Politics among nations: Hans Morgenthau

A Realist theory of International politics

two schools of thought
a) assumes the essential goodness and infinite malleability of human nature
b) imperfect from rational point of view, result of forces inherent in human nature. Aims at the realisation
of the lesser evil rather than the absolute good.
Six principles of Political Realism:
1) politics governed by objective laws clue have their roots in human nature. A theory of politics must be
subjected to the dual test of the reason and experience. A theory developed several hundred years ago
may not be assumed to be outmoded and obsolete. The character of foreign policy can be ascertained
only through the examination of the political acts performed and the foreseeable consequences of
these acts. Examination of the facts not enough, we must put ourselves in the position of a statesman
who must meet a certain problem of foreign policy under certain circumstances.
2) The concept of Interest defined in terms of Power. To search for the clue of foreign policy exclusively in
the motives of the statesman is futile and deceptive. Good motives give assurance against deliberately
bad policies; they do not guarantee the moral goodness and political success.
It also avoids the other fallacy of equating the foreign policies of a statesman with his philosophies, and
deducing the former from the latter. It also requires a sharp distinction between the desirable and the
possible. It stands to reason that not all foreign policies have followed rational, objective and unemotional
course i.e. personality, prejudice, subjective preference, weakness of intellect and popular emotions (in
democratic control) are bound to deflect foreign policies. Man responds to social situations with
repetitive patterns. Except when matters are subject to dynamic change new patterns are required.
International relations as reflected in political institutions, diplomatic procedures and legal arrangements
assume the " sovereign equality " of all nations but in reality extreme inequality of nations is predominant
(superpowers/ministates).
It is primitive thinking to personalise social problems i.e. Eliminate the individuals " responsible " for the
problem, and you have solved the problem. The demonological approach to foreign policy strengthens
another pathological tendency, the refusal to acknowledge and cope effectively with a threatening reality.
3) Thucydides-'identity of interest is the surest of bonds between states or individuals'. This was taken up
by Lord Salisbury in the 19th century 'the only bond of union that endures among nations is the absence
of all clashing interests. Max Webber: interests (material and ideal), not ideas, dominate directly the
actions of men. Yet the images of the world created by these ideas have very often served as
switches determining the tracks on which the dynamism of interests kept actions moving. The
kind of interest determining political action in a particular period of history depends upon the political and
cultural context. The same applies to power. Power may comprise anything that establishes and
maintains the control of man over man.
4) political realism is aware of the unavoidable tension
between the moral command and the requirements of successful political actions. Universal moral
principles cannot be applied to the actions of states in their abstract universal formulation. The individual
may say for himself: " Fiat Justitia, pereat mundus (let justice be done, even if the world perish), "
but the state has no right to say in the name of those who are in its care. Ethics in the abstract judges
action by its conformity with the moral law; political ethics judges action by its political consequences.
5) Political Realism refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with the moral laws that
govern the universe. it distinguishes between truth and opinion, truth and idolatry. All nations political
entities pursuing their respective interests defined in terms of power.
6) the political realist maintains the autonomy of the political sphere, as the economist, the lawyer
maintain theirs. " How does this policy affect the power of the nation? ". He is not unaware of other
standards of thought, he cannot but subordinated these other standards to those of politics. It is here that
political realism takes issue with the legalistic-moralistic approach to international politics
Understanding International politics:

Dr Grayson Kirk-old approaches taken i.e. historians, international lawyers and idealists. New approach to
examine the fundamental and persistent forces of world politics and institutions which embody them.
Charles E. Martin-dualism i.e. area of institutions of peace and area of power politics and war.
International politics cannot be reduced to legal rules and institutions.
Graham Sumner-the worst vice in political discussions is that dogmatism which takes its stand on great
principles or assumptions, instead of standing on an exact examination of things as they are and human
nature as it is.
Limitations to understanding
ambiguity of the material. Events are unique, at the same time under similar conditions social forces will
manifest themselves in a similar manner. Thus one must be able to distinguish between the similarities
and differences in two political situations.
For example: American policies on abstention from European affairs and world War, Alliance and War
between Henry VIII, Hapsburgs and France, invasions of Napoleon, William II and Hitler.

Political Power

not every action that a nation performs with respect to another nation is of political nature
not all nations are at all times to the same extent involved in international politics. Arnold Wolferspole of power and pole of indifference, opposite ends of the spectrum.
Nature of Power:
man's control over the minds and actions of other men. Sources of power are the expectation of benefits,
fear of disadvantages and the respect or love for men or institutions. It may be exerted through orders,
threats, authority or charisma of a man/office.
Distinctions betweenpower and influence: Minister can influence the president whereas president has the power over the
Minister.
Power and force: use of actual violence i.e. war
usable and unusable power: nuclear weapons against conventional weapons
legitimate and illegitimate power: search done by police officer/robber. Power exercised with consent from
United Nations.
Economic, financial, territorial or military policies in international affairs must be distinguished as
undertaken for their own sake or as instruments of political policy. Example loan given to Central
American nations by USA.
Depreciation of Political power:
the struggle for power on the international scene is as a temporary phenomenon, a historical accident that
is bound to disappear once the peculiar historic conditions that have given rise to it have been eliminated.
Jeremy Bentham " emancipate your colonies ". Cobden and Proudhon believed in removal of trade
barriers for harmony among nations. For Marxists, elimination of capitalism and establishment of
international socialism. As for the Liberals they believed power politics and war residues of obsolete
system of government and that the victory of democracy and constitutional government over absolutism
and autocracy would bring up peace and harmony.
The struggle for power is universal and regardless of social, economic and political conditions states have
met each other in contests for power. Also it would be useless to free some from the desire of power and
leave it in others. The tendency to dominate as an element of all human associations.
The Roots of depreciation of political power:
the 19th-century philosophy: the middle class was dominated by the aristocracy. By identifying this
domination the political domination, opposition of aristocracy led to hostility to any kind of politics. After
the defeat of the aristocratic government the politics associated with it-open and violent-was replaced by
network of legal rules that concealed the existence of power relations.
The American experience: the abstention from European policies was taken as a retreat from power
politics. This was further widened by the geographical isolation.

The Science of Peace:

during the 19th century that fantastic progress of natural sciences led the various thinkers to assume that
the same kind of methods, applied to individual and collective human behaviour could yield progress
towards the pacification of human existence.
The Struggle for Power: Policy of the Status Quo
all political phenomena can be reduced to one of the three basic types:
a political policy seeks either to keep power, to increase power or to demonstrate power. Thus the three
typical international policies:
Status Quo: a nation whose foreign policy tends towards keeping power and not towards changing the
distribution of power in its favour pursues a policy of status quo.
Imperialism: aims at acquiring more power than it actually has, through a reversal of existing power
relations.
Prestige: seeks to demonstrate the power it has for the purpose of maintaining or increasing it.
Status quo ante bellum, a diplomatic term referring to the usual clauses in peace treaties. It aims at the
maintenance of the distribution of power that exists at a particular moment in history. Treaty of Paris 1815
after the defeat of Napoleon, the Locarno treaty and the Treaty of Versailles 1919. The Nine Power
Treaty-the special rights acquired especially by Great Britain and Japan in certain parts of Chinese
territory should remain intact and no new special rights will be ceded by China to any other contracting
parties. After the win against France and foundation of German Empire in 1871 Bismarck tried to protect it
by alliances. In 1879 Germany and Austria concluded an alliance for mutual defence against Russia. In
1894 France and Russia entered into a alliance against the German Austrian combination.
The Monroe doctrine: in the declaration made by President Monroe in his annual message to Congress
on December 2, 1823 he laid down two essential principlesit stipulates respect on the part of USA for the existing distribution of power in the Western Hemisphere,
on the other hand it proclaims resistance on the part of the United States on any change of the existing
distribution of power by any non-American nation.
Status quo is not opposed to change. For example American purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867,
acquiring the virgin Island from Denmark in 1917 (for defence of the approaches of the Panama Canal).
In 1962 the Soviet Union undertook to extend its influence by placement of missiles in Cuba. The
Kennedy administration chose a policy of blockade and quarantine. Later the Soviets withdrew the
missiles as a result of Kennedy-Khruschev agreement but continued to support the Castro regime. On
October 25, 1983 the Regan Administration invaded Grenada-to protect the lives of about thousand
Americans on the island, but actually because Grenada was seen as an Arsenal for military action
masterminded by the Cubans and the Soviets in the Caribbean.
Imperialism:
misconceptions about imperialism not every foreign policy aiming at an increase in the power of a nation is manifestation of
imperialism.
Foreign policy aiming at the preservation of an empire
the acquisition and exploitation of colonies with an economic connotation.
For example: this the British imperialism program, America in the Caribbean
Economic Theories of Imperialism:
the Marxist theory: capitalist societies to expand their market (surplus goods and investment) enslave
non-capitalist and ultimately even capitalist areas. Hence moderate Marxists such as Kautsky and
Hilferding believed imperialism was a policy of capitalism. However Lenin and his followers identified
imperialism as capitalism in that phase of development in which the domination of monopolies and
finance capital has established itself.
The liberal theory: John A Hobson -- imperialism a result of certain maladjustment within the capitalist
system. The remedy being expansion of home market to economic reforms, such as increase in
purchasing power and elimination over savings.

The Devil theory: certain groups that profit from war transform themselves into the war mongers who plan
wars to enrich themselves.
Criticism of these theories: limited historic experience.
Different Types of Imperialism:
three inducements to imperialismVictorious War: during war the nation which anticipates victory will pursue a policy that seeks permanent
change of the power relations with the defeated enemy., Regardless of what the objective was at the
outbreak of the war.
Lost War: the status of subordination intended for permanency may engender in the vanquished a desire
to turn the scales on the victor, to overthrow the status quo created by his victory.
Weakness: the existence of the weak states or of politically empty spaces that are attractive and
accessible to a strong state.
The Methods of Imperialism:
Military Imperialism: use of military. New power relations formed after the war can be changed only by
military conquest instigated by the vanquished nation, with the odds not really against the latter. For
example Napoleon, Hitler
Economic imperialism: less obtrusive and less effective. 'Dollar diplomacy' 'oil diplomacy'. For example:
British influence in Portugal, American influence on Central American republics.
Cultural imperialism: control of the minds of men as an instrument for changing power relations. For
example National Socialist left column in Europe, the Communist International directed from Moscow
guided and controlled the Communist parties in all countries. Religious organisations are also used in the
imperialistic policies of cultural character. For example; the Czar of Russia used his dual position as head
of the Russian government and of the Orthodox Church for the purpose of extending the power of Russia
to the followers of the Orthodox faith in foreign countries.
It is important to detect the character of the foreign policy so that appropriate action can be taken.
Example: it would be fatal if an imperialistic foreign policy is mistaken for a policy of status quo and
likewise countered. Similarly if one mistakes a policy of status quo for a policy of imperialism, the
countermeasures taken would in turn make the other make arrangements to strengthen himself. This
would lead to further suspicions and ultimately war.
Appeasement is a foreign policy that attempts to meet the threat of imperialism with methods appropriate
to a policy of status quo. When the settlement of a demand on the basis of legal or moral principles or
through bargaining methods, in disregard of the influence the settlement might have upon the distribution
of power, amounts to piecemeal change in the power relations in favour of the imperialistic nation.
ultimately, these piecemeal changes will add up to the reversal of the power relations in favour of the
imperialistic nation.Example: appeasement of Germany in their late 30s.

The Ideological Element in International Politics:

Karl Mannheim, 'Ideology and Utopia' 1936: " the Particular Conception of Ideology is implied when the
term denotes that we are sceptical of the ideas and representations advanced by our opponent. They are
regarded as more or less conscious disguises of the real nature of a situation, the true recognition of
which would not be in accord of it is interests. These distortions range all the way from conscious lies to
half conscious and unwitting disguises; from calculated attempts to dupe others to self deception. "
The true nature of the policy is concealed by ideological justifications and rationalisations. While all
politics is necessarily pursuit of power, ideologies render involvement in that contest of power
psychologically and morally acceptable to the actors and their audience. The legal and ethical principles
and biological necessities fulfil a dual function i.e. the ultimate goal of political action or an ideology.
Ideologies of Status Quo:

a policy of the status quo can often afford to be real its true nature and dispense with ideological
disguises, because by virtue of its very existence it has acquired a certain moral legitimacy. Peace and
international law are eminently qualified also is ideologies for the status quo.
Ideologies Of Imperialism:
uses the doctrine of natural law (equality, justice) against international laws
in case of power vacuum ideologies such as National Mission, the White man's burden, a
Christian duty etc are used.
Survival of the fittest. The strong nation has a right to dominate the weak. These biological
ideologies given a revolution turn by communism, fascism, Nazism and Japanese imperialism.
Most used is the ideology of anti-imperialism.
The essence of National Power:
a nation is an abstraction from a number of individuals who have certain characteristics in common.
Hence in empirical terms the power or the foreign policy of a certain nation they can only mean the power
or the foreign policy of certain individuals who belong to the same nation.
The Balance of Power:
the aspiration of power on the part of several nations, each trying to maintain or overthrow the status quo,
leads of necessity to a configuration that is called the balance of power.
Equilibrium synonymous with balance. Two assumptions for equilibrium is:
the elements to be balanced are necessary for society or are entitled to exist
without the state of equilibrium one element will gain ascendancy over the others.
When a system remains steady it does so because any tendency towards change is met by increased
effectiveness of the factor which resist the change.
Balance of power In Domestic Politics:
a multi-party system lends itself particularly to such a development. representative government can be
made perfect by having the system divided into two classes with each class equal number of votes in
parliament. The Constitution created as an instrument of checks and balances. Each branch of the
government was to restrain others.
If a majority be united by a common interest, the rights of the minority will be insecure. Hence as per
Madison, " by comprehending in the society so many separate descriptions of citizens as will render an
unjust combination of a majority of the whole very improbable, if not impractical "
Two main patterns of the balance of power:
The Pattern of Direct Opposition: the pattern is of direct opposition between the nation that wants to
establish its power over another nation and the latter which refuses to yield. Both will go on increasing
their power as a counter measure until they give up or one has gained a decisive advantage. Then either
the weaker yields to the stronger or war decides the issue.
The Pattern Of Competition:
the imperialistic policies of Nation A towards Nation C is kept in check by Nation B. The power relations
between A and B then decide the fate of Nation C. Smaller nations have always owed their independence
to
the balance of power (Belgium and the Balkan countries)
preponderance of one protecting Power (Central American nations, Portugal)
their lack of attractiveness (Switzerland and Spain)
the same factors are responsible for the existence of so-called buffer states-weak states located close to
powerful ones and serving their military security. (Belgium-Russia)
Korea-due to geographical proximity to China, existed as an autonomous state (since first century BC) by
virtue of intervention by its neighbour. From 16th century Japan opposed the claim of China and
eventually won the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-95. From 1896 Japan was challenged by Russia but was

defeated in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05. After Second World War America replaced Japan as a
check on Russian ambitions.

The different methods of the Balance of Power:

the balancing process can be carried on either by diminishing the weight of the heavier scale or by
increasing the weight of the lighter one.
Divide and Rule:
make or keep the competitors weak by dividing them for keeping them divided. Examples-policy of France
with respect to Germany, opposition of the Soviet Union on the unification of Europe.
Compensation:
compensations of territorial nature were a common device in the 18th and 19th century for maintaining
balance of power which had been or was to be disturbed by territorial acquisitions of one nation. Treaty of
Utrecht of 1713, which terminated the war of Spanish succession recognised for the first time the principle
of balance of power by way of territorial compensation. The partition of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795
between Austria, Prussia and Russia.
Fertility of the soil, number and quality of the populations concerned were used as objective standards.
Example, Congress of Vienna in 1815 appointed a statistical commission for evaluating territories.
It was also used for the distribution of colonial territories and the delimitation of colonial semi-colonial
spheres of influence. For example division of Ethiopia between France, Great Britain and Italy.
Armaments:
the principle by which a nation endeavours with the power at its disposal to maintain or re-establish
balance of power. This armaments race in which nations tried to keep up with and then out do each other
is typically an unstable, dynamic balance of power. Example, the naval competition between Germany
and Great Britain before first world War. Also proportionate reduction of armaments is used as a
technique of balance of power. The Washington Naval treaty of 1922 between Great Britain, USA, Japan,
France and Italy.
Alliances:
nations competing with each other
add to their own power the power of other nations
withold the power of other nations from the adversary

Evaluation of the Balance of Power:

it has prevented any one state from gaining universal dominion. Also in preserving the existence of all
members of the modern state. The dominion by any one state was prevented at the cost of warfare. (1648
to 1815 and twice during the 20th century) the two periods of stability, one starting in 1648 and other in
1815 were preceded by the wholesale elimination of small states. These acts were done in the name of
balance of power.
The Uncertainty of the Balance of Power:
balance of power in line with the way of thinking during the 16th -- 18th-century which pictured the society
and universe as a gigantic mechanism. It is in need of an easily recognisable quantitative criterion by
which the relative power of nations can be measured and compared. Territory, armament cannot by
themselves be used for gauging power of a nation. For example: Spain and Turkey with vast territories
were relatively weak in international politics.
This uncertainty of power calculations is further complicated by alliances. Calculation of National Power
and correlate one with the other. Circumstances that affect decision-making of a nation cannot be always

anticipated, thus making balance of power uncertain. For example Great Britain entering the first world
war on the side of France and Russia.