Could nucleons fall as Newtonâ s apples do?

J.N. Pecina-Cruz
University of Texas Pan-American
University Drive, 1201 W. Edinburg Texas 78539-2999
jpecina2@utpa.edu

This article suggests that nuclear and gravitational forces may have a similar b
ehavior. The ratio between the free fall distance of an object and half of the S
chwarzschild radius of a black hole is identified with the nuclear mass number A
= r/m. This substitution, in the free fall equations, allows one to reproduce th
e curve of the Binding Energy per Nucleon (BEN) of a nucleus. Gravity and nucle
ar force are reveled as entities of the same nature. A black holeâ s formation is t
he appropriate model to execute this task. By calculating the energy per particl
e for each particle falling in a black hole the BEN curve is recreated. Therefor
e, the nuclei are identified with black holes in the process of forming. The cre
ation of nuclear matter took place at an early stage in the formation of the uni
verse. Large fluctuations in the energy density triggered this phenomenon. Primo
rdial black hole formations could be the beginning of the nuclear particles zoo.

Introduction
The equivalence principle claims the acceleration inertial and the acceleration
gravitational that experiment a free falling mass are indistinguishable [1]. New
tonâ s Second Law of Motion claims force equals mass times acceleration. It is rema
rkable that the application of this law does not depend on the nature of the for
ce. It could be a gravitational, magnetic, etc. type of force. As a physicist, o
ne attempts to model each force that one observes with a mathematical formula. H
owever, instead of thinking in many different forces, with a law for each one, l
et us apply the Mach principle of economy of thoughts by claiming that all force
s are of inertial nature. Therefore, one is tempted to generalize the example of
Einsteinâ s elevator. To account the magnetic field, whose presence is explained b
y the relative motion of the electrical charges [3]. And so think a similar mech
anism might occur in the generation of nuclear force. If this conjecture were tr
ue for the gravitational force, then we have to explain why gravitation enjoys s
uch a privilege. Nature always refuses to give special treatment to any physical
entity.
Following this assumption, that there is a unification of forces (fields) throug
h the concept of inertial forces, one proceed to perform the calculation of the
curve of binding energy per nucleon by using Einstein gravitational equations wi
th the Schwarzschild metric as a solution [1].
A curve of average binding energy per nucleon was empirically derived by Weizsä
cker [4]. Later was improved by the Liquid Drop Model of the nucleus [3]. Also B
ethe and Bacher [2] contributed to a clearer understanding of this formula [2].
In Section 1 we will discuss the derivation of the equation of the Binding Energ
y per Nucleon from Einsteinâ s gravitational equations and Schwarzschild metric. Se
ction 2 is dedicated to the comparison of the least squared fitting of the nucle
ar masses obtained from experimental data [8] with the energy per nucleon obtain
ed from our GR formula merged by least square fitting to the electromagnetic ene
rgy due to the proton charge. In the application of the least square technique o
ne term responsible of the electromagnetic interaction was added. A very rudimen
tary Coulomb interaction was used. However, the LSQR fitting of data was quite g
ood. Quantum corrections were not considered at this time (in He for instance).
However, one was able to calculate the exact formulae for the free fall object i
n a massive body. This formula (19) was derived over pure GR bases and is exact.
1. From General Relativity to Nuclear Field
In the calculations for free falling objects in the neighboring area of a very d
ense mass one uses Einsteinâ s equations for a matter-free space, which are given b
y [7]

(1)
For a static spherically symmetric and asymptotically flat, empty space-time, a
solution was proposed by Schwarzschild by using the metric

(2)
Where

(3)
The equations of free fall are
. (4)
Here k is a parameter that describes the trajectory of the particle, in its jour
ney to the center of the black hole.
Using the definition of the Christoffel symbols and the components of the Schwar
zschild metric, equation (4) can be written

(5)
(6)
(7)

(8)

The solutions of the differential equations (5), (6), (7) and (8) provide us wit
h the free fall velocity of an object moving under the attraction of a black hol
e. For instance, integrating eq. (6) we get
(9)

where, c1 stands for a constant of integration. If the free fall is radial Sub
stituting eq. (9) into eq. (6) and applying these conditions we obtain
(10)
This equation may be integrated to get
(11)

c2 is a new constant of integration. From eq. (10)

 , (12)
Therefore
(13)

When the object is released the integration constants c2/c12=1 are evaluated.
Therefore the radial velocity of the free falling object is
(14)
v can be written in terms of A= r/m
(15)
The Energy for a falling particle is given by the eigenvalue equations of the Po
incare Lie group

(16)
where is a four-vector, and its components generators of the Poincare Lie alge
bra.
The component of the total velocity perpendicular to the radial velocity of the
falling object, gives one, a relation among the permitted orbits of the falling
object, see Ref. [1] p. 285-289.
(17)
(18)
Therefore,
(19)
2. Nuclear Binding Energy Approximation from Black Holes Formalism
Substituting v given by eq. (15) into eq. (16), one obtains

, (20)
where, is the energy for the free falling particle. It seems in some way natur
al to identify the mass number A with a multiple integer (quantum) of the Schwar
zschild radius (A=r/m); since the height of a free fall particle is directly rel
ated to its energy. A=r/m could be identified with energy packets or discrete ma
ss particles. With this analogy is the binding energy of a nucleon bound to a
nucleus of mass number A. Other physical interpretation is obtained by consideri
ng this partition r/m, of the energy as energy quanta which become particles or
nuclei fragments after a very energetic collision. In analogy to a free fall obj
ect attracted by a massive body.
It must also be included in the equation for the binding energy per nucleon the
electromagnetic interaction and the quantum effects. The deviation of the curve
due to a quantum interaction for instance, for He is discussed with detail by J.
Sakurai [7]. In the next equation the last term and the first are part of the e
lectromagnetic force. The potential energy was calculated for Z particles in the
nucleus interacting with the free falling nucleon with Z=1.
Finally, one does not need any numerical expansion to determine the free fall en
ergy of an object in the neighborhood of a black hole. Because the semi-empirica
l mass formula of Bethe and Bacher, in p. 183 [2] is quadratic in Z, there is an
atomic number Z which minimizes M which is called the nuclear charge of the mos
t stable isobar.
The Weizsäckerâ s semi-empirical formula for the total energy of a nucleus is slig
htly simplified by the authors of Ref 2. It is given by
. (21)
This is a quadratic equation in Z then for each fixed value of A there is a valu
e of Z that minimizes M.

. (22)
By substituting A=200 in eq. (20) it is found that the Z value that minimizes M,
which is the nuclear charge of the most stable isobar, denoted Z0=80.
The most stable nucleus of atomic weight 200 has the nuclear charge 80, correspo
nd to Hg200.
All the elements from Z=1 to Z=80 at least have one stable nuclide. The first 82
from hydrogen to lead except for technetium (Z=43) and promethium (Z=61). Elem
ents with Z>82 only have radioactive isotopes.
Therefore if we take as a probability energy distribution function f(A,Z)=f(A)/A
or M/A

(23)
According to Ref. 2, p. 87, the interval of integration can be replaced by the l
imits between O16 and Hg200 where, . Therefore

(24)
Hence equation (17) must be divided by 200A, since f(A)/A is the energy per nucl
eon.
(25)

Figure 1. This figure depicts the experimental data for stable nuclides (with Z
â ¤82).

Figure 2. The Figure shows the Binding Energy per Nucleon obtained from eq. (22)
no Coulomb force is included. It is obtained from pure GR.

Figure 3. The figure displays the Least Square Fitting of equation (22) includin
g the Coulomb interaction. And compare it with the experimental data of the Bind
ing Energy per Nucleon
Figure 4. This figure shows all the three curves for the Binding Energy per Nuc
leon displayed above.

Figure 5. This figure displays the maxima in the plots of the average Binding En
ergy per Nucleon data.

The curve of binding energy derived by using GR is displaced from its negative v
alues (attractive potential) to positive values in order to compare with the exp
erimental data.
Conclusion
This manuscript presents a curious coincidence that allows the achievement of th
e unification of the two forces, gravity and nuclear forces.
This article also suggests that this mechanism is responsible for the creation o
f the elements of the Periodic Table. Therefore new elements could be created ar
tificially. What we are suggesting is that the primordial black holes in formati
on are nucleons. These black holes in formation never reach the final fate of a
black hole since quantum mechanics prevents the occurrence of this event [10].

Acknowledgments
My most sincere acknowledgment goes for Roger M. Pecina for his sharp suggestion
s during the preparation of this manuscript.

References
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Brook haven National Laboratory. http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/.
[10] Pecina-Cruz J.N., Quantum Mechanics and Black Holes, arXiv:physics/0510163