, Transportation Research
compared with the fibre mix may promote both adhesion Record 843, TRB, National Research Council,
incorporated mixes, wet and cohesion retention. Washington D.C., 1982
conditioning of the bituminous Maupin Jr. G.W., “The Use of Antistripping
samples resulted in higher tensile Additives in Virginia”, Proceedings of the
srrength values for the 0.5% fibre Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists,
Vol. 51, 1982.
reinforced mixes. The 1% fibre REFERENCES
reinforced samples however Wallace, K. and Monismith, C.L.,
American Society for Testing of Materials,
“Diametrical Modulus Testing on Non-Linear
showed low indirect tensile ASTM D 4123-82 (Reapproved 1987),
Pavement Materials”, Proceedings of the
strength in both the dry and wet Standard Test Method for Indirect Tension Test
Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists,
for Resilient Modulus of Bituminous Mixtures,
conditioning state as compared to Vol. 49, 1980, pp.633-652
ASTM, 1982
the control.
Stratigraphic Position of
Rangsi Conglomerate in Sarawak
Dr Ismail Che Mat Zin
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
The Rangsi conglomerate that outcropped in the Tatau Horst area in Sarawak has for a long time been regarded as the
basal unit of theTatau formation. The interpretation was, however primarily based on the succession of the geological
formations, and no detailed stratigraphic work to support the interpretation, to the author’s knowledge, has so far been
published. A study conducted of this area using seismic stratigraphic technique shows that the Rangsi conglomerate in
the position is much younger than the Tatau formation. This conglomeratic rock unit is possibly equivalent to Balingian
formation that is of late Miocene age. Furthermore, the area that is called Tatau Horst, seismically does not seem to be
made up of structural feature as a “horst” of an extensional tectonic. Instead, it is characterized by positive flower structure,
suggesting that the structure was formed as a result of transpressional strike-slip tectonic episode, during early to late
Miocene times.
This paper was presented at the Annual Geological Conference 2000, Penang.
Figure 1: Situation map of the study area showing the location of Tatau Horst and geological map of Mukah-Balingan-Tatau and Bintulu
area. Sketch based on Hing (1992). The abbreviations used are: Ta=Tatau, Bu=Buan, Bl=Balingian, Ny=Nyalau, Bg=Begrih, Li=Liang
formations. Black is granodiorite at Bukit Piring (BP), andesite and rhyolite lavas at Arip and andesite at Bukit Mersing.
Figure 2: Photograph of Rangsi conglomerate showing the contact between what is said to be “Tatau” and Belaga formations
Figure 3: Map showing the orientation of seismic lines passing through the Tatau Horst area.
Figure 4: Seismic section passing through Rangsi conglomerate, showing the nature of reflections termination
between the sequences and the tectonic nature of “Tatau Horst”.
RESULTS OF SEISMIC which overlies the chaotic reflectors of The internal character of T2S is of
STRATIGRAPHY STUDY Belaga formation. parallel very continues low frequency
and high amplitude reflectors. It
Five regional unconformities have The internal character of T1S is of changes to shingle and clinoform
been recognized in this area (Figure parallel, sub-continuous, low toward the upper part of the preserved
4). The geoseismic section (Figure 5) frequency and high amplitude sequence. Based on the seismic
depicts the nature of reflection reflectors. Based on the seismic configuration and the data from the
termination at the upper and lower configuration and the data from a nearby wells, it is interpreted that the
boundaries of each of the sequences. nearby well, it is interpreted that the T2S was also mainly deposited in a
By comparing the number of T1S was mainly deposited in a shallow shallow marine environment.
sequences preserved in this area with marine environment.
the proposed stratigraphic scheme of 3. Tertiary Four Sequence (T4S)
Sarawak (Mat-Zin and Tucker, 1998) 2. Tertiary Two Sequence (T2S)
in Figure 6, all the main sequences are Similar to T2S, the sequence shows a
present except the Tertiary Sequence The sequence shows a tremendous tremendous thickening northward
Three (T3S). thickening northward. A strong with divergent seismic package,
reflector marks the lower boundary suggesting a basin fill deposited which
1. Tertiary One Sequence (T1S) with mild truncation on T1S. The probably developed during T4S times.
upper boundary is marked by a very The lower boundary is marked by a
The sequence does not show any clear angular unconformity of base strong angular unconformity and
thickening in this area. The lower T4S. This means that the T3S, which strong reflective zone and mild
boundary is marked by strong is preserved in the offshore Balingian truncation marks the upper boundary
reflector differentiating between (Ismail, 1996), has been totally eroded by base T5S unconformity.
reflective interval of Sequence One in this area.
Figure 5: Geosismic section along Tatua-Balingian area showing the nature of reflection termination and internal seismic character
of every sequences. It shows also the position of Rangsi conglomerate with respect to the Tertiary sequence unit
and the structural style of Tatau Horst.
Figure 6: Composite stratigraphic table with the previous schemes used for the Sarawak Basin and
the proposed Sequence Stratigraphic Scheme by Ismail, 1996.
The internal character of T4S in the anomalous reflective seismic package Judging from this appearance on
basinal area is of subparallel high that extends over an area of about 4km seismic and its close location with the
frequency and low amplitude wide. The lower unit of the package outcrop of Rangsi conglomerate, it is
reflectors. The reflectors are seems clearly to truncate the an unmistakable interpretation that
continuous at the basal section and underlying chaotic reflector, while the the highly reflective seismic package
became discontinuous toward the upper package with a steeper angle represents the same rock unit outcrops
upper part of the sequence. Based on truncates the flatter lower package. in the Tatau Horst area, i.e. the Rangsi
the seismic configuration and the data conglomerate (Figure 2).
from the nearby wells, it is interpreted By comparing this seismic package
that the T4S in the basinal area was that occurs at about 400m depth in 4. Tertiary Five and Six Sequences
mainly deposited in a shallow marine the northern flank of Tatau Horst, (T5S and T6S)
environment and changes to a coastal with the outcrop of Rangsi
plain environment toward the upper conglomerate (Figure 2), it shows a The sequences thicken northward.
part of the sequence. close appearance. This similarity can The lower boundaries are marked by
be described by the presence of an gentle onlap features and mild
3a. Rangsi Conglomerate angular unconformity, at the base of truncation on the upper boundaries.
Rangsi conglomerate. There are also However, the whole part of the two
By tracing the base T4S unconformity several higher order unconformities sequences have been truncated by the
landward, it will reach to an that occur within the conglomerate base T7S unconformity that leaves no
unit. preservation of the two sequences in
the Tatau Horst area (Figure 5).
STRATIGRAPHIC POSITION OF
RANGSI CONGLOMERATE
the lower part of Nyalau, Tanggap and This tectonic unrest period might result of strike-slip movement.
Subis Limestone. The T2S is represent the most active Tertiary Therefore, the “horst” that itself
equivalent to the upper part of tectonic period in the Tatau area. As a describes the interpreted geological
Nyalau, Tanggap, Subis Limestone result of these movements, the whole origin of the structure should be
and the lower part of Setap Shale. The of T1S was perhaps moved laterally, replaced by other names such as
T3S, that may be of age equivalent to away from this area, while the “Tatau Transpressional Area”, that
Lambir, the upper part of Sibuti and southern portion of T2S has been reflects the true tectonic origin of the
Setap Shale formation, is totally uplifted and severely eroded. structure.
missing in the study area.
The cessation tectonic movement Although it is well understood that the
All the identified unconformities as during the early to middle Miocene onshore geological formations are
per Ismail, (1996) can be seen to times in the Tatau area is marked by a diachronous, this study provides an
correlate very well with the severe angular unconformity of base understanding on correlation between
unconformities in onshore T4S. The basal unit of this geological formations and subsurface
formations. Nevertheless, the unconformity is represented by the Tertiary sequences. This will
unconformity between Nyalau and conglomerate unit that is known as contribute toward a better
Buan formations (PRSS, 1991) Rangsi conglomerate. Several episodes understanding between field
cannot be recognized from seismic. of tectonic movement took place post geologists and subsurface geologists
dated the deposition of Rangsi who work on different database.
The Rangsi conglomerate that is conglomerate, resulting in the
interpreted to be situated within T4S, deposition and erosion of both T5S
is of late Miocene age. It is perhaps and T6S during the Pliocene period.
equivalent to the Balingian formation ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
(PRSS, 1991). By comparing to the CONCLUSIONS
The author would like to thank En George
previous interpretation, that of basal Cheah for proof reading and for his comments,
Nyalau formation, the Rangsi This study concludes that the Rangsi and to the management of Universiti
conglomerate is supposedly some 25 conglomerate is of age equivalent to Teknologi PETRONAS for facilitating the
million years younger than its earlier Balingian formation. It forms as presentation and publication of this paper.
proposed age. proximal unit of the T4S possibly of
REFERENCES
alluvial fan or braided stream deposits.
TECTONIC AND Therefore, this conglomerate is Heng,Y.E. 1992. Geological map of Sarawak,
SEDIMENTATION HISTORY believed to be of about 25 million second edition. Director General of Geological
years younger than the previously Survey of Malaysia.
The NW-SE geoseismic section interpreted, where it was interpreted Ismail Che Mat Zin, 1996. Tectonic evolution
(Figure 5) shows the relationship to be of a basal unit of Tatau and sedimentation history of Sarawak Basin.
between the sequences and the formation. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia,
tectonic nature of the study area. It 41, pp.41-52.
clearly shows that the area that is called The study contributes toward a better
Mat-zin, I.C. And Tucker, M.e, 1998. An
as Tatau Horst is characterized by understanding on the tectonic nature Alternative Stratigraphic Scheme for the
positive flower structure. It is believed and history of the study area. It is Sarawak Basin. Journal of South-East Asian
to be formed as a result of highly realized that the area called “Tatau Sciences (1998), 1-18.
deformed transpressional strike-slip Horst” was not formed as a horst that
PRSS, 1991. Geological field-guide, Sibu-Miri
episode that post-dated the deposition normally associated with extensional traverse, Sarawak by Haile, N.S, and Ho, K.W,
of T2S during early Miocene times. tectonic. Instead, it is formed as a 1991 (Unpublished)
Dr Mohammed Halib
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
Both wet and dry rice were cultivated customary and unwritten, the rule on the other hand, may be successfully
by the peasantry in pre-colonial Perak. prevailed in pre-colonial Malaya claimed under him by descent or transfer,
The former was in the form of (Hoebel and Weaver, 1979:266). as long as any of the trees survive, and
bendang centred in the river valleys the proprietary right is not extinguished
and the later in the form of ladang or A successive stage to the simple until all evidence of proprietorship is
huma. The ‘Malay’ population was usufructuary rights is what is known gone.
heterogeneous, comprised of local as proprietary rights. Somewhat (Maxwell, 1884:78-79)
Perak Malays, indigenous Orang Asli, similar to usufructuary rights, this
and immigrant Indonesia groups like form is more complex. According to However, irrespective of the crops
the Bugis (McNair, 1972). The local the Perak Code, any waste or grown was the question of taxation by
Perak Malays were certainly practising uncultivated land becomes the the ruling class.
ladang cultivation where clearings of property of the person who clears it,
felled and burnt forests were cultivated subject to two conditions. The first Under the Malay negeri, the Sultan
for a period of three or at best four is that the cultivator must be a Muslim was entitled to one-tenth of the crop
harvests, whereupon the cultivator and secondly, the land must not yet produced. Therefore, the proprietary
shifted to another plot and the cycle be occupied. Satisfying these rights to land were not confined to
repeated. conditions, the person is entitled to occupation or cultivation alone, but
the land. A more refined and also carried the obligation of paying
The general inclination of the Malays elaborate form of proprietary right is taxes of the ruling class
to cultivate dry rice in ladang was the the one found in Section XIX of the (Jomo,1988:12-13). Failure to duly
outcome of several factors. One of Malacca Code. It distinguished two pay could mean appropriation of the
these was the length of time needed types of land, tanah hidup and tanah rights to cultivate the land and the
to convert a piece of land into a regular mati. The former refers to all cleared crop to be forfeited. The Sultan, or
wet-rice field. The conversion process and cultivated lands or those that have the territorial chiefs in this respect,
took three years with enormous been recultivated; the latter constitutes possessed rights to dispose waste or
amount of labour needed (Lim Teck virgin or abandoned land showing no uncultivated land.
Ghee, 1976:43). The possibility of a sign of use.
variety of annual food crops that can The inclination of Perak Malays to
be produce in a ladang along with rice Depending on the types of crops cultivate dry rice does not mean that
was an added incentive (Maxwell, grown or different forms of wet-rice traditions in the peninsula
1884:81). However, such actions by cultivation, the general concept of was non-existent. On the contrary,
the peasantry could have been proprietary rights described has been the peninsula was in fact an arena
influenced by the system of land modified. Lands cultivated with where numerous wet-rice traditions
tenure and the political situation of annuals, like wet rice, revert to an were carried out. These include the
the pre-colonial Malay states. uncultivated appearance faster chedongan, bendang, sawah, chenor,
compared to those grown with paya, tenggala, tugalan, taburan and
Characterized by an abundance of perennials such as fruit trees. others. By and large all the modes of
land in the form of forests and scant Different periods were set to wet-rice cultivation were rainfed. The
population, the availability of land in determine whether the land can be exception was the sawah of the
the pre-colonial Malay state was the considered tanah hidup or tanah mati. Minangkabau in the present-day
subject of Man’s willingness to work With respect to the time involved, Negeri Sembilan where irrigation was
it. A person who wished to cultivate Maxwell wrote: relatively advanced.
a piece of land would need to clear
and then cultivate the land. In this Malay custom has, therefore fixed three THE COLONIAL STATE AND
situation, the first form of land tenure years as the term which wet-rice fields, AGRICULTURAL
was simple usufructuary rights. This if left uncultivated shall remain subject DEVELOPMENT
right is defined as the “right to use land to the proprietary right of the owner. If
which is acquired by clearing of forests wet rice-land remains uncultivated for British Administration and Land
and the cultivation of the land.” (Lim more than that period, it is open to the Regulations
Teck Ghee, 1976:4) It emphasized, Raja, Chief or headman, within whose The Pangkor Treaty 1874 between the
therefore, the ‘rights of use’ rather that district it is situated, to put in another British and certain Malay chiefs of
actual ownership. Although cultivator. Abandoned fruit plantations, Perak marked the beginning of
intervention and colonial rule. It was DOs included the collection of seal of approval on policies and
agreed “that the Sultan received and revenues and the administration of legislation by the British and helped
provide a suitable residence of a British land and justice. The District Office, to maintain the fiction of Malay rule.”
Officer to be called Resident, who due to its broad administrative (Lim Teck Ghee, 1977:11)
shall be accredited to his court, and responsibilities, became the focal
whose advise must be asked and acted point of the system. Augmenting the On of the earliest innovations of
upon on all questions other than those responsibilities of the District Office colonial rule for the methodical and
touching Malay religion and custom”. were the other government efficient exploitation of the country’s
(Swettenham, 1893:13) Another departments such as the land office, resources was the introduction of a
clause which favoured the British was public works, and those dealing with system of land administration. Unlike
in the sphere of taxes. It was agreed law and order. the traditional land tenure system, the
that “the collection and control of all new form was based on private
revenues and the general The traditional office of the penghulu ownership. The Torrens system of
administration of the country be was retained and became an integral land administration from Australia
regulated under the advice of these part of the new structure. The was introduced and adopted. The
Residents”. (Swettenham, 1893:13) penghulu was placed in charge of the main characteristic of the new system
These two clauses in effect brought mukim, a subdivision of the district. was that private ownership of land was
about the entire governing of the state The role of the penghulu was generally possible and this, in turn, led to
by colonial administrators and to assist the DO in matters at repercussions on the agricultural
terminated the rights of the traditional grassroots level. Salaried by the activities of the peasantry. Under the
ruling class. colonial government, the penghulu new land regulations peasants were
became the link between the British subjected to a series of rents, taxes, and
The beginning of British rule marked and the Malay population. Even other fees to be paid in cash. These
the era of a system of government though situated at the bottom of the funds formed a source of revenue for
strange to the predominantly Malay heirachy, his responsibilities were the British to support their
peasantry that constituted the larger manifold. The penghulu dealt with administrative machinery for the
part of the population. The execution land infringements, issuance of governance of the states (Watson,
of a battery of laws and regulations licenses for the collection of jungle 1909:195-233).
was to interfere with their pattern of produce, encouragement of
subsistence livelihood. Above all, the agriculture peasants, mediation in Land under colonial administration
entry of the British paved the way for land disputes, provision of assistance was classified into five categories.
the resource-rich peninsular to be to colonial officials in fixing the dates These were town land, village land,
exposed to a market-oriented for rice cultivation, and the collection and country land exceeding 10 acres
economy. Exploitation of tin of land taxes (Lim Teck Ghee, in area, country land not exceeding
resources and the establishment of 1977:25). 10 acres in area and finally foreshore
rubber plantations formed the dual and seabed. Of these categories, only
spearhead of economic ventures. The A part from the penghulu, the role country land not exceeding 10 acres
expansion of the market economy was played by Malays in the governing of was relevant to the peasantry. Such
promoted by the implanting of the state was minimal. With less of lands, upon application by the
bureaucratic, rational-legal machinery the authority they once enjoyed, the peasants and approved by the colonial
to stabilize the population position of the Sultan and other Malay state, were subject to cultivation
(Sivalingam, 1983:4-5). chiefs remained. In the new conditions (Cowgill, 1928:181-189).
government, they made members of The cultivation condition was
Under the new system, the key role in the State Council, along with Chinese effectively used as a legal weapon by
the administrative set-up in the state leaders and British officials. The the British in deterring of Malay
was the Resident, whose foremost council was formed to “act as the chief peasantry from growing the more
function was to execute colonial executive body to provide the profitable rubber. Alienation of land
policies decided by the Governor of constitutional authority for the to individuals, however, did not stop
the Straits Settlements. Below the legislation in the state.” (Lim Teck at cultivation conditions. The relevant
Resident were the District Officer Ghee, 1977:11) In really, however, it fees and rents had to be duly paid.
(DOs), who were in charge of the became nothing more than “a These included the initial survey fee
districts. Major responsibilities of the convenient device which affixed the and the annual quit rent.
The introduction of colonial rule and Malays (Chai, 1964; Smith, 1952). activities was to encourage Malays to
land legislation transformed the grow food crops, especially rice. The
political and economic structures of An immediate impact of the influx of primary objective was to create a
the former Malay states in the the primarily Asiatic rice eating surplus for the market to ease the
peninsula. The traditional form of immigrant labour population into the imported rice supplies. One of the
government under the Sultan was country was the need to increase the means employed to encourage rice
replaced by a bureaucratic structure supply of the staple. Rice was to be a cultivation was through law. In this
where members of the traditional persistent problem for the colonial respect the Malay peasant producers
ruling class were given minimal roles. administrators throughout their became the focus of a series of
Traditional forms of land tenure based occupation of the Malay peninsula. enactment that interrupted their
on usufructuary rights were replaced He effect of the population influx on subsistence economic activities. In
by a system of private ownership. the local Malays, in terms of rice Perak, these rulings included
Contrary to the former situation supply, was negligible. Their rice Compulsory Planting of Coconuts by
where rights to land were a product production through the ladang or Malays 1880, the Prohibition of
of labour, land under colonial rule bendang was primarily geared for Felling of Forest 1881, and the
took on monetary values and became home consumption, and not for Alienation of Nipah Lands 1888 (Lim
an item of exchange. The surplus to be exchanged in the market. Teck Ghee, 1976:144). These
introduction of land rents and fees to To sustain the labour population of regulations reduced the independence
be paid in cash rather than by exaction the plantations and mining industries, of the cultivators in their pursuit of
of produce, gradually transformed the the colonial state had to assume the subsistence. Interaction with the
subsistence economy dominated by burden of importing rice (Haviland, natural economy which historically
use-value to the cash-oriented 1901:24-26). had been an important aspect of their
economy of the new social order. livelihood was disrupted. The state
The amount of money expended for determined the kinds of crops to be
Influx of Population and Need for rice importation was considerable grown and event the associated system
Rice even in the late 19th century. However, of cultivation.
The opening of Perak and other states at this point of early colonial rule the
to new economic activities led to an amount spent on rice imports was still The most telling law that came as a
influx of a primarily immigrant within acceptable and bearable limits blow to the Malays was the
population. The peninsula became and the need to develop a surplus in Discouragement of Ladang
the focal point of various which is local production was not perceived as Cultivation 1890 (Lim Teck Ghee,
groups which ultimately led to the great. However, as the country 1976:144). Dry land cultivation, of
pluralistic structure of present-day continued to be opened up for ladang, included the production of
Peninsular Malaysia. Encouraged by economic exploitation and progressive upland rice in Perak prior to colonial
lax immigration rules, a migrant increases of population accompanied rule. It was a subject of concern to
labour force entered in the great this development, rice supplies the British even before the 1890
numbers. Two distinct groups of became critical. In addition to the regulation which constituted the final
immigrants were the Chinese and labour population, there was also the squeeze. The tightening of the noose
Indians. The former were primarily ever-increasing personnel of the on padi ladang can be traced to 1887.
recruited to toil in the tin mines and administrative structures and the non- The practice of shifting dry-rice
the latter were taken up as wage cultivating urban dwellers. These culture was conceptualized by colonial
labourers in the plantation sector. The segments of the population were administrators as “an obnoxious and
greatest wave of Chinese immigrants dependent on rice from the market. wasteful type of agriculture,
occurred from the late 1800s until the Faced with such a situation, the destroying valuable timber and a
first decade of the present century colonial state was compelled to temporary culture at best.” (Lim Teck
(McGee, 1965:70). In addition to the embark in increasing production of Ghee, 1976:66) In order to encourage
Chinese and Indians were primarily local rice to lessen the burden of the cultivation of the more fixed
Javanese and Banjarase. Some came importation. bendang, through which higher yields
as wage labourers in plantations, but could be realized, the annual quit rent
most migrated mainly to settle down The Ban on Ladang Cultivation for ladang was increased in 1887 (Lim
as rice growers, attracted by the In the early years of colonial rule, the Teck Ghee, 1976:66).
opportunities for land in British state’s role in peasant agricultural
The increase in rent did not deter the Rice Cultivation, Irrigation and terms. While the Krian scheme was
local Perak Malays from their ladang Research under construction, other British
rice culture. The lack of a widespread One of the first concerted drives for attempts were under way elsewhere.
wet-rice tradition among some sectors increased local rice production by the
of the local Malay population and the British came in the form of the Report While the colonial state was trying to
work involved made the bendang less on the Rice Supply of the Colony and get the peasantry to grow more rice
appealing. Furthermore, the rice yield native States, commissioned by the and plans were under way to construct
from ladang was comparable to wet- Straits Settlement government in irrigation systems for the purpose,
rice (Hill, 1977:185). Thus in 1888, 1891 (Short and Jackson, 1971:83). some rubber estates embarked on their
a year after the rent increase, rather The British were already beginning to own rice production programs to
extensive ladang was still being feel the burden on the amount of sustain their labour force. A successful
cultivated. In the Kinta district alone, money spent by importing rice. attempt by the management of the
some 1,500 acres were being worked Accordingly, the government began to Lanadron Estate in Muar, Johore, was
and the figure for Kuala Kangsar was promote wet-rice cultivation among reported to be shared by other planters
3,455 acres or 91.0 percent of all lands the Malay peasantry. Colonial officers (Pears, 1902:390-392). Despite the
alienated for that year. Finding no diligently contributed to the above fact that the colonial state was
decline in ladang, a much tighter rule mentioned Report, presented in 1893, employing measures to discourage
was legislated. The colonial state by commenting on the “nature of dry-rice cultivation among the native
decreed that as of January 1, 1890 no existing and potential rice lands, and Malay population, the rice grown by
jungle area was to be felled for the to make suggestions as to how new this estate was upland rice. In fact,
purposes of ladang “except secondary land might be brought into the attempt was regarded as successful
growth of not more than five to six cultivation”. (Short and Jackson, when a yield of 175 to 200 gantang
years standing.” (Lim Teck Ghee, 1971:83) Perak led the way towards per acre was realized (Pears,
1976:67) The effect of this rule was the establishment of extensive 1902:392).
still nowhere close to British irrigation activity.
expectations. The Malays persisted A separate event which had
with their dry-rice culture, the The large-scale attempt was the Krian consequences on rice cultivation in the
colonial administrators, in a final drive irrigation Scheme. In the year of same period was the influx of
to curb the practise, passes yet another intervention the area was described as Indonesian groups into the country.
act to the effect that “no pass or licence a “roadless jungle with a few padi fields After having limited success in
for ladang cultivation would be and one or two fishing villages on the encouraging the local Malays to grow
granted in the state.” (Lim Teck Ghee, coast”. (Swettenham, 1893:42) The surplus rice for the market, the coming
1976:67) This ruling was to take project, which started in 1899, was of these immigrants was encouraging
effect as of April 1896. However, the completed in 1906 and cost the Perak to the British. The colonial officers
legislation was not capable to totally Government a total of $1.6 million. did “all in their power” to
wiping out the long-standing Officially opened by the Resident, accommodate the immigrants by
tradition; ladang rice culture Mr.E.W.Birch, on August 16, 1906, granting them land for the purpose
continued under British rule. the scheme was described as ‘ a huge of rice cultivation (ABS&FMS,
financial success in every way”. 1910:316).
Upon reflection, the early period of (ABS&FMS, 1906:286) A total of
colonial rule experienced an increase 60,000 acres of river land was brought Despite efforts by the British at
of primarily immigrant labour under the system. The majority of the irrigation system construction and
population into the peninsula to wage cultivators in the scheme, however, encouraging the Malays peasantry to
in the expanding economic sectors. were not local Perak Malays. Most grow more rice, an alarming pattern
The need for increased rice supplies were Banjarese from Indonesia who of disinterest in rice-growing among
was apparent, but the cost of rice had immigrated into the country in the local Malays was fast emerging
imports to sustain the population was search of land for rice cultivation (Barritt, 1912:146-149). His was due
within bearable limits. There was (Sternberg, 1979). The local Malays, to the competition from the more
some encouragement of wet-rice who lacked an irrigated wet-rice profitable venture in rubber growing.
cultivation, but it was done indirectly culture, were not attracted to The expanding market economy
through discouraging dry rice colonizing the scheme even though created by the British increased the
(Shaharil Talib, 1984:140). land was obtainable on fairly easy need for more cash among the
peasantry to satisfy material needs and development. Carried out by the “The Penghulu, Chegor Galah” it was
to pay for the variety of imposed taxes. Department of Agriculture, which was noted, “planted his bendang at Jawang
Thus, while continuing to cultivate established in 1905, early efforts solely with the departmental selected
rice for home consumption, many concentrated on varietal trials and strains in 1922”.(South, 1923:258)
turned to cultivate the cash crop improved methods of cultivation. The Supportive of efforts at Krian were the
rubber (Lim Chong Yah, 1967). Krian scheme which was the only test stations at Titi Serong and at
irrigation scheme of considerable size, Kuala Kangsar. Like Krian, these two
The unprofitable and precarious became the showpiece of these early stations carried out varietal trials
endeavour of rice planting, ironically efforts. In 1906, a demonstration plot (Sands, 1926:165-170). At the Kuala
enough, was common knowledge was established in Krian so that “the Kangsar station, it was reported that
among the colonial administrators. Malay and other rice growers in the a large party of penghulu and ketua
For example, an early economic district might be able to observe and kampong were transported to view the
analysis done by a colonial officer learn from the results shown by these different varieties tested and the
came up with the following remarks: experiments”.(ABS&FMS, 1907:278) “majority of the visitors were
favourably impressed with the
The profits of this cultivation vary from Experimental work on rice was standing crops”.(Birkinshaw,
about $10 per acre on the best land to eventually extended to other areas. In 1928:281-283)
bout minus $50 per acre on the poor Kuala Kangsar, trials were carried out
land under unfavourable conditions. with more than 30 varieties of padi The use of Malay traditional
(Barritt, 1913:445) tested at this station in 1912. These leadership such as the penghulu and
included Siamese, Indian, Japanese, ketua kampong and members of the
Such analysis, however, did not and local varieties (ABFMS, royalty to coax the peasantry into
dampen the spirit of the colonial 1913:317-323). Augmenting the growing rice was one of the techniques
administrators. They persisted in local research scene, a delegation from employed by the British. In addition
getting Malays to grow wet rice and the Department of Agriculture was to the arranged visit of the local
various ways were resorted to in-order sent to Thailand that same year to Malays leaders to the experimental
to make it difficult for cultivators to learn the techniques of rice cultivation station cited above, there were cases
move into rubber cultivation. These practised in that country for possible where Malay royalty was involved in
impediments included the creation of introduction into British Malaya attempting to persuade the people to
Malay Land Reservations, the (Bateson, 1912:146-149). The involve themselves in rice growing.
imposition of the ‘No Rubber’ research effort of the British were Clearly, such a persuade was needed.
cultivation conditions on peasant tailored to favour irrigated wet rice; For instance, in the Lower Perak
holdings, differential land rents to no efforts were made for the district, land which was under ladang
favour rice and coconut, closure of development of dry rice and other rice was found to be grown with rubber
land office books o stop rubber land cultivation systems. “despite the efforts of Raja Muda,
applications by the peasants and Perak, who has done all in his power
repossession of peasant lands found to As earlier indicated, research in varietal to encourage bendang”.(FMS, 1923:4)
be cultivated with rubber. In certain breeding and improving cultivation The same trend was seen in Kuala
areas there was even complete methods had stared after the first Kangsar district where rubber
prohibition of rubber planting by decade of the century. It came cultivation by Malay peasant was
Malays (Lim Teck Ghee, 1977:116- through the efforts of the economic discouraged in favour of wet-rice.
118). The implementation of these botanist, H.W.Jack (MAJ, 1960:112-
rules curbed the entry of the Malay 116). These activities began to bear This pattern of using aristocratic
peasantry from taking part in the fruit a decade later (Jack, 1919:298- involvement can be further traced to
lucrative venture. 319). The success of the breeding and the highest level of British
selection work eventually became administrative machinery, the Federal
A part from deliberate legal clear. It was reported that in 1921, Council of the Federated Malay States.
manoeuvres to keep Malays in rice the distribution of selected pure trains The Malay member of the council for
farming, a step taken by the British to of padi was being carried out in Perak. 1930, supposedly representing Malay
increase their rice yields and to make In the district of Kuala Kangsar, for interests, was the Raja Dihilir Perak,
the crop more profitable to grow was example, seven gantang of improved Raja Sir Chulan ibni Almarhun Sultan
through rice research and seeds were distributed in three mukim. Abdullah. His perception of Malay
peasant inclination to grow rubber as when the colonial governments of the by personnel of the Department of
moving away from their ‘traditional’ FMS, SS, and Johore accrued a rice Agriculture. In addition, there were
preoccupation with rice cultivation is debt amounting to a massive $42 the numerous padi test plots scattered
seen by the following statement: million. Further steps were necessary throughout British Malaya. These
to increase local rice production and were situated primarily in rice areas,
To my mind, the only thing that its reign as supreme priority to support especially where irrigation systems
interferes with the extension of padi British economic exploitation was well were constructed by the Drainage and
cultivation is the temptation of the part expressed by the colonial official, Irrigation Department (DID). The
of the native of this country to plant H.W.Jack. He said, experiments carried out by the British
rubber. If steps are not taken to restrain centered mainly on varietal selection,
or to prohibit this, there is very little hope that the tin and rubber industries supply fertiliser trials and crop husbandry. In
of the Malay taking to padi planting as the finances which defray the cost of addition to local research activities,
a means of livelihood… The extension administration of our Government is experiences from neighbouring rice
of English schools in a padi planting area undoubted, but without rice a large growing countries were shared
also tens to check this form of agriculture proportion of the labour masses engaged through visits made by the agricultural
because Malay youths who gain a in these industries could not be kept in officers. For example, some officers
smattering of English a these schools do the country, so that rice is, in reality, the from the Department of Agriculture
not take kindly o the pursuit of their first essential requirement of Malaya were sent to study the Burmese rice
forefathers… We cannot, of course (Jack, 1923:166). industry, particularly its rice-milling
produce sufficient rice to feed the whole aspects (Parker, 1936:121-127).
population, but wit the Government To increase rice production at the local
pursuing the enlightened policy of freely level, the role of the District Officer The centerpiece of irrigation in Perak
granting land, possibly with the was central. Inducements in the form in the mid-Thirties was undoubtedly
assistance of irrigation schemes for padi of land offers “on condition that they the Sungei Manik irrigation scheme.
growing, and of limiting or restricting plant a definite amount of padi Begun in 1933 by the DID, it
for a period the alienation of land for annually” (Jack, 1923:103). represented a colonization area for
the planting of rubber, the position of wet-rice cultivation. It was a massive
rice cultivation will no doubt be At the federal level, there was effort by the British after Krian and
improved. dissatisfaction with local rice its development consisted of a series
(FMS, 1931:B97) production. This reaction came in the of stages (de Moubray, 1936:160-
light of the continuing enormous 166). Having a more obscure position
amount of rice that has to be were the numerous small-scale
The untoward behaviour of the Malay imported. Moreover, the Malay schemes. Scores of these small or
peasants in their disinterest at rice population in the country had been minor systems were built in Perak and
growing despite provisions at increasing, but much to British other states by the British.
irrigation and exhortation by the disappointment they “have been
nobility was indeed appalling to drawn away from rice planting by the Malaya underwent a change of hands
administrators. At Bruas, Perak, for more remunerative attraction of during the Second World War and the
example, it was found that traditional rubber cultivation” (Sands, country was in turmoil. During the
rainfed bendang land had been planted 1930:130). This shift towards rubber Japanese occupation of 1941-1945,
to rubber much to the dismay of the by Malay peasants was, however, irrigation development came to a
British who were proposing to economically rational. As pointed out complete halt and research on rice was
establish an irrigation scheme for the by T.H.Silcock, “whether in boom or stopped. During the short period of
cultivators in the area (FMS, depression, rubber was the more Japanese rule, most of the pure lines
1922:C103). profitable crop” to grow (Silcock, of rice selected through the research
1959:15). efforts of the British agricultural
Undeterred by the indifference of the officers were lost. A few popular
Malay peasantry, British efforts at On the technological front, research varieties such as the S.k.48, Sm9, and
construction of irrigation systems and development efforts on rice were Nachin 11, however, were recovered
continued in the Twenties. The efforts expanded. By 1935, four permanent (Van Thean Kee, 1960:112). Under
at this stage were the outcome of the rice experimental stations were already the Japanese, the country plunged into
period of rice shortage during the war established, with research conducted a situation of severe rice shortage. In
1943 steps were taken by the Japanese AGRICULTURAL been futile. … However, I wish to stress
to solve the problem by introducing DEVELOPMENT IN THE POST- here that research alone is not enough
short-term maturing Taiwanese rice COLONIAL ERA unless the results of the research alone is
varieties. The first trial was carried not enough unless the results of the
out in the Sungei Manik irrigation The lowering of the British Union research are brought to the farmers in
scheme covering an area of 4,000 Jack on August 31, 1957 marked the the fields in such a manner they will be
acres. This first attempt resulted in beginning of an independent fully convinced of the needs to adopt the
some success and cultivation was Malaysia. Along with liberation from new ways
extended to the Krian irrigation colonial rule, the new government (MAJ, 1958).
scheme, where 20,000 acres more inherited the entire structure of
were planted. This venture was bureaucratic machinery from the The message from the Minister
unsuccessful because the deep-water departing British. Land regulations concisely charted the course for the
condition Krian with drainage remained intact and so did the other development of the rice industry.
problems was unsuitable for the state institutions governing Technology and technology transfer
growing of Taiwanese varieties. agriculture. The Department of were the keys to the strategy. Two
Following this failure, the Japanese Agriculture and the DID continued factors compelled the new state to
stopped pushing the peasantry into their respective efforts, the former in embark on the immediate
growing the short-term varieties and research and the dissemination of development on the rice sector;
they mere allowed to cultivate varieties technical knowledge to the peasantry poverty among the peasantry and the
of their own (Van Thean Kee, and the latter in the realm of quest for self-sufficiency.
1948:119-122). construction, maintenance, and
rehabilitation of irrigation systems. As a consequence of decades of
The first few years after the fall of the The post-colonial state was but an colonial rule, the peasantry was
Japanese and the return of the British, extension of colonial rule with one severely underdeveloped both socially
work on irrigation was mainly observable difference, the government and economically. The rice peasantry
confined to rehabilitation activities. machinery was now staffed by locals. forms one of the largest poverty
In 1948, State DIDs were established groups in Peninsular Malaysia. This
with their own budgets and staff to Just as it had affected the colonial is not denying the existence of other
facilitate implementation of irrigation administrators, the rice issue became poverty-stricken groups in the
systems thoughout the country. By a primary concern of the new state. agricultural sector of the country.
1956 double cropping of rice was The attention of the new rulers was Poverty is found among the
encouraged in irrigation systems in the immediately directed to the peasant smallholders, fishermen, and the
country. Under colonial rule, all the rice cultivators and the rice crop. The coconut smallholders. Comparatively,
irrigation systems had been built words of Abdul Aziz Ishak, the first however, the rice peasantry has
primarily to supplement natural Minister of Agriculture of consistently shown a higher incidence
precipitation and only one crop was independent Malaysia placed the rice of poverty than the other sectors.
grown annually, using late-maturation issue in perspective the year following Concentrated primarily in the rice-
varieties. The only instance whereby independence. He wrote: growing areas in the state of Kedah,
double cropping with short-term Perlis, Kelantan, Selangor, and Perak,
maturation rice varieties occurred was Padi is the top priority crop in the efforts to eradicate poverty and
during the Japanese period and that Development Plan of my Ministry. I improve the economic standing of the
ended in failure (Federation of have given every effort to increase the rice peasantry have been made during
Malaya, 1956:44-46). Such a decision yield of padi and to do this, I have even the 5-year development plans.
meant a change in the overall policy asked for assistance in the form of experts
in irrigation system construction; from Japan in the hope of helping our Malaysia continued to be a net
existing systems would need to be farmers to increase the yields of their padi importer of rice after it gained
reconstructed or reorganized to suit and thereby increasing their income. The independence. Massive amounts of
the double cropping of rice record yield which has been attained rice continued to be imported into the
(Federation of Malaya, 1956:46). during 1957/1958 season is indeed very country. With respect to rice, the
encouraging and this shows that our National Agricultural Policy which
efforts which have so far been directed was “formulated to ensure a balanced
towards increasing the yield have not and sustained rate of growth in the
agricultural sector vis-a-vis the other of the produce (Sivalingam, 1983:24). It is assumed that the adoption of new
sectors of the economy” (Government It is in this set-up that rice has technologies will generate surpluses to
of Malaysia, 1984:1), stated that: frequently been referred to as political be exchanged in the market, thereby
crop. considerably increasing the income of
No country is ever self-sufficient in all the peasants. Accomplishing the task
its food requirements. In this respect, the Simultaneous with these agricultural of transferring the new technologies
important issue is the production of development efforts was an increase to the rice peasantry is the multitude
staple food which, in the case of in the number of organizations to of agricultural extension agents and
Malaysia, is rice. The determination of manage the state’s inputs. The technicians from the various
the percentage of rice to be produced sprouting of governmental agencies government agencies.
within the country is influenced by the has been regarded as a “panacea to
national food security needs. In addition, growth and development” (Afifuddin On a conceptual plane, the strategy
in view of the fact that the country is a Haji Omar, 1979:1). These of diffusion of new rice technologies
high cost producer, it is not economical institutions can be found at all levels to the alleged ‘traditional’ and ‘passive’
to produce 100% of its total of the government’s bureaucratic rice peasantry lacks sensitivity to
requirement. Further, in times of machinery, from district to national historical experience. Technology
emergency, the consumption of rice is not capital. Added to the already generated and diffused to the
as much as during normal times. Based established departments formed under peasantry is merely an extension of rice
on these considerations, the production colonial rule such as the Department research initiated by the British. The
level aimed at will be between 80% and of Agriculture and the DID, came a colonial rice research programme was
85% of the national requirement. In host of other agencies. At the federal uncritically endorsed by post-colonial
order to achieve and sustain this level of level these include the Malaysian researchers and policy makers.
self-sufficiency, padi production will be Agricultural Research and Colonial rice research efforts had been
intensified through the provision and Development Institute (MARDI), the directed towards irrigated wet-rice
improvement of drainage and irrigation Farmers’ Organization Authority varieties and the practices associated
facilities in existing areas for double (FOA) and the Federal Agricultural with them.
cropping, use of high yielding varieties Marketing Authority (FAMA). At the
and adoption of modern farming more localized level are the regional The acceptance and continuation of
practices authorities to oversee specific the rice research programme laid
(Government of Malaysia, development programs such as the down by the British may constitute a
1984:8) Muda Agricultural Development judgmental error. It marginalized the
Authority (MADA), the Kemubu importance of other methods of
The NAP, echoing the words of Abdul Agricultural Development Authority cultivation that had been historically
Aziz Ishak cited earlier, reiterated the (KADA), and the more recent Kedah developed and modified by peasants
role of improved rice technologies, Regional Development Authority through their interaction with the
along with the associated physical (KEDA). natural environment. The various
infrastructural development by the forms of rice cultivation such as the
government to increase rice yields. Underlying the massive task of the ladang, tugalan, chenor, chedongan,
development of the peasant rice sector and paya were never considered as
The Agricultural Development lies the philosophy: bases for improvement by the rice
Strategy research program of the post-colonial
A stage has been reached whereby state Efforts at poverty redressal of the rural state.
intervention is deemed necessary in poor should be directed towards the goal
practically all aspects relating to the of increased farm income. The Uncritical of the historical factors that
production of the rice crop. This reaslization of these targets depends to a have shaped and conditioned the rice
applies to research in the development large extent on technological change growing practices, breeding for high-
of new technologies, establishment of amongst our traditional farmers at a yielding wet-rice varieties dominated
a physical infrastructure including more rapid pace, commercialization of the research efforts of the Department
irrigation systems and farm roads, agriculture and increased efficiency in of Agriculture after Independence
introduction of machinery, provision managing the farm business (Varughese et al., 1980:51-71). In the
of fertilizer, price support (Haji Osman Mohd. Noor Sixties, Malaysia’s rice breeding
mechanisms, and even the marketing et al.,1980:341). programs took a dramatic turn.
During this period, the developing made whereby different rates of alone can prove to be a costly mistake.
nations, including Malaysia, fertilizer have been recommended for A major technological breakthrough
experienced the so-called Green the different rice areas in the country. that could, for instance, double the
Revolution. Emphasis was given to the presently realized rice yields in not is
introduction of high-yielding and Irrigation and Agricultural sight. The actual potential of the
short-maturation rice varieties. Development present varieties, for the most part, has
Closely associated with the rice not been fully tapped.
The coming of these new rice varieties research efforts are the construction
gave a much needed boost in the and rehabilitation of irrigation systems The issue of increasing rice production
development of the rice sector. The to enhance the spread of the new rice in the country continued to be a
high yields possible through these technologies and to enable double priority problem in the post-colonial
varieties was seen by the state as the cropping. This move is in line with state. Added to the question of being
solution to its problems. Further, the needs of the new varieties where self-sufficient in rice is the parallel
double cropping of rice was possible water requirements and control are issue of eradicating poverty and raising
in irrigated areas. Higher yields, it was crucial for optimal yields (Wickham the economic standing of the
assumed, would lead to higher et al., 1978:221-232). The efforts have peasantry. In the initial years of
incomes for the peasants and through primarily been directed to the independence, the government,
the surplus generated, there would be development of large-scale irrigation through the inherited institutions in
self-sufficiency. Technologically, these systems (Cheong Chup Lim, the Department of Agriculture and
new varieties reinforced the local rice 1976:38). After upgrading the the DID, pursued their respective
research pattern. The Green facilities of early large-scale irrigation foals, the former in breeding new rice
Revolution varieties were primarily for systems such as Krian, Sungei Manik, strains capable of higher yields and the
irrigated wet-rice and fitted well with and Tanjung Karang, the construction dissemination of technology to the
the local programme. of large World Bank-funded irrigation peasantry, and the latter in
systems became the preoccupation of construction and rehabilitation of
Recognizing the importance of the state. Two of these constructed irrigation systems.
technology for the development of the after independence are the 250,000
rice industry and the agricultural acres Muda scheme in the states of The apparently separate objective of
sector as a whole, a move to strengthen Kedah and Perlis, and the 60,000 acres the DID and the Department of
the agricultural research system was Kemubu scheme in the East Coast Agriculture, are in reality
made. In 1969, MARDI was state of Kelantan. The construction complementary. They form the major
established as a specialized agency work of the former spanned from components in the development of
dealing with agricultural research. 1966 to 1970 while the latter from the rice sector. The DID through the
Prior to the setting up of MARDI, the 1967 to 1973. provisions of irrigation and drainage
dual functions of research and facilities sets the stage for the diffusion
extension were the primary There has been a situation of relative of high-yielding varieties which
responsibilities of the Department of stagnancy in generating rice require good water control, apart from
Agriculture. With reorganization, the technologies in Malaysia. Even though fertilizer and cultural practices, for
Department of Agriculture is confined more varieties are developed through maximum benefits to be realized.
to extension and other ‘residual’ research, the yield potential of these Massive capital outlay is incurred by
activities while research came under varieties has not significantly gone the state in construction, upgrading,
MARDI. Under the new set-up, beyond the yields presently realized. and maintenance of irrigation
research on irrigated wet rice for Changes in the fertilizer rate facilities. Supplementing the efforts of
double cropping areas intensified recommendations are made without the Department of Agriculture and
(Y.H. Chen et al., 1980:72-88). much effect. The rice yields from the DID is the plethora of agencies to
Inspired by and taking off from the large scale irrigation systems of manage state’s inputs in the
earlier IRRI-developed varieties, vast Kemubu and Muda, which form the development of the agricultural sector
strides have been made in the local major targets of technological of the country particularly pertaining
development of high-yielding and innovations, have levelled off. The to rice.
early-maturing varieties. Varietal assumption that there will be an
development continued into the unending development of increases in Research on the development of rice
Eighties. Advances have also been yield based on biological grounds technology continues to be at the
forefront of government attempts to any, was used to pay taxes to the ruling leaned towards the development of
increase rice production and improve class and for a variety of cultural wet-rice technologies or more
the living standards of the cultivators. functions. specifically, irrigated wet rice varieties.
The rice research agenda in the post- Little emphasis was given to the
colonial era, however, is merely an The setting of rice cultivation then was development of the diverse systems of
extension of the foundation laid down diverse. Both dry and wet rice rice production found in the
by the British researchers. The cultivation were practised. There were peninsula. The underlying objective
program has never been critically various modes of wet-rice cultivation of the colonial state’s program was to
questioned and evaluated to consider with varying degrees of water control ensure a cheap source of local rice to
the various forms of indigenous rice practices. Irrigation was significantly sustain the labour forces in the
cultivation systems found in the developed among the Minangkabau plantation and mining sectors in
country. Varietal breeding has mainly of Negeri Sembilan. furtherance of their exploitative
been directed and tailored to suit wet- economic endeavours.
rice cultivation under irrigation. The Irrigated wet rice cultivation was
bias for irrigated rice held even after encouraged among the Malay The pattern of rice research laid out
the establishment of MARDI in 1969 peasantry. Both large and small scale by the British was uncritically
as a specialized institution to carry out irrigation systems were constructed by continued to the present era. In the
research on rice and other crops. Just the colonial state. Ladang cultivation process of which, further
as the program in the Department of which was initially discouraged in deemphasizing and marginalizing the
Agriculture was handed down by the favour of wet-rice was later banned. different modes of rice production.
British, it was in turn inherited and Colonizing of irrigation schemes was Technological advancements are
continued by MARDI. In other made attractive through various primarily tailored to irrigated wet-rice
words, the direction of rice research means such as generous land offers varieties. The bias for irrigated rice was
in the country never shifted from the and reduced land taxes. further buttressed through the spread
one pioneered by the British. Simultaneously, entry of peasants into of IRRI-developed high-yielding,
the lucrative rubber growing was short-term maturation, water-
Reinforcing the one-track rice research checked by the colonial authorities. sensitive and fertilizer responsive
agenda was the coming of the Green Sandwiched between the ban on varieties. Later varieties developed by
Revolution in the Sixties whereby ladang and their entry into rubber, the local researchers maintained these
high-yielding, early-maturing varieties peasants were left with little same characteristics.
were developed by IRRI. It is common alternative. Even when wet-rice was
knowledge that these new varieties are cultivated, the legal arms of the Facilitating the spread of these
highly responsive to fertilizer colonial state intruded deeply into varieties to the peasantry, irrigation
application, susceptible to diseases and their cultivation cycles. Cornered into development of the post-colonial state
pest attacks; above all good water labouring for a low-paying crop, the took a new dimension. Provision of
control is desired. The Green peasants were subjected to colonial irrigation facilities is to enable double-
Revolution was, therefore, an added state legislation determining the cropping of rice. The spread of rice
boost for the local rice scene. It fitted various dates for the different phases technologies and the provision of
well with the government’s strategy to of wet-rice production. irrigation forms an agricultural
increase rice production and at the development strategy to combat
same time eradicate poverty, but its Attempts to get the Malay peasantry poverty in the rice peasantry and to
actual achievements are still debatable. to grow wet rice did not stop at the strive for national self-sufficiency in
realm of irrigation system rice. Characterizing the irrigation
CONCLUSION construction. The colonial period also development was the construction of
witnessed the beginning of a large World Bank-funded systems and
The salient feature marking the concerted effort in the application of the rehabilitation of both small and
development of peasant rice growing scientific knowledge in rice large scale schemes. However, much
in Peninsular Malaysia is the cultivation. Selection on high-yielding of the millions that have been spent
increasing degree of state intervention. pure lines of rice was started and the on irrigation development in Malaysia
Peasant rice cultivation under pre- varieties were then spread to the has been concentrated in the
colonial Malay states was primarily for peasantry. In line with colonial construction and rehabilitation of
home consumption, and surplus, if interests, however, the research on rice large scale systems.
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Dr Puteri S M Megat-Yusoff
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
puteris@petronas.com.my
Prof. A J Ryan
Head of the Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield,
Sheffield S3 7HF, United Kingdom
tony.ryan@sheffield.ac.uk
ABSTRACT
The use of interference optical microscopy was demonstrated to be a simple yet successful technique to measure the
window thickness in rigid polyurethane (PU) foams. Furthermore, this technique does not reqiure slicing the sample to
a very thin specimen (unlike using SEM and TEM) which could be a practical problem on foams. In addition, the
technique was employed to investigate the effects of varying foam formulation on the cell window thickness. For the
water blown rigid PU foams under study, the window thickness distribution indicated that the cell membrane was
concave in shape with mean window thickness between 1 and 2 µm. Varying the foam formulations in terms of the
polyol arrn length, polyol/monol ratio, water content and type of catalyst did not affect the mean window thickness
appreciably. The observed behaviour could be explained as the type and amount of surfactant used throughout the study
remained unchanged.
This paper was presented at the Regional Symposium on Chemical Engineering, Skudai, Johor, 13-15 October, 1997.
window specimen under an optical light interference patterns of the A Method for Determination of the
microscope with reflected light at specimen were taken under three Interference index, m
three different monochromatic monochromatic lights with The interference index of the first
wavelengths. The interference index wavelength of 0.452 µm (KL45), minimum intensity was determined
of the first minimum intensity was 0.539 µm (Na-light) and 0.667 µm by comparison of the pattern of
determined by comparison of the (KL67). Numerous samples for each interference fringes produced by the
interference pattern produced by the formulation investigated were scanned three specified wavelengths.
three different monochromatic and 5 to 20 micrographs taken at each Comparison of the positions of
wavelengths. Then, the thickness of of the three different wavelengths. minimum intensity obtained under
the cell membrane at the minimum The light source was a white heat lamp the three light sources, that
intensity of interference light was equipped with glass filters and a
calculated using the appropriate sodium lamp. The specifications of (1) from Na-lamp and KL-45 filter
equation. In this study, the the equipment are shown in Table 1. light sources, the positions of the
interferometric technique[6] was the interference indices 4 and 5, 8 and
basis for cell window thickness For comparatively small angles of 9, 13 and 14 under KL45 light
measurements. incidence, cell membrane thickness at exist between those of index 3 and
each minimum intensity of 4, 6 and 7, 10 and 11 under Na-
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE interference light is given as follows. light, respectively.
mλ θ2
Three four series of formulations
based on varying polyol arm length,
polyol/monol content, water level and
d = ––––––
2n
( 1 + ––
4
) (1)
(2) from Na-lamp and KL-67 filter
liglit sources, the positions of the
interference indices 8 and 9 under
type of catalyst were systematically Na-light exist between those of
studied. All formulations employed where d is the cell membrane index 7 and 8 under KL-67 light.
the same surfactant. Specimens from thickness, m is the interference index,
various regions of a polyurethane foam λ is the light wavelength, n is the- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(foamed isothermally at 50°C) bun refractive index of the foam and θ is
were cut (using precision foam slicer) the angle of incidence of the light. Micrographs of the light interference
into 15 x 15 x 3 mm3 sections and The refractive index for PU foam patterns obtained under the three
mounted flat onto glass slides on the ranged between 1.5 to 1.6[6],[7] In the monochromatic wavelengths (Na-
stage of the OM. Micrographs of the current study, n is assumed to be 1.5. light, KL45 and KL-67 filters) are
shown in Figure 1(a) to (d) for
specimen 2-MHT-100 (see Table 2 for
Table 1 The main specifications of the light interference optical materials coding).
microscopy (Olympus BH2-UMA) hardware
The positions of the minimum
1 Light source intensity were determined along line
White heat lamp : 12 Volt, 100 Watt AOB through the centre of the
Na-lamp wavelength is 0.589 µm interference pattern, the thickness of
Glass filters . KL-45 and KL-67 (Omega Opticals) the cell membrane calculated and the
Spectral data thickness distribution estimated. The
KL45 KL-67 typical membrane thickness
Centre of wavelength : 0.452 µm 0.667 µm distribution for 2-MHT-100 and 6-
Half-value width : 0.016 µm 0.016 µm MHT-100 are shown in Figure 2. It
Transmission : 36% 36% indicates that the cell membrane has
2. Objective lens a concave shape; the edges being
Magnification : x50 thicker than the centre. Similar
N~erical apeiture : 0.55 observations were made by Akabori
Focallength : 180 mm and Fujimoto[6] in their work on
3. Ocular lens polyether-based polyol, MDI PU
Magnification : x 10 foam.
Table 2: A summary of the average window thickness, minimum and maximum, measured for various foaming
systems investigated.
** The first number refers to the polyol arm length. The second part refers to type of isocyanate, the water content used (H for 4 g/100
g polyol, L for 1.8 g/100 g polyol) and the catalyst employed (A for amine and T for tin catalyst). The third part, a number refers to the
mass (g) of polyol used in the polyol/monol blend.
The use of longer polyol arm length foam formulations in terms of the 3. Rhodes, M.B.; “Image Analysis as
in the foam formulation did not affect polyol arm length, polyol/monol ratio, Applied to the Characterisation of the
Cellular Structure in Urethane Foams”,
the mean membrane thickness water content and type of catalyst did Proc. 34th Annual Potyurethane
appreciably. This is demonstrated by not affect the mean window thickness Technical/Marketing Conference,
2-MHA-100, 3-MHA-100 and 6- appreciably. However, this could be Technomic Publishing Co., Lancaster,
MHA-100 series which showed reversed if different types of surfactant PA, p. 548, (1992).
4. Sims, G.L.A. and C. Khunniteekool,
similar mean window thickness within were utilised.
“Cell Size Measurement of Polymeric
the experimental error, 1.2 ± 0.2 µm, Foams”, Cellular Polymers, 13, p.137,
1.4 ± 0.2 µm and 1.7 ± 0.4 µm ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (1994).
respectively. 5. Rhodes, M.B.; “Applicable Techniques of
The author would like to acknowledge Dow Optical Microscopy for Polyurethane
Chemical, Terneuzen, The Netherlands for Investigations”, J. Elastomers and
CONCLUSIONS sponsoring the project. Many thanks to N. Plastics, 12, pp.201-218, (1980).
Wardman of Materials Science Centre, 6. Akabori, K. and K. Fujimoto; “A Method
This study has demonstrated the UMIST, for his technical advice and support. for Measuring Cell Membrane Thickness
application of interference optical of Polyurethane Foams”, International
REFERENCES Ptogress in Urethane, 2, pp. 41-60,
microscopy to measure window
(1980).
thickness in rigid polytirethane foams. 1.. Gioumousis,G.; “Shapes of Cells in 7. Du Cauze de Nazelle, G.R.N.; “Thermal
For all the foaming systems under Polymer Foams”, J. Applied Polymer Conductivity Ageing of Rigid Closed
study, the results of the window Science, 7, pp. 947-957, (1963). Cell Polyurethane Foams”, Ph.D Thesis,
2. Gibson,L.J. and M.F. Ashby; “The Delft University of Technology, The
thickness distribution indicated that Mechanics of Three-Dimensional Netherlands, (1995).
the cell membrane was concaved in Cellular Materials”, Proc. R. Soc. Lond.,
shape with mean window thickness A382, pp.43-59, (1982).
between 1 and 2 µm. Varying the
M. Shuhaimi
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
D.Y. Lim
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Kimia & Kejuruteraan Sumber Asli,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81300 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the application of pinch and exergy analysis on a Brown-Boveri regenerative steam turbine power
plant (1955). Pinch and exergy analysis is a simple and cost-saving tool that is used to scope for potential improvement
in power production and energy usage before going into detail design. Combined together, exergy analysis was able to
locate the system’s inefficiency while pinch analysis was used to target potential improvement. The application of the
analysis started by simulating and extracting stream data from the existing base case plant. Exergy targets were set by
plotting and comparing the exergy of the system to the source of exergy from the fuel. Modifications were proposed on
three areas namely, steam pressure, steam temperature and fuel consumption. Results from the analysis showed potential
shaft work improvement from 837 MW to 844 MW or an increase by 0.8%. Thermal efficiency improved by 0.3%
from 33.2 to 33.5%. Fuel rate reduction from 7609 kgmol/s to 7167 kgmol/s, or 6.2% saving, were also achieved. With
rising concern on the efficient use of non-renewable energy source and the protection of our environment, every little
improvement is a step forward.
Keywords
Process Integration, Thermodynamics, Irreversibility, Efficiency.
This paper was presented at the 14th Symposium of Malaysian Chemical Engineers, Putrajaya, 30-31 October, 2000.
moves from the initial state, 1, to a data itself (Linnhoff, 1993). (3)
final state, 2, can be written as,
where ηEx is the exergetic efficiency
Pinch analysis is a method for
of the system.
targeting the sources and sinks of
exergy. This is achieved by plotting
(1) METHODOLOGY
composite curves made up of exergy
The notations H and S are enthalpy sources and sinks and locating the
and entropy respectively. For systems The Brown-Boveri conventional
bottleneck or “pinch” point that put
of liquids and gases at constant regenerative steam turbine power
constraints on the efficient use of
pressure, the entropy function can be plant was simulated as a base-case
energy. If the excess of exergy sources
eliminated by combining the first and system on Hysis process simulator.
and sinks are plotted, the exergy grand
second laws to yield, Figure 1 shows the simplified
composite curve is obtained. The
flowsheet of the power plant. The
vertical and horizontal axes for the
system under analysis was divided into
(2) curve are (1-T o /T LM ) and ∆H
two parts, namely the exergy supply
respectively. An integration of the area
Here, the term T LM denotes the and the exergy sink. Exergy supply is
under the exergy grand composite
logarithmic average temperature provided by the furnace system which
curve provides the quantity of exergy
between an initial and final state. The employs bituminous coal as fuel with
for the system as depicted by equation
errors in using the equation above 20% excess air. The base case
(2). For a power plant system, the shaft
were found to be as small as 0.2% operating conditions for the furnace
work, Ws, generated from the system
which was within the accuracy of the system is shown in Table 1.
can be estimated by equation (3),
FIGURE 1. Process Flowsheet for the Brown-Boveri Regenerative Steam Turbine Power Plant
Parameters Values
Acid Dewpoint
temperature 167 °C
Preheat Air
Temperature 190 °C
Stack temperature 290 °C
Adiabatic Flame
Temperature 2,158 °C
Parameters Values
Steam Flowrate 1000 kg/s
Steam Temperature 530 °C
Steam Pressure 11372 kPa
Condenser Pressure 5.39 kPa
Turbine Efficiency 72 %
Pressure Change
Pressure increase in the system would
increase the exergy sink to the process
and reduce the overall exergy lost. A
change from 11,372 kPa to 13,872
resulted in reduction of exergy lost
(σTo) from 1270 MW to 1265 MW.
The power output would increase
proportionally with the gain in exergy
sink by 3.3 MW. Thermal efficiency
increased by 0.1%. Figure 3 shows
the exergy grand composite curve for
the pressure change.
Temperature Change
Temperature of steam exiting the
furnace was raised from 530 to
FIGURE 5. Grand Composite Curve for Furnace System 537 °C. As shown in Figure 4, the
modification resulted in an increase
of exergy gain by 0.5%. Power
generation was projected to increase
by 4.0 MW, improving the thermal
efficiency by 0.2%.
Sumathi Renganathan
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
Malaysia in its effort to become a centre for excellence in Education, has always realised the importance of English
language. English has a Second Language status in this nation. With the recent establishment of private universities,
where the medium of instruction is English, the role of English language among Malaysian students is becoming more
important. This study aims to look at the English language proficiency level of students who will further their studies in
private universities within Malaysia. It is vital to know the English language proficiency level of the students who will be
studying in these private universities, to enable the language teachers to design courses that will help these students attain
the appropriate proficiency level for effective communication in an academic environment. This study was carried out in
one of the three, recently established private universities in Malaysia. The students entering the university have both the
Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) English grade accredited by The Malaysian Examination Syndicate and the 1119 English
grade accredited by the University of Cambridge Local Examination Syndicate (UCLES). This paper aims to compare
the grades awarded by these two accreditation bodies, and find out which gives a better indicator of the students’ proficiency
in English language in order to be effective communicators in the academic environment. Students were also given an
English Language Placement Test, which tests students’ competence in various areas of language especially grammar,
reading comprehension, vocabulary and the structure of writing. The data obtained from this study will provide valuable
information as to what should be incorporated and emphasised in the English language courses offered by the universities
for effective communication.
INTRODUCTION 1993). After 1983, students entering linguists, but rather it is important
institutions of higher learning in enough to be the next language afier the
English language in Malaysia arrived Malaysia would have followed a school national language in the Malaysian
with the colonisation of the Malay education where the medium is language planning, to be acquired by
Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak during entirely in Bahasa Melayu. However, Malaysians in general.’
the late 18th century to the mid 20th by and large, English remains the (Asmah 1979;26)
century. Thus, the multi-ethnic preferred language of business. It is
groups in Malaysia were subtly also the language for interfacing with Therefore, English language is rapidly
coerced to learn the English language foreign businessmen. approaching the position of a foreign
from the early days of British language. This status has led to a
colonialism. English is known to have a second general decline in the proficiency of
language status in Malaysia but it is English language in this country.
During the 70s and 80s, ‘…from the not a second language as understood Although concern over this issue is
premier language of the colonial by linguists. now widespread and certain steps and
government, it was steadily replaced projects have been undertaken by the
by Bahasa Melayu as the language of ‘The status of English as the second most Malaysian Ministry of Education to
administration, of the law courts, and important language as specified by the improve the teaching and learning of
the medium of instructions at schools government does not mean that it is “the English (Tan, 1992), the decline in the
and universities…’ (Asia Magazine, second language” as understood by standard of English is yet to be halted.
This paper was presented at the 12th World Congress of Applied Linguistics, Waseda University, Tokyo, 2 August, 1999.
The recent 1997 Sijil Pelajaran The structure of the national educa- Local Examinations
Malaysia (SPM) examination showed tion system is presented in Table 1. Syndicate (UCLES) for
another decline in the results for Table 2 shows the time allotted to the overseas candidate but in the
English language. The Ministry of teaching of English language in year 1997 students received
Education reported that, despite the Malaysian government schools. two grades for the SPM
all-round best SPM results recorded English paper – one given by
in the country, English recorded the There are three public examinations the Malaysian Examination
lowest level of passes – 63. 1%. The for schools in Malaysia and in each of Syndicate and a GCE “O”
result deteriorated by 2.5% compared these a pass in English is not level grade issued by the
with 1996. mandatory. UCLES.
faced by higher learning institutions appropriate English language B, Appendix 1 for detail grading
is that, students entering these proficiency for effective scheme).
institutions have no more than communication in the academic field.
intermediate-level English (Gaurdart, THE PLACEMENT TEST
1996). These students will, THE STUDY
nonetheless, have to deal with The Placement Test was adapted from
advanced academic concepts in their This study was carried out with the the Test of English as a Foreign
studies, involving an attention to following objectives: Language (TOEFL) paper. Only two
accuracy and detail in language, which sections of the TOEFL paper were
they have not previously needed. 1. To determine the English adapted for this test, Section 2 –
language proficiency level of Structure and Written Expression and
English is not an entrance requirement students entering private Section 3 – Vocabulary and Reading
for any of the public universities in universities in Malaysia by Comprehension. Section 1 – Listening
Malaysia although English language comparing students’ SPM Comprehension was excluded. Proper
classes are conducted by these English and the 1119 English facilities to accommodate all 167
universities. This is because medium grades. students for the listening test was not
of instruction in public universities in available at the time this study was
Malaysia is Bahasa Melayu. Some 2. To determine which gives a better carried out. The Placement Test was
universities even make provisions for indicator of students’ proficiency a multiple choice question test, where
exempting good students from in English language: the SPM students have to choose the best
English classes. The instruments used English or the 1119 English answer from four options given. This
for exemption vary from university to grade. test consists of fifty questions and for
university and therefore, it is not calculation purposes the marks were
possible to determine what level of 3. To identify the areas students are converted to percentages. The test
proficiency in English is considered weak in, based on the Placement consists of four sections grammar,
adequate for study in higher learning Test given by the university, and structure of writing, reading and
institutions may it be private or thus, recommend what areas of vocabulary.
public. language should be emphasised in
the language courses offered by Grammar
Many of the private universities in the university to enable students This section requires students to
Malaysia use English language as the to communicate effectively in the identify errors, which involve
medium of instruction. University academic environment. grammar or usage in order for the
Teknologi PETRONAS is one such sentences to be correct. Here the
university. The university decided that THE SAMPLE sentences have all the basic sentence
students entering this university parts but each sentence has an error.
should have at least a credit in the The sample for this study consists of The grammatical items tested are
SPM English examination. 167 first year students. The sample word forms, verbs, pronouns, singular
consists of both male and female and plural nouns, verbals,
With the introduction of private students. All 167 students sat for the prepositions, and articles.
universities where many of them are SPM English paper and obtained two
using English as the medium of grades for the same paper. One was Structure of writing
instruction, students at tertiary level awarded by the Malaysian This section consists of incomplete
will face problems if they are not Examination Syndicate (SPM grading sentences. Some portion of each
proficient in the English language. scheme). The second grade was given sentence has been replaced by a blank.
Even in public universities where by UCLES (1119 grading scheme). Under each sentence, four words or
lectures are conducted in Bahasa Please see Table A, Appendix 1. These phrases are listed. One of these
Melayu majority of academic writing students also sat for a Placement Test completes the sentence grarnmatically
in Malaysia is still in English. conducted during their first week at and logically at sentence level. The
Therefore, it is very important that the university. The Placement Test items tested in this section are basic
students who enter universities in was graded according to UTP’s sentence pattems, word order, relative
Malaysia are equipped with the grading scheme (please refer to Table clauses, parallel structure, passive
forms, participle phrases, comparisons FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS Comparison of the Placement Test
and conjunctions. results with the SPM English and
Comparison of the SPM and 1119 1119 English Grades.
Reading Examination results
This section contains two passages. Out of the 167 students, 85 students A correlation study of the Placement
Both passages are informative (51%) obtained ‘Al’ according to the Test results with the SPM English and
passages, which are similar to texts SPM English grading. But out of this, the 1119 English grades showed that
students have to read for academic following the 1119 grading scheme the Placement Test results does have a
purposes in the university. The only 6% obtained ‘A1’ and 16% correlation with both the other grades,
questions in this section test students’ obtained ‘A2’. Sixty six percent (66%) although the Placement Test results
ability to identify the main idea or obtained credits (C3, C4, C5 and C6) has a higher correlation with the 1119
topic of the whole passage, locate and whereas 12% obtained only a ‘pass’ English grades as compared to the
identify answers to questions about (P7 & P8). Refer to Table 3. SPM English grades (refer to Table C,
specific information in the passage and Appendix 1).
draw conclusions based on Twenty-three percent of the students
information in the passage. who took part in this survey obtained The results of the Placement Test
an ‘A2’ in the SPM English. Out of revealed that only five students (3%)
Vocabulary this, following the 1119 grading obtained an ‘A’ while six students (4%)
This section tests students’ ability to scheme no one obtained distinctions obtained a ‘B+’ and twenty-nine
choose a suitable word from the four (A1 or A2), 44% obtained credits (C3, students (17%) obtained a ‘B’. The
options given to complete a sentence. C4, C5 and C6) while majority of Placement Test also revealed that sixty-
Sentences in this section concern a them (56%) obtained just a ‘pass’, (P7 three students (38%) were in the ‘C’
variety of academic subjects. Students or P8). See Table 4. category (C+ and C) while thirty-
need to identify a suitable word for seven students (22%) obtained a ‘D’.
the sentence based on contextual Forty-three students (26%) obtained Twenty-seven students (16%) failed
clues. This section does not test credits based on the SPM English the Placement Test. Please refer to
grammar because almost all the grading scheme and this result Table 6 for a summary of these
options fit into the sentences equally compared to the 1119 grading scheme findings.
well. revealed that only 11% of these forty-
three students obtained credits while A comparison study of the Placement
majority of the students (77%) Test with the SPM and 1119 grading
obtained a ‘pass’ (P7 or P8) and 12% scheme revealed that students who
failed (F9). Please refer to Table 5. obtained an ‘A’ in the Placement Test
Table 3: Details of grades in Table 4: Details of grades in 1119 Table 5: Details of grades in 1119
1119 of students who obtained ‘A1’ of students who obtained ‘A2’ in of students who obtained Credits in
in SPM English SPM English SPM English
A2 - 16% C4 - 3% C6 - 9%
C6 - 9% P8 - 5%
P7 - 11%
P8 - 1%
Suziah Sulaiman
Dayang Rohaya Awang Rambli
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
31750 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia.
This paper focuses on campus facilities, namely computer labs in higher learning institutions. The main objective is to
determine the type of computer labs needed to support the Information Technology/ Information Systems (IT/IS)
curriculum and their research activities. It is necessary to examine the curriculum in order to design computer labs which
are robust and responsive enough to meet the changing needs in education.
An investigation based on the IT/IS curriculum at Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP) was conducted for this
research purpose. The exercise involved dividing the curriculum into five major groups: programming, multimedia,
networking, application, others (project, seminar, research). These groups were used as a basis for participants in the
investigation to propose suitable computer labs to support the curriculum.
The findings suggested two major categories of labs: dedicated teaching labs and dedicated research labs. For each category,
several types of labs were proposed. Another type, which is flexible lab, was also suggested to facilitate independent
learning. All these program-driven labs possess two inter-related characteristics which are flexible and of multiple-usage.
It is envisaged that the proposed labs are able to support the current trend in the IT/IS curriculum and to accommodate
any changes in the future.
Keywords:
Computer labs, data communication lab, usability lab, virtual reality lab, multimedia lab
This paper was presented at the International Conference on Computers in Education, Chiba, Japan, 4-7 November, 1999.
and research-based learning. The provided as to why such a lab was Just like those labs in the dedicated
present investigation thus addresses needed. teaching category, the data
the question: communication, usability, virtual
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS reality, project, research labs are also
• What are the types of computer designed based on the IT/IS
labs needed to support the Based on the reported work which curriculum requirements. However,
Information Technology/ emphasised practical and project- they are categorised under dedicated
Information Systems (IT/IS) based education as mentioned in research because of their intended
curriculum and their research Section 1, participants suggested that functions, namely, to support
activities? the computer labs should be grouped intensive research activities. These labs
into two major categories: dedicated are also designed to promote and
METHODOLOGY teaching and dedicated research. The enhance collaboration between the
former was designed for students to university and industry in order to
The investigation was carried out by put their theoretical knowledge into establish a win-win relationship. The
analysing the IT/IS curriculum at practice. Tutorials and lab sessions university can offer companies the
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS would be heavily scheduled in this lab. opportunities to invest in research
(UTP) [3]. The curriculum was On the other hand, the latter was for work by transferring IT knowledge
previously reviewed by a team of local conducting research activities and also and skills [4,5]. The research carried
and foreign experts. For this acted as an extension of the teaching out would result in usable and
investigation, the curriculum is lab. innovative products, which could
divided into 5 major groups based on benefit not only the university but the
the nature of courses. As the suggested categories were too community as well.
broad and general, the participants
• Programming suggested that a further refinement To address the independent learning
• Application was needed. Several types of labs were issue as mentioned in Section 1, a
• Multimedia proposed for each category. It was flexible lab is proposed. This lab is
• Others: project, seminar, research necessary to have various types so as neither dedicated teaching nor
• Networking to cater for the five major groups of research. Its intended function is to
courses offered as mentioned in facilitate students’ independent
The exercises involved a series of Section 2. It was suggested that learning, which includes online
brainstorm sessions carried out by all programming, application and learning. Students could do their own
members of the IT/IS programme multimedia labs be under the work without interruption from any
staff. The team consisted of eight dedicated teaching category, whereas scheduled classes and tutorials.
lecturers and three trainee lecturers. data communication, usability, virtual
They were to decide on the type of reality, project and research were Even though the categories and types
labs required in supporting the suggested for the dedicated research of labs proposed are to address the IT/
programmes based on the courses lab. These findings are summarised in IS curriculum, their usage can be
offered. During the brainstorm Table 1. extended to other programmes.
sessions, techniques involving Computer-related courses which
scenario-based design [4,5] were used It can be seen from Table 1 that involve programming, simulation and
to facilitate the discussions. These programming, application and evaluation can still utilise the IT/IS
techniques required a consensus from multimedia labs are suggested based lab facilities. This is to encourage
all participants before any decision was on the list of courses offered. They are interdisciplinary sharing of
made. generic enough to accommodate any information and resources among all
changes in the future. There will be programmes in the university.
After completing these tasks, no major effect on the type of labs
participants were to document their even if new courses are introduced CONCLUSION
findings and justify their later. These labs will be equipped with
recommendations. For example, if Computer Based Training (CBT) This paper has highlighted findings
anyone in the team suggested a software to assist in the teaching and on an investigation, which determines
particular lab, a justification should be practical activities. the types of computer labs needed to
Application Consists of application programs such as Computers & Info. Age, Computer Organisation, Software
business, engineering and sciences Engineering, Systems Development Tools & Techniques,
• To enable students to write their reports, Computer Project Management, Mathematics
projects and coursework
• To support non-programming and
introductory courses
Multimedia Includes multimedia related software Computer Graphics, Human Computer Interactions,
consisting textual, audio & video Interactive Multimedia, Multimedia Technology, Network
• To enable students to develop interactive Multimedia System
applications
Dedicated Research
Data Communication Consists of tools for designing and networking Data Communication, Multimedia Technology, Network
installation Multimedia, Operating Systems
• To enable students to obtain “hands-on”
experience in networking
Usability Consists of equipment and facilities for testing Human Computer Interactions, dedicated to research work
product usability
• To support projects or researches involving
the usefulness of a particular product or
system
Virtual Reality (VR) Consists of equipment and facilities for Artificial Intelligence, dedicated to research work
designing VR
• To support projects or researches which
involve developing virtual environment
Others
Flexible Consists of all facilities as in Dedicated All courses as listed in Programming, Application and
Teaching labs and for online learning purposes Multimedia laboratories.
• To facilitate independent learning as it acts
as a learning resource centre
support the IT/IS curriculum and Acknowledgement [4] Karat J, Scenario use in the Design of a
their research activities. Two categories The authors would like to thank Dr Abas Md Speech Recognition System, In Scenario-
Said, Normashida, George Cheah, Hasnah and Based Design: Envisioning Work and
of labs are recommended based on a Sumathi for reviewing the earlier drafts. Technology in System Development,
reported work: dedicated teaching and Carroll J.M. (ed.), John Wiley & Sons,
dedicated research. From the References Inc. (1995)
investigation, which analysed the [1] Report on Issues and Emerging Trends [5] Nielsen J., Scenarios in Discount
in Higher Education, In Universiti Usability Engineering, In Scenario-Based
respective curriculum at UTP, several
Teknologi PETRONAS Master Plan Design: Envisioning Work and
types of labs under each category were Study, Vol. III, (1997) (unpublished). Technology in System Development,
proposed. The intended functions of [2] Coopers& Lybrand, The Transformation Carroll J.M. (ed.), John Wiley & Sons,
the labs include supporting teaching of Higher Education in the Digital Age, Inc. (1995)
and learning, encouraging Coopers& Lybrand L.L.P, (1998). (Also [6] Maier et al, Using Technology in
available at http://consulting.us. Teaching and Learning, Kogan Page,
interdisciplinary sharing of resources coopers.com/HIGHEDU/index.htm). London, (1998).
and promoting collaboration between [3] Dokumen Permohonan Perakuan [7] Lee WE and Rhinehart RR, Do We
the university and industry. The Akreditasi, Bachelor of Technology Really Want “Academic Excellence”?,
suggested categories and types of labs (Hons.) Information Technology, Chemical Engineering Progress, (1997).
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS,
are flexible and broad enough to cover
Tronoh, Perak, Malaysia, (1998)
a wide range of IT/IS courses. These (unpublished).
labs are able not only to support the
current trends in the IT/IS curriculum
but also to accommodate any changes
in the future.
Instructions to Authors
Authors of articles that fit the aims,
scopes and policies of this journal are
invited to submit soft and hard copies
to the editor. Paper should be written
in English. Authors are encouraged
to obtain assistance in the writing and
editing of their papers prior to
submission. For papers presented or
published elsewhere, also include the
details of the conference or seminar.
Publisher
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
Bandar Seri Iskandar
31750 Tronoh
Perak Darul Ridzuan
MALAYSIA
P L AT F O R M
Volume 1 Number 2 Jul - Dec 2000