Medio Ambiente Observador - Seminario Nacional Sobre Medio Ambiente Verde

Environment Observer
National Seminar
on
Green Environment
Theme : Waste Management
December 17th - 18th, 2013
Proceedings
EDITORIAL BOARD:
Asso. Prof. Lekshmi M. S., Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST

Asst. Prof. Sangeetha S., Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST
Asst. Prof. Jaseela K. H., Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST
Asst. Prof. Life John, Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST
Asst. Prof. Remjish R.S., Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST
Organized by
Department of Civil Engineering

Toc H Institute of Science & Technology
Arakkunnam, Eranakulam (Dist.)
A
Invitation Price - 250 INR
ENVIORNMENT
OBSERVER
December - 2013
Vol.- 16
EDITOR / DIRECTOR
Dr. Mangesh Kashyap
Society for Environment Education Research

And Management (SEERAM)
Proceedings of National Seminar on
Green Environment
Theme : Waste Management
GUEST EDITOR
ISSN- 2320- 5997
Prof. Lathi Karthi

HOD, Dept. of Civil
Engineering, TIST
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Ambegaonkar
EDITORITAL
ASSISTANCE
Shri Satchidanad
Sewalkar
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Mrs. Rajashree Mirajkar
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B
CHAIR PERSON (Organising Committee) :

Prof. Lathi Karthi , HOD, Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE MEMBERS:

Mr. Satchidanand Sewalkar, Director, SEERAM
Er. P. G. Gopalakrishnan, FIE, IEI
Dr. C.G. Nandakumar, Reader, Department of Ship Technology, CUSAT
Er. Dr. May Mathew, FIE, Committee Member, IEI Kochi Local Center- Convener
Prof.(Dr.) P. Rajeev Kumar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST
FACULTY CO-ORDINATORS:
Asso. Prof . Vasudev R., Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST
Asst. Prof. Anju Paul, Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST
Preface
Industrialization and the exponential population growth have contributed immensely to
the buildup of waste in the urban areas this in turn caused a rapid deterioration in the
level of sanitation and the general quality of urban life. The streets became choked with
filth due to the lack of waste clearance regulations. Throughout decades waste
management has been a burning issue. A properly designed and well-managed landfill
can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials.
Poorly designed and managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental
impacts.
It is a matter of great concern that the growth of municipal solid waste in our urban
centers has outpaced the population growth in recent years. Municipal Solid Waste in
cities is collected by respective municipalities and transported to the designated
disposal sites, which are normally low lying areas on the outskirts of the city. The choice
of a disposal site is more on what is available than what is suitable. The poorly
maintained land fill sites are prone to ground water contamination due to leachate
production. Solid waste per person is mounting at an alarming rate due to various
reasons. In India generation of Municipal solid waste, hazardous and biomedical wastes
have been increasing due to population growth, modified life style and economic
development but the waste management responses still adhere to the traditional
methods of waste disposal which results in increased expenditure for waste
management. Every citizen is now in search of clean air, pure water and a pleasant
atmosphere to live in. It is the duty of every citizen to play his part in keeping his
premises clean and healthy, inspiring other fellow beings to follow sustainable practices
which will make our environment green.
In order to emphasis this need of the hour the theme of the National Seminar has been
selected as Waste Management. The thrust areas of the seminar are :
01. Sustainable solid waste management.
02. E-waste management.
03. Best practices in construction waste management.
04. Waste water treatment and management.
05. Environmental remediation.
06. Economic dimensions of solid waste management.
07. Sustainable urban planning.
08. Pollution & Health issues.
09. Soil pollution & treatment.
10. Impact of industrialization on the environment.
11. Ground water issues.
12. Renewable & non-renewable energies.
D
About 46 full papers covering the respective focus areas were received as part of
this seminar. The papers pertaining to the sustainable solid waste management,
best practices in construction waste management and waste water treatment and
management together contribute to about 50 % of the total papers received. All
the papers were technically reviewed by subject experts of the technical
committee and recommended for publication in the journal ENVIRONMENT
OBSERVER.
The objective of this seminar was to provide a platform for academicians,
research scholars, technocrats and practicing civil engineers to throw light in the
area of waste management, to ignite the young minds by sharing the experiences
and to emerge with innovative and feasible solutions which will free our country
from the stingy polluted atmosphere to a serene green environment where
everybody wishes to dwell. Changes do not happen overnight but each advance
helps and we hope this seminar helped to move a little forward in the direction of
sustainable waste management.
EDITORIAL BOARD:
Prof. Lathi Karthi (Chairman)
Asso. Prof. Lekshmi M. S.
Asst. Prof. Sangeetha S.
Asst. Prof. Jaseela K. H.
Asst. Prof. Life John
Asst. Prof. Remjish R.S.
Content
Sr.
No.
Paper Title
Page
SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1
2
3
4
5
6
Fuzzy Model for Multi-Objective Integrated Solid Waste Management

System - Isaac P. George
Coconut Builds Up Sustainable Structure - Anju Mary Ealias
Economical Utilization of Coir Fibre Dust as Soil Admixture Sanah Rose Sony
Waste Foot Printing For Waste Management
The Need Of The Hour- Athira Ravi
A Review On Bioreactor Landfills- Hema M
1
8
14
19
28
Polymer Sponge Assisted Bacterial Digestion method for Municipal

Solid Waste Management- Geevarghese George
Solid Kitchen Waste Management in the High Ranges Anoob Sebastian
An Environmentally Sound Method For Organic Degradation
Ranjini D S
Sustainable Waste Management- Priyadarsi Das
34
10
Study on Waste Management in Visakhapatnam using RIAM analysisV R Sankar Cheela
63
11
E-Waste Management-The Present Scenario- Anna Donia Palett1
7
8
9
43
48
54
E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
74
BEST PRACTICES IN CONSTRUCTION

WASTE MANAGEMENT
12
80
15
Utilization of Construction and Demolition Waste

as Pavement Material- SavioJohn
Bauxite Residue Management- Theja S N
Global scenario of utilization of construction and demolition waste Job Thomas, Wilson P.M
Construction And Demolition Waste Management- Amrutha Mary.
106
16
Study on Concrete with Glass Powder- Shilpa Raju
112
17
18
Concrete Technology In Sustainable Development- Jithin Thomas

Reduction of Construction Wastes through Efficient Jobsite Practices.Abhijith Harikumar
121
126
13
14
87
95
F
19
20
Waste Plastic As A Stabilizing Additive In Stone Mastic

Asphalt - K. Akhil
A Review On Strength And Fracture Properties Of Post Consumed
Waste Plastic Fiber Reinforced Concrete - Asha S
134
140
WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT

21
Polishing Domestic Wastewater With Subsurface Flow Constructed

Wetland - Reenu Lizbeth Roy
149
22
Recovery Of Nutrient From Waste Water Through Struvite

Crystallization - J. S. Sudarsan,
The Treatment Of Pulp And Paper Mill Wastewater
By Wet Oxidation- Amrutha K
Comparative Studies on Bioremediation of Municipal Wastewater
Using Macrophytes and Microalgae - Hossein Azarpira,
156
23
24
164
170
ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION.
24
25
26
Role of Phytoremediation in Soil Waste Management

Aarya Vimal1
Incorporating Cement Kiln Dust into Mine Tailing Based Geopolymer Bricks- Kavya R Varma
Use of Industrial and Agricultural Wastes for making Bricks
Waste Create Bricks- Mala Pankaj1
180
186
192
ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS OF SOLID WASTE

MANAGEMENT
27
Cost And Economic Returns of Resource Recovery from

Municipal Solid Waste in Ernakulam- T.Dhanalakshmi,
28
Double Skin Facade System A Sustainable Strategy for High Rise
198
SUSTAINABLE URBAN PLANNING

Buildings- Krishna Priya R
29
30
31
32
33
203
Understanding Acoustic Leak Detection Methods For

Water Distribution Systems- Amith Krishnan. M1
Green Walls-Annu Anna Alex
Sustainable Planning in Urban Transport for the
Developing Cities in India- Basil Basheerudeen
Decentralised Membrane Filtration System- Aravind Suresh
Energy Demand of Urban Transport Sector in the
Developed Cities of India- Basil Basheerudeen1
209
215
223
230
236
G
POLLUTION & HEALTH ISSUES

34
Life Cycle Assessment of Rubber Industries in KeralaMary Dhanya
245
SOIL POLLUTION & TREATMENT

35
36
Bioremediation A Green solution for Soil Pollution- Riya

Elsa Abraham
Treatment of Polluted Soils: Translating Science into Practice Rebecca George
254
261
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION ON THE

ENVIRONMENT
37
Study on Urban Environment Quality in Visakhapatnam - V R Sankar

Cheela1, Basil Basheerudeen2, Resma Vijay3
269
38
Impact of Industrial Activities on Heavy Metal Concentrations in

Marine Environment of Mangalore- Akshay Gowda K M
Impact of Urbanization in Kerala: Case study of Cochin
Corporation - Basil Basheerudeen1, Aparna Baiju2
277
39
283
GROUND WATER ISSUES

40
41
Arsenic Contamination In Ground Water - Mithra.P 1,

Annie Joy 2 , Dr. A.K. Vasudevan 3
Groundwater Wakeup Asika Johney, Avinash Satheesh, K.Akhil *, Lekshmi M. S.**
290
298
RENEWABLE & NON-RENEWABLE ENERGIES

42
43
Solar Roadways- Parvathi.S

Passive Solar Buildings- Jiya Jaison
304
310
44
Sequential Production of Biofuel from Leather Fleshing

Waste- Dhanya Muralidharan
316
45
46
Scope of Non-Conventional Energy in India- Arjun Murali1

Role of FRP as sustainable construction material - An overview
Ramadass S1
321
326
H
SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Fuzzy Model for Multi-Objective Integrated Solid Waste
Management System
Isaac P. George[1], Swarnalatha K.[2]
[1]
College of Engineering, Trivandrum

[1]
isaacpgeorge@gmail.com
[2]
Assistant Professor, College of Engineering, Trivandrum
Abstract:
Rapid urbanization and change in life style has increased the waste load and thereby pollution
loads on the urban environment to unmanageable and alarming proportions. This is particularly
true for Thiruvananthapuram Corporation in Kerala state, with severe constraints of land
availability, dense population, environmental fragility and expectation for management of solid
waste relies on an overly centralized approach. Present study focuses on the optimum selection of
the treatment and disposal facilities, their capacity planning and waste allocation under
uncertainty associated with the long-term planning for solid waste management. The fuzzy model
is based on a multi-objective, multi-period system for integrated planning for solid waste
management which dynamically locates the facilities and allocates the waste considering fuzzy
waste quantity and capacity of waste management facility. The model addresses uncertainty in
waste quantity as well as uncertainties in the operating capacities of waste management facilities
simultaneously.
It was observed that uncertainty in waste quantity will affect the planning for waste treatment and
disposal facilities more as compared with the uncertainty in the capacities of the waste
management facilities. The relationship between increase in waste quantity and increase in the
total cost/risk involved in waste management is found to be nonlinear. Therefore, it is possible
that a marginal change in waste quantity could increase the total cost/risk substantially. The
information obtained from the analysis of modelling results can be effectively used for
understanding the effect of changing the priorities and objectives of planning decisions on
facility selections and waste diversions.
Key Words: Fuzzy model, integrated soil waste management
Page 1
INTRODUCTION
The mathematical models can be subjected to rigorous methods of systems analysis for
planning the Integrated Solid Waste Management System (ISWM). The mathematical models
provide a systematic means by which the decision-maker can explore the various alternatives in
order to identify an optimal management strategy.
Fuzzy modeling can be used for addressing the uncertainty involved in the solid waste
management planning. The fuzzy modeling is having definite advantage while addressing to the
uncertainties involved in the waste quantities and the capacity constraints on treatment and
disposal facilities. Also this approach is unique due to the fact that it gives a set of alternatives
which are close to the optimal solutions rather than suggesting a unique solution as the optimal
solution.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH PAPER

Development of fuzzy model for Integrated Solid Waste Management System (ISWMS) in
Thiruvanathapuram Corporation
Validation of the model
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Profile of Study Area

Thiruvananthapuram Corporation has four constituent units. Solid waste management is done
in a decentralized manner within these regions. Constituent units considered are
Thiruvananthapuram, Kazhakoottam, Vattiyoorkavu, Nemom.
Fig. 1: GIS mapping of flow network
Page 2
B. Selection of Planning Period

The planning period of present study is considered to be 17 years divided into four periods. Ist
Planning Period(P1) : 2013-2015, IInd Planning Period(P2) : 2015-2020 , IIIrd Planning
Period(P3) : 2020-2025, IVth Planning Period(P4) : 2025-2030.
C. Collection of Data
Population data of Thiruvananthapuram Corporation
Estimation of environmental risk
Environmental risk=Rp x Rf
Where Rp=Receptor population, Rf= Risk factor, Risk factor = 10-4 to 10-6 (May, 2005)
D. Formulation of Data in Fuzzy Linear Programming
Fuzzy inference process comprises of three parts. Fuzzification of the input variables is to take
the inputs and determine the degree via membership functions. Application of fuzzy operator and
Ruling with fuzzy operator (AND or OR) and IF THEN ruling. Finally defuzzification, which is
the conversion of output data in user identifiable form. The problem is subjected to absolute
constraints such as mass balance of waste at each node, capacity constraints of the treatment
facility, binary constraints considering the capital investment.
E. Design of Model in Matlab
TABLE I: INPUT DATA FOR FUZZIFICATION
No
.
Name
Solid
waste
quantity
(tones)
Change in
waste
quantity
Change in
capacity
of
treatment
Planning
period
(years)
Notatio
n
SWQ
THET
A
GAMM
A
Members
hip
Functions
SWQ1
SWQ2
SWQ3
SWQ4
LOW
0-1250
900-2500
2200-3750
3000-5100
0-0.5
HIGH
0.5-1
LOW
0-0.5
HIGH
0.5-1
P1
P2
P3
P4
2
5
5
5
Range of
Values
Page 3
The proposed multi-objective, multi-period model was applied to Thiruvanathapuram

Corporation to understand the effect of priority to various objectives on waste allocation to
various management alternatives and to study the effect of aspiration level of the decision maker
to address the uncertainty in waste generation quantities and the capacities of the waste
management facilities. Waste treatment and disposal facilities are simulated in a simplified way
in the form of point nodes with only input and output being modelled. The internal process in the
facilities is not being modelled in the present study.
TABLE II: OUTPUT DATA FOR DEFUZIFICATION

Notati
on
No.
Name
Total cost
(Crores))
TC
Environmenta
l risk
ER
Treatment
plant
(TONES)
Treatment
plant
(TONES)
Treatment
plant
(TONES)
Treatment
plant
(TONES)
Treatment
plant
(TONES)
Treatment
plant
(TONES)
GASIF
ICATI
ON_1
GASIF
ICATI
ON_2
GASIF
ICATI
ON_3
ANAB
IOR_1
ANAB
IOR_2
MI
Members
hip
Functions
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
0-300
250-750
650-1000
0-250
220-660
640-1000
0-150
125-275
275-500
0-150
125-275
275-500
0-150
125-275
275-500
0-375
300-375
625-1000
0-375
300-375
625-1000
MI
24
Range of
Values
Page 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Choice of Technology
The high moisture content, low calorific value, substantially high contents of nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium in MSW samples indicate that the vegetative fractions of wastes are
more suitable for composting to organic manure after separating the reusable and recyclable
fractions. The proposition of RDF and pyrolysis & gasification as potential methods for MSW
treatment is high, subjected to detailed techno-economic feasibility and sustainability analysis.
B. Population and Corresponding Waste Quantity Generation
The estimated populations for various constituencies are analyzed. In this study, future
quantities of waste generation are estimated based on population forecast and waste generation
factor. Per capita average waste generation in Thiruvananthapuram is taken as 0.350 kg/day.
SWQ=PR
where P = Population, R = Percapita waste generation, Per capita waste generation=350g
Fig. 2 (a): Solid waste quantity analysis
Page 5
Fig. 2 (b): Solid waste quantity analysis
Fig. 2 (c): Solid waste quantity analysis
Fig. 2 (d): Solid waste quantity analysis

C. Environmental Risk Analysis
The total risk to environment is computed by multiplying the risk factor (10-4) with receptor
population in the region.
Fig. 3: Environmental risk analysis

SUGGESTIONS & CONCLUSIONS
The fuzzy multi-period planning for solid waste management is especially relevant in case of
rapidly growing urban centers of developing countries due to great possibility of fluctuating
parameters. The multi-period planning model can be a very helpful tool for the decision makers
especially for addressing locationallocation problem of waste disposal facilities with fluctuating
input parameters. The modeling results could be suitably interpreted for taking an appropriate
decision from the set of close to optimal alternatives. Further, the model simulations can give
Page 6
valuable information for analyzing the existing waste-management practices, the long-term
capacity planning for the citys waste-management system, and the identification of effective
policies regarding waste minimization and appropriate management options.
It was observed that uncertainty in waste quantity will affect the planning for waste treatment
and disposal facilities more as compared with the uncertainty in the capacities of the waste
management facilities. The relationship between increase in waste quantity and increase in the
total cost/risk involved in waste management is found to be nonlinear. Therefore, it is possible
that a marginal change in waste quantity could increase the total cost/risk substantially. The
information obtained from the analysis of modeling results can be effectively used for
understanding the effect of changing the priorities and objectives of planning decisions on
facility selections and waste diversions.
REFERENCES
[1]Amitabh Kumar Srivastava a, Arvind K. Nema(2012). Fuzzy Parametric Programming Model

for Multi-objective Integrated Solid Waste Management under Uncertainty
[2]Chanas, S. (1983). The Use of Fuzzy Parametric Programming in Fuzzy Linear Programming.
[3]Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 11, 243251
[4]Ministry of Environment (1999). Environmental Risk of Municipal Non Hazardaous
Landfilling and Incineration. Technical Report Summary. Standards Development Branch,
Environmental Sciences and Standards Division, Ontario Ministry of the Environment.
[5]Mufeed Sharholy, Kafeel Ahmad, Gauhar Mahmood, R.C. Trivedi (2008), Municipal Solid
Waste Management in Indian Cities
[6]Moy, P. (2005). A Health Risk Comparison of Landfill Disposal and Waste to Energy (WTE)
Treatment of Municipal Solid Wastes in New York City. MPH thesis, Mailman School of
Public Health, Columbia University.
Page 7
Coconut Builds Up Sustainable Structure

Anju Mary Ealias[1], Rajeena A P[2], Sivadutt S[3], Asst. Prof Life John[4]
[1] [2] [3]
B.Tech students, [4] Assistant Professor
Toc H Institute of Science & Technology, CUSAT University

e-mail Id: anjumaryealias@gmail.com
Abstract:
For the environmental and economical benefit, this study focus on generating product
using agricultural waste to develop an alternative construction material that will lessen the social
and environmental issues. Coconut shell is one of the main contributors of pollution problem as a
solid waste. Wastes generated by industrial and agricultural processes have created disposal and
management problems which pose serious challenges to efforts towards environmental
conservation. The use of coconut shells as partial replacement for conventional aggregates should
be encouraged sustainable and environmentally friendly construction material. Concrete using
coconut shell aggregates results an acceptable strength required for structural concrete. Consider
the suitability of using coconut shells and fiber as substitute for aggregates in developing
concrete hollow blocks. This study also determines the suitability of coconut shell ash for use in
partial replacement of cement in concrete. Coconut fibres reinforced composites have been used
as cheap and durable non-structural elements. The use of coconut fibres for the production of
board material has a number of advantages; it is a good alternative to wood and helps to prevent
deforestation. In addition, there is a trend to produce lightweight and economically profitable
materials in building construction field. Usage of natural material has the double advantage of
reduction in the cost of construction material and also as a means of disposal of wastes.
Key Words: Coconut shell, coconut fibres
Page 8
Introduction:
The study of coconut shell and coconut fibres as a substitute for construction material is
another way of using the gifts of coconut tree. The study of coconut shell and fibres will not only
provide new material for construction but also will help the preservation of the environment and
can also help the economy. Coconut has a total production of 54 billion nuts per annum in more
than 86 countries worldwide. India occupies the premier position in the world with an annual
production of 13 billion nuts. Coconut shell accounts for more than 60% of the domestic waste
volume. Coconut shell, which is an abundantly available agricultural waste from local coconut
industries, presents serious disposal problems for local environment. These wastes can be used as
potential material or replacement material in the construction industry. Utilization of coconut
shell and fibres as building materials will be an important step to improve sustainability.
Objectives:
To discuss the use of coconut shells as partial replacement for conventional aggregates.
To discuss the suitability of using coconut shells and fiber as substitute for aggregates in
developing concrete hollow blocks.
To discuss the suitability of coconut shell ash as partial replacement of cement in concrete
production.
To discuss the use of coconut fibres reinforced composites.
To discuss the use of coconut fibres for the production of board material.
Research Methodology:
The present study is based on the data adopted by various researchers and published in
journals. The result of study by the authors on fibre reinforced concrete with partial
replacement of coarse aggregate is also presented here.
Use of coconut shell as partial replacement for conventional aggregate
Various studies was conducted to investigate the properties of concrete using coconut
shells as replacement for coarse aggregate and to assess the potential use of coconut shell
concrete as a structural material as well as contribute to knowledge on the use of waste materials
in construction.
Page 9
The utilization of coconut shell as partial replacement of coarse aggregate will gained
importance in the development of light weight concrete. The properties of coconut shell and
coconut shell aggregate concrete is examined and the use of coconut shell aggregate in
construction is analyzed. Water absorption and moisture content values are comparable to
conventional aggregate. Coconut shell exhibit more resistance against abrasion, crushing and
impact compared to conventional aggregate. Density of coconut shell is within the range of 550 650 kg/m3 and these are in the specified limits for lightweight aggregate. It is not necessary to
treat the coconut shell before use as an aggregate except for water absorption test. The presence
of sugar content in the coconut shell, as it is not in a free sugar form, does not affect the strength
and setting of concrete. But, compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength of
concrete reduced with increasing percentage of coconut shell replacement. The optimum content
of coconut shell for replacement is found to be 10% 20%. From the results, use of coconut shell
aggregate concrete as structural lightweight concrete is recommended for low cost constructions.
Coconut shell aggregate is a potential construction material and simultaneously reduces the
environmental problem of solid waste.
As a part of our project, examine the suitability of replacing coconut shell as coarse
aggregate for plain concrete and coir reinforced concrete. Coarse aggregate replaced by 10%
coconut shell gave more compressive strength than coarse aggregate replaced by 10% coconut
shell and 3% coir by the weight of cement. pH test result shows that the concrete remains in
alkaline nature. Addition of coconut shell and coir increases the water absorption property.
Electrical resistivity is comparable with conventional concrete.
Suitability of Using Coconut Shells and Fiber as Substitute for Aggregates in Developing
Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB)
The main aim of this study to bring out the importance of use of natural products as
building material and to find the technical specification of concrete hollow block using coconut
shell and fibre as aggregates in order to contribute to the industry in saving the environment and
to sustain good product performance. A conventional concrete hollow block was compared to
concrete hollow blocks with coconut shells and fibres of the same proportions. Some of the
interesting insights of the study are:
Page 10
Coconut shells and fibres are applicable as partial substitute as coarse aggregates for concrete
hollow blocks.
The good indicators of coconut shell and fibres quality as aggregate of concrete hollow
blocks are particles, texture and shape, resistance to absorption, crushing and surface
moisture, grading, resistance to heating and freezing and light-weight.
Coconut shells and coconut fibres are classified as miscellaneous material used for wall
panels and partitions.
Physical properties: CHB with coconut and fibres is much darker in color, it have density of
1213.59 kg/m while commercial CHB has a density of 1529 kg/m.
Mechanical properties: compressive strength of CHB with coconut and fibres in 28 days of
age reached a load capacity 65 KN to 84.99 KN and a stress capacity 3.16 MPa to 4.13 MPa.
The average modulus of rupture is 0.40 MPa. The average modulus of elasticity is 2740 MPa.
CHB with coconut shell sand fibres have greater modulus of elasticity, lesser moisture
content and water absorption than the commercial CHB. Also it can resist freezing gained a
large value of load and resist in high degree of temperature.
Suitability of Coconut Shell Ash as Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete Production

The cost of cement used in concrete works is on the increase and unaffordable, thus the
need to find alternative binding materials that can be used solely or in partial replacement of
cement. One of the agricultural waste material, coconut shells are collected and burnt in the open
air (uncontrolled combustion) for three hours to produce coconut shell ash (CSA), which in turn
was used as pozzolana in partial replacement of cement in concrete production. The studies
showed that the density of concrete cubes for 10-15% replacement was above 2400 Kg/m3. The
3
average density decrease from 2525.5 Kg/m for OPC to 2314 Kg/m at 30% replacement. The
density of cement is higher than that of the CSA. The compressive strength meets the
requirement for use in both heavy weight and light weight concreting. CSA meets the
requirement for a pozzolana. The setting times increases with increase in the amount of CSA.
The initial setting time increases from 1 hr 5 min at 0% replacement to 3 hrs 26 min at 30%
replacement while the final setting time increases from 1 hr 26 min at 0% replacement to 4 hrs 22
min at 30% replacement. The pozzolanic activity index decreases with increasing percentage
replacement of OPC with CSA. The compressive strength decreases with increasing percentage
Page 11
replacement of OPC with CSA. The optimal 28 days strength for OPC-CSA mix is recorded at
2
10% replacement is 31.78 N/mm .

Use of Coconut Fibres Reinforced Composites
Coconut fibres reinforced composites have been used as cheap and durable non-structural
elements. Coconut fibres are reported as most ductile and energy absorbent material. Coconut
fibres have the potential to be used in composites for different purposes. In order to acquire
knowledge for designing low-cost safe housing in earthquake prone regions, the basic dynamic
features of coconut fibre reinforced concrete (CFRC) structural members is investigated. Natural
coir fibres having a length of 7.5 cm and a fibre content of 3 % by weight of cement are used to
prepare CFRC beams. Coconut rope having a tensile strength of 7.8 MPa and diameter of 1 cm is
added as the main reinforcement.
The workability of CFRC is a major problem because of the presence of fibres. Damping
of cracked CFRC beams increases when the natural frequency decreases. CFRC with coir rope
rebars has the potential to be used as main structural members due to its increased damping and
ductility. Pouring CFRC into formwork requires special attention, especially to maintain constant
cover for the rope. The bearing capacity of CFRC beams with different rope diameters and the
effect of knots at different locations along the length of beams are significant.
The Use of Coconut Fibres for the Production of Board Material
The board material that is made from coconut husk can be used in different areas such as
wallboards, frames. Use of coir fibres aimed to prove the feasibility of a new technically efficient
and financially competitive method for the production of environmentally safe and high
performance construction materials. The potential of the application of a specific technology for
the production of high quality coir fibre boards by making use of the specific chemical
composition of the coir fibre in particular its high content of lignin.
After separation from the coconut, the husk is refined to small particles and short fibres
using a simple technique by dry hammer milling, which yields suitable material for conversion
into boards by hot pressing. The obtained boards show very good mechanical properties
comparable to those of commercial medium density fibreboard (MDF). The thickness, swelling
and water absorption of the coconut husk board is lower than for MDF. The density of the
Page 12
coconut husk boards (1.3 1.4 g/cm3) is higher than for commercial MDF. The very good
performance of the boards produced in this way opens many possibilities for the development of
cheap and strong building materials.
Suggestions & Conclusions:
The study of coconut shell and fibres will not only provide new material for construction but
also will help the preservation of the environment and can also help the economy.
Using of alternative materials in place of natural aggregate in concrete production makes

concrete as sustainable and environmentally friendly construction material.
The concrete using coconut shell aggregates satisfies the minimum requirements of concrete.
Hollow block using coconut shell and coconut fibers as aggregates in order to contribute to
the industry in saving the environment and to sustain good product performance and meet
recycling goals.
The optimum level of portland cement replacement with coconut shell ash that will still give
required compressive strength which meets the requirement for use in both heavy weight and
light weight concreting.
Coconut fibres reinforced composites have been used as cheap and durable non-structural
elements, which is suitable for low-cost safe housing in earthquake prone regions
The use of coconut husks for the production of board material method is sustainable and
environmentally friendly. It is a good alternative to wood.
References:
Daniel Yaw Osei. (2013), Experimental assessment on coconut shells as aggregate in concrete,
International Journal of Engineering Science Invention, Vol. 2, Issue 5, pp. 07-11.
Maninder Kaur, Manpreet Kaur. (2012), A Review on Utilization of Coconut Shell as Coarse
Aggregates in Mass Concrete, International Journal of Applied Engineering Research, Vol. 7 Issue
11.
Tomas Ucol, Ganiron Jr. (2013), Recycling of Waste Coconut Shells as Substitute for Aggregates in Mix
Proportioning of Concrete Hollow Blocks, Wseas Transactions on Environment and Development, Vol. 9,
Issue 4, pp. 290-300.
Utsev J. T, Taku J. K. (2012), Coconut Shell Ash as Partial Replacement of Ordinary Portland
Cement in Concrete Production, International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research Vol. 1,
Issue 8, pp. 86-89.
Majid Ali.(2010), Coconut Fibre A Versatile Material and its Applications in Engineering, Second
International Conference on Sustainable Construction Materials & Technologies.
Page 13
Economical Utilization of Coir Fibre Dust as Soil Admixture

Sanah Rose Sony1, Life John2
1. B.Tech Student, Deprtment of Civil Engineering, TIST
2. Asst. Prof., Deprtment of Civil Engineering, TIST
Abstract
Scientists are now focusing more on the use of natural fibres such as bagasse, coir, sisal, jute etc. due
to increasing concerns about global warming and depleting petroleum reserves. This has resulted in
creation of more awareness about the use of natural fibres based materials mainly composites. Coir Pith,
a by-product of the coir industry was initially considered as a waste product. It was leading to pollution
problems even causing to fire hazards. It was also causing problems because of its slow decomposition
rate.But those exact problems of coir pith can be turned into its advantage. Coir pith, an organic matter,
has an excellent water retaining ability which can be put to use in the agriculture industry. Agricultural
wastes like coir pith can be used to prepare fibre reinforced polymer composites for commercial use.
Composted coir pith has been found to be immensely useful in crop production and compensates for the
lack of nutrients in raw coir pith.
In places where water source is scarce, irrigation water can be saved by mixing coir pith in the soil.
Not only will it retain enormous quantity of the water supplied, its fibrous nature also provides enough
aeration for better root development. Its slow decomposition rate will ensure that it does not have to be
replaced frequently thereby reducing cost. Its abundant availability will also ensure its good
performance.
Key Words:Coir Pith, Waste Management, Water Conservation.
Page 14
Introduction
India is one of the leading countries of the world in the cultivation and production of coconuts. In
India, particularly from the states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and the Union Territories,
annually around 14,000 million coconuts are being produced. Coconut, the fruit of cocosnucifers, is
largely used for its kernel which a raw material for oil. The spongy pericarp (husk) which is left as a byproduct during the exploitation of coconuts serves as raw material for coir fibre. Coir Pith is the elastic
cellular cork like pithy material which forms the non-fibrous tissue of the husk. 50-60% of the total
weight of the husk is accounted by this pith. It is extracted from husk either by retting or mechanical
methods.
In India, around 0.5 million tonnes of coir pith is being produced annually. As the demand for coir
and its products is slowly decreasing, other profitable markets have to be found for it. The existing coir
industry can be brought to a higher level by the development of new coir products.
Environmental Hazards caused by Coir Pith
Coir industries are facing great difficulties in the disposal of coir pith. Very often coir pith is heaped
as mounds on the way side. Large quantities of coir pith thus stored causes contamination of potable
groundwater due to percolation of leachates containing residual phenol from these dumps especially
during rainy season. It also acts as an ideal breeding ground for rodents and insects.
Coir pith is easily blown by wind due to its light weight thereby creating air pollution. In comparison
to other waste materials such as saw dust, rice husk and groundnut shell, coir pith is found to have a
higher heat value. Due to its poor combustion properties, high levels of carbon dioxide and smoke are
released from coir pith while burning. It also has a very slow decomposition rate.
Coir Pith as a Soil Admixture
Nowadays, the exact disadvantages of coir pith can be turned into its advantages. Coir Pith has many
beneficial characteristics which after proper composting can be used in agriculture as a potentially
productive resource. It is also known as coco peat as composted and stabilized coir pith resembles peat
and has characteristics similar to that of the most commonly used rooting medium in horticulture,
sphagnum peat. It has high moisture retention capacity and it is capable of retaining large amounts of
nitrogen and other nutrients.
Page 15
Even though all these properties make it an ideal material for use as soil amendment and rooting
medium for soil-less plant culture, direct use of raw coir pith is not recommended due to its high C : N
ratio and lignin content. Agricultural use of untreated coir pith could lead to microbial immobilization of
soil nitrogen and subsequent nitrogen deficiency in plants. But these shortcomings of fresh coir pith can
be managed if it is used after composting process.
It can be used as substitute for peat, because it is free of bacteria and most fungal spores, and is
sustainably produced without the environmental damage caused by peat mining.Mixed with sand,
compost and fertilizer, it makes a good quality potting soil. Coir pith generally has an acidity in the range
of pH - 5.5 to 6.5. It is a little on the acidic side for some plants, but many popular plants can tolerate this
pH range.
Its slow decomposition rate is another factor that been a major advantage for the agriculture and
irrigation industry. It would not require any maintenance and only has to be renewed in very long
intervals. In places of water scarcity, it helps in irrigation water conservation by improving soil field
capacity. In addition to holding water, its fibrous nature will ensure that it holds enough air for the
healthy development of the plant and its root.
Quality of coir pith is an important issue. With trials, it has been found out that the airiness of coir
pith is one of the main factors for a successful crop development in the substrate. But physical conditions
can differ. As these conditions are decisive for the airiness of the coir pith it is important to know the
facts.
Page 16
Airiness of coir pith will be more or less either by coarseness or by age of the material. The older the
coir pith the finer it will be. Finer coir pith is less aired and can contain more water than coarse material.
While some crops demand a huge amount of water, other crops need a high airiness. Therefore it is
important to know the material to start the growth with.
Future uses of Coir Pith
Low cost, easy availability, low density, acceptable specific properties, ease of separation,
biodegradability and recyclable nature of natural fibre has gained it attention as a reinforcement in
composites. Agricultural wastes like coir pith can be used for preparing fibre reinforced polymer
composites for commercial use.
There is a wide scope of commercial utilization of coir and coir dust, either on their own or in
combination with other raw materials, to make products like mat and matting, twine and rope, particle
board, fertilizer, rubberized coir and applications such as upholstery cushioning, pad and carpet underlay.
Coir pith blocks have now found a unique purpose in the aviation sector and its effectiveness is under
close evaluation both by the National Institute of Technology and the National Airports Authority of
India particularly in table top runways to avert accidents. The process involves filling coir pith blocks
around runway edges to provide a cushioning effect for aircrafts in the event of it overshooting the
runway.
Coir Pith Blocks

Page 17
Conclusion
Sunlight, air, water and nutrients are the basic requirements for healthy plant growth. Coir pith is an
excellent potting medium and soil conditioner applicable to agricultural crops and an ideal substitute for
peat. Soil is mostly unsuitable for production of plants in containers due to the absence of physical
properties like aeration, drainage and water holding capacity. Coir pith is a multi-purpose growing
medium that provides new opportunities for potting plants production. The fertile growth of plants during
the summer season, in dry lands and also at the time of deficiency of minerals in the soil can be avoided
using coir pith products.
The uses of coir pith are increasing day by day. The way coir pith the waste product was converted
into coir pith the multi-tasking material is truly impressive. Following in the path of this example,
hopefully more and more waste material will be put to use and help emphasise the importance of the
three Rs Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.
On our journey to a greener and healthier world, it is necessary to make use of and cherish the
various natural and extraordinary things that the good earth provides us. Sustainability should be made
maximum use of to remind us of the fact that us that we did not inherit this world from our ancestors,
rather we borrowed it from our children.
References:
Joseph, M. A Study on the Water Retention Characteristics of Soils and its Improvement, A Thesis.
2010.
Krishnamoorthi, V.V, Subramanion, K.S, Selvakumar, G and Chinna swami, K.N. Influence of
composted coir pith in red soil with sunflower, Proceedings
of \Seminar on Utilization of Coir
Pith in Agriculture, 20 November at Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. pp 159162.1991.
Rajarathnam, S and Shashirekha, M. N. Bioconversion and biotransformation of coir pith for
economic production of Pleurotusflorida: chemical and biochemical changes in coir pith during the
mushroom growth and fructification, World journal of Microbiology and biotechnology, Vol. 23, pp
1107 to 1114.2007.
th
Ronald Ross. P, Paramanandham. J, Thenmozhi. P, Abbiramy. K. S, and Muthulingam. M.

Determination of Physico-Chemical Properties of Coir Pith in relation to particle size suitable for
potting medium, International Journal of Research in Environmental ScienceandTechnology, ISSN
2249 9695.
Page 18
Waste Foot Printing For Waste Management

The Need Of The Hour
Athira Ravi1, Subha V.2
1
Research Scholar, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi, India

e-mail id:ravi.athira@gmail.com
2
Associate Professor, Division of Civil Engineering, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi,
e-mail id: v.subha@cusat.ac.in
Abstract:
Throughout the time, the amount of waste generated by humans was not worth mentioning due
to low population density and low societal levels of the consumption of natural resources.
Common waste produced during pre modern era was mainly ashes and human waste, and these
were released back into the ground locally, with least environmental impact. Following the
onset of industrialization and the sustained urban growth of large population centers, the
buildup of waste in the cities caused a rapid deterioration in levels of sanitation and the general
quality of urban life. The streets became choked with rubbish due to the lack of waste clearance
regulations. A lot of solutions arose like land filling, composting, incineration, pyrolisis etc. for
handling the problem. But all of these either had an environmental impact or a public protest.
There are two aspects for this waste management challenge. One is the social mind set and the
second is the technology application. What is happening today is the introduction of new and
new techniques for disposal without controlling the social mind set. We are paying electricity
bill, water bill, security charge, land tax, income tax etc. Why cant we pay a waste bill based
on the impact on environment from the amount of waste generated or have a strict politic
decision restricting the quantity of impact of waste on environment or rewards for lower waste
impacts? Waste foot printing is one such technique which quantifies the impact of waste
generated by an individual. With proper waste foot printing and an apt political decision will
solve the waste management problems in the urban and rural areas to a great extend. This paper
gives an overview of the waste foot print, methods for calculating the waste foot print
especially that of solid waste and some simple ways to reduce the foot print.
Key Words: Waste management, Waste foot print
Page 19
Introduction:
Urbanisation is the movement of people from rural to urban areas. The urbanization trend
nowadays and the modern life style have increased the waste load on the earth and thereby
polluting the urban environment to uncontrollable and dreadful limits. The existing land fill
sites and waste dumping sites are full beyond capacity and under unhygienic conditions leading
to pollution of water sources, proliferation of vectors of communicable diseases, foul smell and
odors, release of toxic chemicals, unaesthetic feel and ambience etc (R.Varma).In earlier days,
municipal wastes, comprised mainly of biodegradable matter, did not create much problem to
the community as the quantity of wastes generated was either recycled/reused directly as
manure or was within the assimilative capacity of the local environment (R.Varma).The
biodegradable wastes of the urban centres were accepted by the suburban rural areas for bio
composting in the agricultural areas. With increasing content of plastics and non-biodegradable
packaging materials, municipal wastes became increasingly offensive to the farmers and
cultivators. As a result, the excessive accumulation of solid wastes in the urban environment
poses serious threat not only to the urban areas but also to the rural areas. Now, dealing with
waste, is a major challenge in many of the local bodies or government. There are two aspects to
the challenge, the social mind set and technology application (R.Varma).The social mind set is
a very important aspect to be considered in this challenge. People are having the notion that the
government is the authority to dispose whatever waste they are generating. This is very pathetic
situation. Only the generators can manage waste. Though there are campaigns and awareness
programmes to reduce the waste generation and source reduction, it is very hard to maintain the
enthusiasm after the campaigns. In these circumstances we have to think of an alternative
which is to be enforced by laws or rewards to reduce the amount of waste generation. A
system, which gives the waste impact on earth quantified, just as we take the current bill, water
bill etc and an amount to be paid based on the quantity, should be imagined. Or on the other
hand the waste generators which are causing low impact should be rewarded or appreciated.
There should be clear cut limit for this quantified value based on the locality we live in and its
biocapacity to assimilate the waste. Waste foot printing is one such tool which can reach these
goals to some extent. This paper gives an introduction to the waste footprint, methodology for
its calculation and the ways for reducing the waste footprint.
Page 20
Waste foot print:

By the waste footprint or the ecological footprint of waste generation, the measurement of
biologically productive land like fossil, energy land, forest land, pasture land, built up area
etc, to assimilate the generated waste is meant (B.Lexington,2007) Waste footprint can
provide the per capita land requirements for waste generation. By calculating the waste
footprint, the local authority can determine the land required to assimilate the waste generated
in present and future, selection of disposal site and disposal site characteristics, the land fill
site design and the importance of recycling of different waste categories in order to reduce the
footprint (M. Salequzzaman ,2006).
Methodology for calculating the waste foot
print:
This section explains the calculation of foot print especially the solid waste footprint. In
calculating the ecological footprint for household waste generation, methodology to assess the
household ecological footprint, developed by M. Wackernagel et al. can be used. The methodology
utilizes the resource consumption and waste generation categories and the land use categories for those
consumption and waste generation (M. Salequzzaman ,2006). The land use categories are
summarized as (M. Salequzzaman ,2006).
Energy Land: The area of forest that would be required to absorb the CO2 emissions resulting
from that individuals energy consumption.
Crop Land: The area of cropland required to produce the crops that the individual consumes.
Pasture Land: The area of grazing land required to produce the necessary animal products.
Forest Land: The area of forest required to produce the wood and paper.
Sea Space: The area of sea required to produce the marine fish and seafood.
Built Area: The area of land required to accommodate housing and infrastructure.
To calculate the ecological footprint of waste generation, the generated waste is categorized as paper,
plastic, glass, metal and organic waste. The biologically productive land required for this waste
generation is calculated by equations and is as follows (M. Salequzzaman ,2006).
Page 21
A. Biologically productive land required for paper
(
(
( )
Where,
The energy yield (assumed to be average fossil fuel = liquid fossil fuel) is 73000 Mj /
10000 m2-year.
Energy intensity of paper is 35 Mj/kg.
Waste factor is the percentage of paper consumed.
(
(
( )
Where,
World average yield of round wood is 10000/2.6 m3/hectare.
Ratio of round wood needed per unit paper is 1.65/1000.
Waste factor is the percentage of paper consumed.
(
)
( )
Where,
Energy land required for paper waste get from equation no. (1)
Built up land footprint component of waste is 1100m2.
World average fossil fuel area of goods is 1324 hectare.
World average fossil fuel area of waste is 1196 hectare.
Primary biomass equivalence factor for built up area is 3.5
B. Biologically productive land required for plastic
Page 22
(
)
( )
Where,
The energy yield (assumed to be average fuel = liquid fossil fuel) is 73000 Mj/ 10000
m2-year.
Energy intensity of plastic is 50 Mj/kg
(
)
( )
Where,
Energy land required for plastic waste get from equation no. (4)
C. Biologically productive land required for glass
(
)
( )
Where,
10000 m2-year.
Energy intensity of glass is 15 Mj/kg
Page 23
(
)
( )
Where,
Energy land required for glass waste get from equation no.(6)
D. Biologically productive land required for metal
(
)
( )
Where,
The energy yield (assumed to be average fuel = liquid fossil fuel) is 73000 Mj / 10000
m2-year.
Energy intensity of metal is 60 Mj/kg
(
)
( )
Where,
Energy land required for metal waste get from equation no. (8)
E. Biologically productive land required for organic waste (food)
Page 24
(
(
)
(
Where,
10000 m2-year.
Energy intensity of organic waste is 30 Mj/kg
The amount of recycling of organic waste is equal to the amount of composting
Energy saved from the recycling of organic waste is determined by the following way (M.
Salequzzaman ,2006).
1. Calculating the amount of biogas from the organic waste.
2. Calculating the energy production from that biogas.
3. Calculating the percentage of energy getting from organic waste.
4.
1) Biogas production
The amount of biogas (X) generated from total areas is calculated from the relation:
)
(
II) Energy production

The expected amount of energy from biogas in total areas is
( )
III) Percentage of energy saved from organic waste
(
)
Where,
Energy land required for organic waste get from equation no. (10)
Page 25

F. Obtaining the total footprint for waste generation
The sum of the total land required for different waste categories the biologically productive land
required for waste assimilation can be obtained, which means the ecological footprint of waste
generation.
Ways to reduce the waste foot print:

The section points outs some simple ways to reduce the waste foot print (G. Matthew,1994).
Purchase products which require less packaging and materials.
Use reusable bags rather than plastic bags.
Buy things only to our need
Stick on to environment friendly products
Reduce Reuse Recycle. Recycle all material possible.
Avoid use of disposables and individually wrapped single servings.
Compost the food and organic waste.
Create awareness among people
Dispose the waste generated at the source itself rather than carry to distant places for
disposal.
Conclusion:
Nowadays the greed among the various manufacturing companies and inconsistent demands of
the consumer have given way to turning a blind eye to the environment destruction due to waste
disposal we bare down upon our finite planet. Moreover people are having a tendency to
purchase things not according to the demand. They are not bothered about the waste generation
from their own houses and work places. But rather they blame the authorities for not disposing
these wastes. The authorities can give a technical solution to disposal. But the actual problem
settles or comes under control when we consider where the waste comes from and not simply
where it is going. That is, we individuals have to change our mind set. Individuals or households
or enterprises should calculate the amount of waste generation and their impact on the
Page 26
environment. And this must be compared with the biocapacity of our location in which we lives
to assimilate the per capita waste generation. The waste foot printing technique is such a
quantitative tool which can assess the individual impact of earth due to the waste generation.
Taxation based on waste footprint, or incentives for low waste foot print or restricting the
maximum allowable waste footprint in a location by proper regulations, can reduce the waste
management problems to a great extend.
References:
R. Ajayakumar Varma, Technology options for treatment of municipal solid waste with special reference to
Kerala Available online www.sanitation.kerala.gov.in/pdf /workshop/techno_2. pdf.
B.Lexington (2007) Waste Footprint: Introduction, Available online www.triplepundit.com /2007 /12/ wastefootprint-introduction/
M. Salequzzaman (2006). Ecological Footprint of Waste Generation: A Sustainable Tool for Solid Waste
Management of Khulna City Corporation of Bangladesh Environmental Science Discipline, Khulna University,
Bangladesh.
G. Matthew (1994). Recycling and the Politics of Urban Waste. Earthscan Publications, London
Page 27
A Review On Bioreactor Landfills

Hema M1, S Usha2, Lija M Paul3
1
UG Student, SNGCE, Kadayiruppu.

2
Professor, SNGCE, Kadayiruppu.
3
Associate Professor, SNGCE, Kadayiruppu.
email ID : hema03nov92@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Land filling is the most common means of disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW),
especially in foreign countries. Bioreactor landfills are MSW landfills that provide favourable
conditions for microbes to biologically stabilize waste within a relatively short period of time.
This is done by leachate recirculation, introduction of additional moisture and enhancing other
factor that promote bioactivity. Stabilization occurs in 5 to 10 years as compared to 30 to 100
years in a conventional landfill. During stabilization, waste mass is lost through the production of
landfill gas. The resulting landfill mass, consisting of non biodegradable waste (metal, plastic,
glass) as well as residual biodegradable materials, will settle, decreasing volume of placed
material.
Based on waste biodegradation mechanisms, different kinds of bioreactor landfills including
anaerobic bioreactors, anaerobic bioreactors and aerobic-anaerobic bioreactors have been
constructed and operated worldwide. In an anaerobic bioreactor landfill, moisture is added to the
waste and biodegradation occurs in the absence of oxygen and enhances rates of methane
production as a biogas fuel. An aerobic bioreactor landfill addition of air and moisture to help
promote aerobic activity and waste production. The hybrid technique utilizes both aerobic and
anaerobic methods to accelerate waste degradation. The design of bioreactor landfills requires a
careful assessment of several engineering issues such as leachate/moisture distribution, waste
degradation and gas generation, waste settlement and stability of waste slopes.
1. INTRODUCTION
The generation of solid waste has become an increasingly important global issue over the
last decade due to the escalating growth in world population and large increase in waste
production. This increase in solid waste generation poses numerous questions regarding the
Page 28
adequacy of conventional waste management systems and their environmental effects. Landfill
disposal is the most commonly used waste management method worldwide. A bioreactor landfill
is a municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill that uses enhanced biochemical processes to transform
and stabilize the decomposable organic waste within a short period of time, i.e. typically 5 to 10
years, as compared to the long time, typically 30 to 100 years, required for conventional or 'dry
tomb' landfills. Landfill stabilization means that the measurable environmental parameters such
as landfill gas constitution, leachate composition etc, remain at steady levels. Based on the
biodegradation process, the bioreactor landfills can be classified as anaerobic, aerobic, hybrid
and facultative. Bioreactor features may be incorporated into any new landfill design.
2. BIOREACTOR LANDFILL TYPES
2.1. Anaerobic Bioreactor
The Anaerobic Bioreactor seeks to accelerate the degradation of waste by optimizing
conditions for anaerobic bacteria. In these landfills, a collection of anaerobic bacteria are
responsible for the conversion of organic wastes into organic acids and ultimately into methane
and carbon dioxide. Anaerobic conditions develop naturally in nearly all landfills without any
intervention. The waste in typical landfills contains between 10 and 25 percent water. Generally,
to optimize anaerobic degradation, 35 to 40 percent moisture is required. Moisture is typically
added in the form of leachate through a variety of delivery systems. However, the amount of
leachate produced at many sites is insufficient to achieve optimal moisture conditions in the
waste. Additional sources of moisture such as sewage sludge, storm water, and other nonhazardous liquid wastes may therefore be necessary to increase the leachate available for
recirculation. As the moisture content of the waste approaches optimal levels, the rate of waste
degradation increases, which in turn leads to an increase in the amount of landfill gas produced.
Also observed is an increase in the density of the waste. While the rate of gas production in an
anaerobic bioreactor can be twice as high as a normal landfill, the duration of gas production is
significantly shorter. Because of this accelerated production, gas collection systems at bioreactor
landfills must be capable of handling a higher peak volume but need do so for a shorter period of
time.
2.2. Aerobic Bioreactor
The Aerobic Bioreactor seeks to accelerate waste degradation by optimizing conditions
for aerobes. Aerobes are organisms that require oxygen for cellular respiration. Aerobes require
Page 29
sufficient water to function just as anaerobes do. However, aerobic organisms can grow more
quickly than anaerobes because aerobic respiration is more efficient at generating energy. So, the
aerobic degradation can proceed faster than anaerobic degradation. In landfills aerobic activity is
promoted through injection of air or oxygen into the waste mass. It is also possible to apply a
vacuum to the waste mass and pull air in through a permeable cap. Liquids are typically added
through leachate recirculation, with the need for additional sources of moisture even more acute
than for anaerobic reactors. The aerobic process does not generate methane.
2.3. Facultative Bioreactor
The Facultative Bioreactor combines conventional anaerobic degradation with a
mechanism for controlling the high ammonia concentrations that may develop when liquids are
added to the landfill. In this system leachate containing elevated levels of ammonia is treated
using the biological process of nitrification. The nitrification process converts the ammonia in the
leachate to nitrate. The treated leachate is then added to the landfill. Here certain microorganisms
including the facultative bacteria can use the nitrate in the absence of oxygen for respiration. This
process, called denitrification, can result in the production of nitrogen gas (N2), which effectively
removes nitrogen from the system. As with other forms of bioreactor landfills, the facultative
bioreactor requires adequate moisture levels to function optimally
3. LANDFILL LEACHATE
Leachate is a liquid that has percolated through solid waste and has extracted, dissolved
and suspended materials that may include potentially harmful substances. The quantity of
leachate seeping from the landfill is proportional to the buildup of leachate within the landfill,
alternatively known as leachate mould. It can cause serious problems it can lead to contamination
of soil, ground water and surface water if not properly treated. An effective method for the
treatment of the leachate is to collect and re-circulate the leachate through the landfill. This
increases the landfill's moisture content, which in turn increases the rate of biological degradation
of landfill, the biological stability of the landfill and the rate of methane recovery from the
landfill. During leachate re-circulation, the leachate is returned to a lined landfill for reinfiltration into the municipal solid waste. This is considered as a method of leachate control
because, as the leachate continues to flow through the landfill, it is treated through biological
Page 30
process, precipitation and absorption. The different methods of leachate introduction are direct
application, spray irrigation, infiltration ponds, subsurface trenches or wells.
4. TECHNOLOGIES OF ENHANCING DEGRADATION
Stabilization means that the environmental performance measurement parameters (LFG
composition, generation rate and leachate constituent concentrations) remain at steady levels and
should not increase in the event of any partial system failures beyond 5 to 10 years of bioreactor
process implementation.
The effects of the following technologies are evaluated according to these aspects.
4.1. Leachate Re-circulation And Moisture Control
Moisture control, including moisture content and movement is essential for landfill
operation. Through leachate re-circulation, liquid movement distributes the inocula, minimizes
local shortages of nutrients, provides better contact between insoluble substances, soluble
nutrients and the microorganisms, dilutes potential toxins and transfers heat.
4.2. Inocula Addition
Municipal sewage sludge, animal manure, septic tank sludge and old MSW have been
recommended as potential inocula. The addition of sludge to MSW have both positive and
negative effects in biodegradation. Leachate re-circulation with pH control and sludge seeding
enhances biological stabilization of organic pollutants in the leachate and increases the biogas
generation rates over a span of few months rather than years.
4.3. Particle Size
The waste shredding could lead to rapid oxygen utilization, increase rate of waste
decomposition and lead to early methane production. MSW shredding to particle size in the
range of 250 to350 mm produced 32% more methane after 90 days than MSW with 100 to 150
mm particle sizes; and 100 to 150 mm particle sizes produced 16 times as much methane as a
finely shredded MSW of less than 25 mm particle size.
4.4. Temperature Control
Optimum higher temperatures results in faster rates of gas production and refuse
stabilization. In conventional landfills without leachate re-circulation, stabilization occurs at 2530 degrees, whereas in bioreactor landfill, leachate re-circulation increases the temperature and
stabilization occurs at35-40 degrees.
Page 31
4.5 Lift Design

MSW is usually disposed off in 2 or 3 lifts with or without daily covers. Increased MSW
compaction reduces the ease with which moisture can move through the waste. Application of
daily or intermediate cover of low permeability can lead to horizontal movement of leachate and
potential for leachate ponding or side seeps. Hence, though a lift design without a daily cover is
suggested, in an actual bioreactor landfill, daily cover is used to improve the access to the
landfill, reduce blowing away of waste, reduce odours, reduce the health risks and reduce the
potential for landfill fires.
5. WASTE SETTLEMENT
After MSW is disposed of in the landfills, the thickness of the waste layer decreases with
time because of the biodegradation process. The waste composition and the biodegradation
process has great variations throughout the entire mass of the landfill. Hence the landfill
settlement follows a non-uniform pattern. Differential settlement of the waste can cause great
devastation to ant structure erected on the landfill . It can also lead to problems such as surface
ponding, development of cracks and failure of cover system, including tearing of geomembrane
and damage of gas collection and drainage pipe. Hence the ability to predict settlement becomes
a key issue in the design and construction of landfills. Soil consolidation theory alone cannot be
employed for settlement analysis as the biodegradation processes are critical factors affecting
landfill settlement. Theoretically, waste decomposition can cause settlement in the order of 30 to
40% of the original landfill depth, and on an average, settlement of about 15 to 20% of the
original landfill depth is expected due to waste decomposition.
6. SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
Waste stability is a critical component of bioreactor design. The addition of significant
amounts of liquids increases the total weight of the waste mass and affects the structural
characteristics of the waste mass. The addition of liquids adds weight to the waste mass but does
not contribute to increased shear strength. During liquid recirculation, pore pressures and fluid
volumes decrease and waste shear strength changes should be accounted for in the design.
Selected shear strength values are needed for the waste, liner system interfaces and subgrade.
These values are significant for calculating the factor of safety against failure since they
ultimately represent the stabilizing forces of the landfill.
Page 32
7. ADVANTAGES OF BIOREACTOR LANDFILLS
Enhance the LFG generation rates.
Leachate quality and environmental impact.
Production of end product that does not need land filling.
Overall reduction of landfilling cost.
Reduction in leachate treatment capital and operating cost.
Reduction in the post closure care and maintenance.
Overall reduction of the contaminating life span of landfill.
8. CONCLUSIONS
Bioreactor landfills are MSW landfills that provide favourable conditions for microbes to
biologically stabilize waste within a relatively short period of time. During stabilization, waste
mass is lost through the production of landfill gas. The resulting landfill mass, consisting of non
biodegradable waste (metal, plastic, glass) as well as residual biodegradable materials, will settle,
decreasing volume of placed material. Leachate re-circulation, inocula addition, control on
particle size, proper lift design and temperature control can lead to more rapid waste
decomposition, stabilization and settlement. Waste settlement analysis is very critical for the
design and operation of bioreactor landfills. The stability of the slopes also plays an important
role in the design of bioreactor landfills.
The main advantages of the bioreactor landfills include proper treatment of leachate,
enhancing the gas production and accelerated waste stabilization. There are some limitations to
this technology. The re-circulation of leachate increases the water head on the bottom liner which
may enhance the leakage of leachate. Also, the addition of air in aerobic bioreactors increases the
chances of fire compared to the conventional landfills, these require more construction and
operation costs. There are currently more than three thousand bioreactors in the United States.
As compared to many developed countries, the concept of bioreactor landfill operation is still
relatively very new to India. Currently, Delhi has a bioreactor landfill that has a capacity of 6000
tons per day
9. REFERENCES
1. Krishna R Reddy (2006), "Geotechnical Aspects Of Bioreactor Landfills",
Geoindex, pp79-94.
2. M.Wraith, X.Li and H.Jin (2005), "Bioreactor Landfills: State-Of-The-Art Review", Emirates Journal For
Engineering Research, Vol. 10(I), pp 1-14.
3. M.A.Wraith (2003), "Solid Waste Management: New Trends In Landfill Design", Emirates Journal For
Engineering Research, Vol. 8(I), pp 61-70.
Page 33
Polymer Sponge Assisted Bacterial Digestion method for Municipal

Solid Waste Management
Geevarghese George
B. Tech Student,
Department of Polymer Science and Engineering,
CUSAT, Cochin
e-mail Id: thatgeeman@gmail.com
Abstract:
The major contribution to Municipal Solid Wastes (MSW) in India is from Plastics
and Organic materials. With rising urbanization and change in lifestyle and food habits,
the amount of municipal solid waste has been increasing rapidly and its composition
changing. There are different categories of waste generated, each take their own
time to degenerate. Organic materials may take up to three weeks for degradation
and Plastics may take up to one million years (data from National Solid Waste Association of
India).
There is no direct process that helps in biological degradation of these waste materials,
especially the volume of plastic waste produced such as PET bottles and PE carry bags, when it
comes to waste management. This led to the research on biological mechanisms using
easily cultivatable bacteria as an aid to biodegrade both polymers and organic materials.
The research involves the cultivation of several colonies of bacteria capable of digesting
polymers and organic waste; the development of a single/combination of biodegradable
polymer system capable of providing required conditions for the growth of the microbes.
This system aims to aid the biodegradation of approximately 70% of the total
Municipal
Solid
Waste
(MSW)
composition
in
India.
This
research
method
involves the use of a patented technology for the manufacture of micro-pored

polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and poly hydroxyethylmethacrylate (pHEMA) based thin
(micro
between
scale)
the
sponge
outer
layers,
environment
which
and
acts
the
as
isolated
the
medium
system,
of
within
separation
which
the
degradation takes place. Plastic Eating microbes, were developed by a group of 12th grade
Page 34
students at Magee Secondary School, British Columbia in 2013. The mechanisms followed by
the Plastic Eating microbes were studied and the conditions for growth of the latter type of
microbes were provided within the system, which degrades waste contained in the system.
Key Words: Biopolymers, PVA, pHEMA, plastic eating bacteria, waste management,
water absorption, water retraction.
Introuction:
Microorganisms are microscopic organisms of single celled or multi celled structure including
bacteria, algae, and fungi. The only microorganism that we are interested in this research
paper is a class of microbe called bacteria. They may be defined as a kingdom
of prokaryotic microorganisms, i.e. microorganisms that lack a membrane bound
nucleus, they are considered vital in recycling nutrients, putrification etc, in short
they
help
sustain
life!
They
are
found
to
inhabit
in
soil,
water,
radioactive
wastes, plants and animals, they can survive even at the deepest part of earths oceans the
Marina Trench.
Bacteria may be again classified into Aerobic- that requires oxygen for growth - or
Anaerobic-that does not require oxygen for growth- types. These bacterial types
are considered capable of degrading both polymers and organic materials by enzyme
attack at the chemical bonds, which is utilized in this research. An anaerobic
bacterium needs an oxygen scarce environment for their growth and propagation.
This
may
be
done
in
laboratories
using
Glove
box
technique
in
reducing
medium. But, this research involves the use of a method similar to anaerobic microbial
growth used in landfills.
In this research, a certain class of aerobic/anaerobic bacteria is cultivated in a system to aid the
degradation of major contributors to MSW. The major misconception among environmentalists
is that polymer/plastic products are the main contributors to environmental pollution.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that only 13% of the MSW is from plastic
products and 60% from organic wastes. It is still unclear to many that plastics can be of
Biodegradable or Non-Biodegradable types depending on the degradability of the polymer.
Page 35
This research introduces a new technique which makes use of industrial quality biodegradable
plastic sponge and predetermined classes of bacterium together to degrade all plastics branded as
non-biodegradable. The plastic sponge layer used in this method functions as a water absorber as
well as a water retention medium, while providing an environment for the growth of bacteria in
it.
Biodegradable polymers used to manufacture the sponges break down and lose their initial
integrity, depending on the surrounding environment in which the polymer is placed at. They ate
considered non-toxic, capable of maintaining good mechanical integrity until degraded, and
capable of controlled rates of degradation. These polymers are normally synthesized by ring
opening polymerization, while leaving provision for biomedical engineers to tailor the polymer
for slow degradation.
A typical waste management system in a low- or middle-income country like India includes the
following elements:
Waste generation and storage
Segregation, reuse, and recycling at the household level
Primary waste collection and transport to a transfer station or community bin
Street sweeping and cleansing of public places
Management of the transfer station or community bin
Secondary collection and transport to the waste disposal site
Waste disposal in landfills.
Open dumping is the most widely practiced method for waste disposal. It can be defined as a
land disposal site at which solid wastes are disposed of in a manner that pollute the
environment, are susceptible to open burning, and are exposed to the elements, vectors, and
scavengers. These practices pose a reasonable probability of adverse effects on health and on
the environment, which calls for the need of a technologically advanced waste management
system for a sustainable future.
Objectives of Research Paper:
1. To develop a low cost, customer end product that helps in bacteria aided
Page 36
biodegradation.
2. To reduce the complications associated with conventional degradation processes.
3.
To develop a new method to minimize the adverse effects on health or the
environment due to MSWs.
The concept was developed from scratch with the guidance of our Departmental Head, the
required system properties and materials to be used came from previous knowledge from our
bachelors courseware and online theoretical literatures.
Implementation and Processes Involved:
Mechanism of Polymer Degradation: Generally, the adherence of microorganisms on
the surface of the plastics followed by the colonization of the exposed surface is the
major mechanisms involved in the microbial degradation of plastics. The enzymatic
attack takes place in the next step - the catalyzation of the hydrolytic cleavage of the
polymer substrate degradation into low molecular weight oligomers, dimers and
monomers and finally mineralized to humus, CO2 and H2O.
The system made using the combination of biodegradable polymer sponges that support
microbial growth is subjected to a reduced rate of degradation than that of the waste
within it, so that microbial enzymatic action can take place effectively. This new
bacteria-based degradation process converts plastic fed into the system to PHA
(Polyhydroxyalkanoates) which is easily degradable by known classes of bacteria by the
above said mechanism.
Occurrence and Screening of Polymer-degrading Microorganisms: The occurrence
and biodiversity of polymer degrading microorganisms vary depending on the
environment, such as soil, sea, compost, activated sludge, etc.)
The clear zone method with agar plates is a widely used technique for screening
polymer degraders and analyzing their degradation potential towards a particular
polymer. Degradation proceeds by the excretion of enzymes by the microorganisms,
which diffuse through the polymer and degrade the polymer into water soluble
Page 37
materials. This forms halo zones around the microbial colonies, and confirms the
degradation capability of the microbe.
It has been reported that 39 bacterial strains of the classes Firmicutes and
Proteobacteria can degrade the polymers used to prepare the sponge layers.
Anaerobically generated agents such as Ralstonia eutropha, Halomonas or Aerobically
generated agents such as Pseudomonas or Azotobacter or Acinetobacter can be
cultivated in the system, which facilitates degradation of both plastic and organic
wastes in a single enclosed system. Acinetobacter is known to degrade low molecular
weight PE based products efficiently over time, while the mechanism for degrading
high molecular weight PE products requires further study.
Requirements for Bacterial Digestion of Plastics: When plastics are used as
substrates for microorganisms, evaluation of biodegradability should not just be based
on their chemical structure, but also on the basis of their physical properties (melting
point, glass transition temperature, crystallanity, storage modulus etc). Regarding
microbial and their enzymatic degradation, we will discuss them from two sides: one
aspect is based on microbial (enzyme) characteristics and the other is on characteristics
of plastics.
Microbial characteristics imply distribution and kinds of microorganisms, as well as
their growth conditions (such as pH, temperature, moisture content, oxygen, nutrients,
etc) and the types of enzymes (intercellular and extracellular enzyme, exo- or endocleavage types.)
When a plastic is characterized, their chemical properties, physical properties, both
primary and higher order structures should be considered. The surface conditions
(surface area, hydrophobic properties) of plastics also influence the biodegradation of
plastics by the microbial and enzymatic process
Materials for Polymer Sponge System: Water retention and water absorption
properties of the polymer sponge helps in the cultivation of bacteria within the capsule.
These properties cant be achieved together in a single polymer so right blends of
biodegradable polymer concentrations are required for the preparation of the capsule.
Page 38
Poly-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (pHEMA) reinforced with Cloisite (montmorillonite

based layered clay) is prepared using in-situ polymerization technique using a patented
mechanism. Along with high water retention properties provided by pHEMA, Cloisite
adds excellent recyclability, modulus, flame resistance, lower density, and high clarity
to the reinforced nanocomposite.
PolyHEMA is found to have high hydrophobicity, but due to the hydrophilic

pendant groups it has the tendency to swell and gives high water retention (up to
600%)!
A secondary biodegradable polymer, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), is used to form the outer
layer of the sponge, which improves water absorbability. Together, pHEMA and PVA
performs
the
task
of
absorbing
and
holding
the
water
within
the
system to support microbial growth.

Product Manufacture, Working and Commercialization: Micro-pored pHEMA
reinforced with Cloisite is prepared as a thin sheet and PVA is made to deposit on the
surface of pHEMA-Cloisite nanocomposite.
Page 39
(Deposition of PVA on pHEMA-Cloisite)
(After Deposition)
It is then taken out of the production line and joined at one end, keeping the
other end open for incorporating an air tight sealing mechanism. The product is
made available at an estimated market price of Rs 25 for XXXL polymer sponges
(Industrial use), Rs 2 for L polymer sponges (Household use) and Rs 1 for S polymer
sponges.
Waste filled polymer sponges may be picked up from households/industries through
government agents on a weekly basis and deposited at a common pit. It is not essential
that it should be collected, provided that individuals live in apartments with nearby pits
to
dump
the
filled
polymer
sponge
and
to
ensure
proper
water.
After collection, it is then subjected to water treatment during dry seasons to make
possible the growth of microorganisms in the capsule.
Water is absorbed by the sponge through its micropored surface, and facilitates
microbial
growth.
The intelligent biodegradable polymer system is compounded/modified in such a way

that its surface begins to degrade once the MSW in the capsule has reached 80% of the
total estimated degradation time. Estimate is calculated on the basis of the size of the
volume of the waste and type/mixture of MSW inside the capsule.
Scope for this technique can be outlined as follows: Current mechanisms used for
waste management involves the concept of reduction at source i.e. reduced consumption
of materials and products, followed by direct re-use; Disposal by landfills, that wastes
valuable resources both material and energy, and increases the solid waste in the
Page 40
environment; and Recycling, that sits somewhere between the latter two methods, whose
environmental benefits exceeds the benefits.
All these calls for a smart remedial technology, better than all the three mechanisms
outlined above. Other material specific processes have also been developed in recent
years, which require high capital investment and separate complicated waste segregation
procedures. Plastics from different sources may be polluted with organic effluents
and require further ancillary systems for cleaning and drying steps. They may also have
similar densities which make it more difficult to separate, especially if they are not
labeled at source. All these processes involve high cost.
Recycling mechanisms used involves a separate step of separation and identification of
the polymer and this is done at the consumer end, which may not be reliable always;
using chemical identification methods for separation is found to be expensive.
Future Developments:
Reduction in the rate of polymer sponge degradation to survive several
degradation
cycles of the MSW.
Pretreatment of MSW prior to filling the volume inside the polymer sponge may
be used to improve the capability of the microorganisms generated to degrade
polymers with no sites for attack, Eg: Polyethylene.
Pretreatment may also be used to reduce degradation cycle times.
The time required for degradation of the encapsulated MSW can be reduced by
the use of other techniques such as light induced or thermo oxidative degradation
or modification of MSW chemically prior to encapsulation of the waste.
The main advantage of using polymer sponge assisted bacterial digestion method for municipal
solid waste management is that
The degradation time can be reduced exponentially compared to the landfill

method.
Cost benefits are much higher compared to conventional processes such as

incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, hydrogenation etc.
No harmful emissions unlike in the case of incinerators or landfills.
Page 41
No separate identification step is required
Process is fast and not labor intensive.
No problems encountered if polymers are of same densities or together in a

mix.
Clear cut and simple technology.
References:
Polymers, the Environment and Sustainable Development, Mcgill Publications

Plastics in Environment, by Antony L Andrady
Biodegradable Plastics, journal NCBI
Waste Composition National Solid Waste Association of India (NSWAI),
http://www.nswai.com/
Plastic Eaters TED Talks, http://www.ted.com/
Cultivation of Microbes Isolation of polyethylene plastic degrading-bacteria, Bio
Sciences Journal
Landfills SAGE Journals, http://wmr.sagepub.com/
How Stuff Works Environmental http://science.howstuffworks.com/
Microbes used as plastic eaters Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/
University of Maryland-Lab Instruction Manuals, http://www.umd.edu/
Wiki How, http://wikihow.com/
Page 42
Solid Kitchen Waste Management in the High Ranges

An Experience in Collaboration with Local Self
Government Department
Anoob Sebastian
Dept. of Civil Engineering
Govt. Engineering College Idukki
Idukki, Kerala, India
e-mail Id: anoobseb@gmail.com
Abhilash Suryan
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Govt. Engineering College Idukki
Idukki, Kerala, India
e-mail Id: abhilashsuryan@gmail.com
Abstract:
Food waste is a huge problem globally. The suitable approaches in the management of waste
differ between regions. The present paper shares the experience in collaboration between a local
self government institution and an academic institution in efficiently managing kitchen waste in
the high range region. The pipe compost method was selected as the means of converting the
waste into useful manure. The system was installed in 450 households and the feedback from
most of the benefactors has been positive and encouraging.
Key Words:
Kitchen Waste, Pipe Compost, Solid Waste, Manure, Cow Dung, Jaggery Solution.
Introduction:
Waste management and disposal is a serious issue requiring urgent attention of not only the
administrators but also researchers. Centralized waste disposal had proven to be impractical and
unsuccessful in regions with high population density. There is strong opposition to dumping of
accumulated waste in many places across Kerala. Dumping of waste in public places, roadsides,
rivers and lakes is making serious dents in our track record on public health. Thus effective and
efficient disposal of waste is a major concern of authorities as well as responsible citizens.
The high range regions require particular attention because of the environmental fragility and the
proximity to precious water sources. The present paper discusses the experience of collaboration
between an Institution (Government Engineering College Idukki) and a Local Self Government
Page 43
Department (Vazhathoppu Grama Panchayath, Idukki) in decentralized disposal of waste

generated in the kitchens of households, institution canteens and hotels in the High Range region.
Christened Waste is Wealth, the project proposed a method for proper disposal of the solid
waste generated in kitchens by converting it into an organic fertilizer at the source itself. The
manure generated can be used in the vegetable gardens in the households. The pipe compost
method is adopted for the purpose because of the ease of implementation and the low costs
involved. The project was implemented in 450 households in Ward 5 of the Panchayat. The
project also served to create awareness among the people and the students about the
consequences of solid waste pollution in the high range region.
Geometry and Details of Equipment:
Fig. 1. Geometry and dimensions of pipe and installation
Page 44
The project is simple to implement and is not very expensive. Only two PVC pipes of length
125cm and 20cm diameter are required for a single house. The details and dimensions of the
pipes are shown in Fig. 1
Installation and Operation:
Two ditches having depth 30cm and diameter 50cm are dug at a distance of about 15cm apart
and the pipes are fixed in them. Inclined slits of 5cm width and 45o inclination are cut at the
bottom of the pipe to facilitate proper drainage of water from the waste. The pipe is placed
centrally in the ditch. The portion of the ditch around the pipe is then filled with broken stones or
pebbles. This will facilitate drainage as well as to keep the rats away from the pipe. The pipes are
stuck in a foot-deep trench. It should never be covered tightly. Air circulation is necessary for
turning the waste into manure that can be taken out by pulling the pipe out of the trench and
pushing out the contents.
Fig. 2. Installation of the pipes

pipe
Fig. 3. Pouring of kitchen waste into the
Initially only one of the pipes is filled with kitchen waste. Care must be taken to filter out
plastics, paper and clothes from the waste. Initially, 400 ml cow-dung solution (or jaggery
solution) should be poured into the pipe before putting degradable throwaways such as vegetable
waste, fish waste, and leftover food items into the pipe on a daily basis. After one week, the
solution should be poured into the pipe again so as to expedite the bacterial decomposition
process. The first pipe gets completely filled in a months time. After the first pipe gets
Page 45
completely filled, next pipe can be used. Before the second pipe is getting filled, i.e. in about two
months, contents of the first pipe will be converted into a good organic fertilizer. The contents
may be transferred out of the pipe. The pipe may be reinstalled in the ditch again.
The two pipes should always be kept closed to prevent entry of rain water or any other material
without our knowledge. Presence of water can adversely affect the process. Bacteria cannot act
when there is high water content. Most of the kitchen waste has a good amount of water. Hence
water or anything else in liquid form should not be poured into the pipes. The waste gets
decomposed only when there is air circulation in the pipes, and the water content remains not
more than 50 per cent. For example only the solid waste from fish curry should be deposited in
the pipe after separating it from the water contained in it. Special care is taken to install the pipes
in soil where proper drainage of water is possible. Rocky places where water might accumulate
are avoided. Large solid waste should be cut into smaller pieces before depositing in the pipe.
Waste materials such as coconut shells, egg shells, and peels of orange and lemon should be
avoided.
Result and Discussion:
Fig. 4. Results
The pipe compost installations were erected in 450 households under the Vazhathoppu Grama
Panchayat. After the prescribed period of two months all the households were revisited and the
installations were inspected. Feedbacks were collected from the users.
Page 46
The result of the project is illustrated in Fig. 4. About 320 users reported that the waste was
successfully converted into manure. The process was nearing completion in about 80 houses. The
project was reported as a failure in below 50 installations only. In majority of houses where the
project reported unsuccessful, it was observed that they had not properly followed the guidelines.
Conclusions:
A scheme for solid waste management meeting the specific requirements of the high ranges
was selected and implemented in the Vazhathoppu Grama Panchayat of Idukki District in
Kerala. The project was implemented by collaboration between the Panchayat and the NSS Unit
of Govt. Engineering College Idukki. After the prescribed period the sites were inspected and
feedbacks collected from the users. Based on the results of the feedbacks the project is a
success and the pipe compost method can be extended to other high altitude regions to
manage the solid kitchen waste. The project also served the purpose of creating awareness
among the people and the students about efficiently managing the waste. Further studies are
going on for improving the present system.
Acknowledgement:
The project had received financial grant from the Vazhathoppu Grama Panchayat, Idukki
District, Kerala. Authors express their sense of gratitude to the President and the elected
representatives and the officials of Vazhathoppu Grama Panchayat, Idukki and the NSS unit of
Govt. Engineering College,Idukki.
References:
R. A. Varma, Status of Municipal Solid Waste Generation in Kerala and their Characteristics.
R. A. Varma, Technology Options for Treatment of Municipal Solid Waste with Special
Reference to Kerala.
A Majumder, Rural Solid Waste Management, Issues and Action
Page 47
An Environmentally Sound Method For Organic Degradation

Ranjini D S*, Meera Menon, Prof. Lathi Karthi#
*PG Students, #Prof. Department of Civil Engineering
TIST, KERALA
Email Id: 29ranjini@gmail.com*
#
morjanmeera@gmail.com
Abstract:
Waste can be considered as wealth when properly managed. Improper management of waste is
one of the main hindrances of sustainable urban development in India. Thickly populated land
areas of urban region restrict the degradation of biodegradable waste similar to that of non
biodegradable waste. In a state like Kerala the fragmented landholding possesses serious threat in
waste disposal. The disposal of organic wastes from the household, butcher house and hotels and
bakery in public roads, rivers, water bodies etc. is considered as an easy method of waste
disposal by common people. Conventional methods of disposal of garbage like burning,
incineration, landfill, anaerobic composting are hazardous as they produce smoke, carbon
dioxide or leech into soil thereby contaminating both soil and ground water. For sustainable
urban development alternative techniques replacing conventional ones are appreciated for
increasing the efficiency of waste management. A breakthrough for usual method was sort out by
the introduction of a new ecofriendly model named Thumburmuzhi Model Aerobic Composting
Technique (TMACT). It helps in aerobic composting of biodegradable waste, containing high
concentration of nitrogen and can be considered as a new pathway for effective organic waste
management in Kerala. Since aerobic method is used, waste degradation occurs instead of waste
decay which helps in preventing foul smell and growth of health hazard bacteria. This method of
aerobic composting also suits the agro climatic condition of Kerala. The end product of
degradation is organic manure which can be used in fields turning the non valuable waste into
wealth. In this paper the detailed working of the model used in the study of Thumburmuzhi
model shall be dealt with.
Keywords: Waste Management, Garbage, Organic Waste, Aerobic Composting, Sustainable
Urban Development
Page 48
Introduction:
The state of Kerala has been categorised as agro climatic by Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR). Due to these prevailing climatic conditions, there exists much difficult
situation in handling the non green livestock waste. This non green livestock waste may include
mainly kitchen waste, hotel & restaurant waste, butcher house waste, waste from fishery
enterprises etc. The difficulty in handling the non green livestock waste along with the periodic
monsoon in Kerala has caused a great menace in keeping our Gods own country greener.
In our state due to lack of enforcement of legal amendments for proper waste disposal methods
the waste management has become an easy task by dumping or disposing them along the road
side or water bodies. These mishandling of waste causes air, water and land pollution which
could affect the public health. Disposal options include land filling, incineration, ocean disposal
and composting. Among these methods, composting produces a marketable end product which
can be used as manure. This process decreases the weight, volume and water content of waste
and kills pathogens.
In such a context waste management in an eco friendly manner becomes the vital need of the
hour. Aerobic composting is one such method that could be suggested in our land. Hence, the
importance of Thumburmuzhi model using aerobic composting is an effective solution for
organic waste decomposition in the state of Kerala.
Aerobic composting:
Composting is an organised method of producing organic manure by the decomposition of
organic waste. Compost is particularly useful as organic manure which contains plant nutrients
(Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium) as well as micro nutrients which can be utilized for the
growth of plants. Composting can be carried out in two ways i.e., aerobically and anaerobically.
During aerobic composting aerobic micro-organisms oxidise organic compounds to Carbon
dioxide, Nitrite and Nitrate. Carbon from organic compounds is used as a source of energy while
nitrogen is recycled. Due to exothermic reaction, temperature of the mass rises. In anaerobic
decomposition only very small amount of energy is released during the process and the
temperature of composting mass does not increase much. The gases evolved are mainly Methane
and Carbon dioxide. In addition to the advantage of better odour control, the aerobic composting
Page 49
releases more energy with higher temperatures and better drying. Approximately 20 times more
energy is released under aerobic conditions than under anaerobic conditions.
Thumburmuzhy Model:
The Thumboormuzhi Model Aerobic Composting Technique (TMACT) was developed by
Francis Xavier, Professor at Thumboormuzhi Cattle Breeding Farm of Kerala Veterinary and
Animal Sciences University Wayand, Pookod. The research was done in Research Farm of
Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur and in nearby housing units and farmers yard. The
region of Kerala which has agro climatic conditions as stated by ICAR was used as the base for
climatic index.
Apparatus setup:
The following 4 models were chosen for the study of TMACT
Wooden bin of 6ft x 6 ft x 6 ft dimension
Wooden container model with 2ft x 2ft x 2ft dimension
Precast Ferro cement tank of 4ft x 4ft x 4ft dimension
Concrete brick tank with air holed side
The models were kept close to farm building for observations.

Layering technique:
In all the above 4 models the layering of waste was similar. The ambient temperature required for
the decomposition of waste is 30 0 C to 35 0 C and humidity required is 70% to 75%. Fresh cow
dung in 6 inch thickness was layered would act as bacterial consortium for aerobic composting
process. Above this, another 6 inch thickness dry leaves or straw was layered as a source of
carbon which aids the growth of bacterial consortium in the form of heat energy. Then the bin is
filled with organic waste and kept aside for decomposition.
Curing time:
Once the installations were filled as mentioned above, they were left undisturbed for curing. The
filled installations were cured for a period of 90 days (3 months) irrespective of the periodic
climatic conditions in Kerala.
Page 50
Compost testing:
The Compost after being properly mixed and sampled were tested in the Radiotracer laboratory
and other agronomic laboratories of Kerala Agricultural University.
Observations:
The Ferro cement model provided ease in assembling, dismantling and fixing at location. The
brick model (Fig 1) and the wooden bins (Fig 2) even though cheaper have some disadvantages.
The wooden bins were not found durable in the open environment as it was susceptible to termite
attack and self decay especially in monsoon period. The brick models were permanently fixed
type and had the disadvantage in handling and required additional masonry work. In brick
installation the handling of feeder materials and taking out of compost required breaking of walls
which were labour intensive and also expensive.
Fig 1: Brick Model
Fig 2: Wooden Bin
Another observation noticed was that as the size of bin increased beyond 4 ft x 4 ft x 4 ft there
existed a state of non passage of air into the core area which resulted in anaerobic condition.
In accordance with the climatic conditions of Kerala with an average ambient temperature of 28
to 32o C, relative humidity of 70 to 80 % and wind speed of 4 to 5 km/hr, precast ferro cement
bin of size 4 ft x 4ft x 4ft with airspace and grooves, was found to be working well in all climatic
zones utilising the bacterial consortium from cow dung and carbon source from dry leaves, hay,
straw and dry paper bits. To prevent the entry of rain water during monsoon temporary roofing
was provided. Due to the action of bacterial consortium on organic waste a core temperature of
70o C was obtained inside the bin which prevented the growth of pathogens, breeding of flies and
parasites. This temperature had a self limiting cycle after the composting process was over.
Page 51
Thus the ferrocement model of size 4 ft x 4 ft x 4 ft was chosen as Thumburmuzhy Model. It

contained four pillars with grooves on lateral and medial sides so that it can be easily erected and
dismantled (Fig 3). The side bars are 4 cm wide and can be locked in position through the
grooves on the four corner stands (Fig 4). The model requires an initial installation amount of Rs.
10,000.
Fig 3: Ferro cement Thumburmuzhy model
Fig 4: Ferro cement corner pillars

and side bars dismantled
Temperature dependency across the state:

The rate of decomposition of waste was found highly dependent on temperature. It was the major
factor which assisted the bacterial consortium to flourish. After reaching the peak temperature of
65 - 70o C, the temperature level retarded to below 40oc and marked the onset of cooling phase.
The study on average curing time required for the complete decomposition of waste in Kerala
was done by experimenting the model, in district with minimum average temperature and
maximum average temperature. In Wayanad where the average ambient temperature is 28oc, it
was found that the curing time during monsoon period of Thumburmuzhy compost bin has
exceeded upto 120 days. In Trissur and Trivandrum districts during summer season the holding
and curing time was found lowered and got the compost within 50 days time. Hence the
Thumburmuzhy model was fixed for a curing time of 90 days as an average holding time after
analysing the results from various districts.
TEST RESULTS
Table below illustrates the test result of composition of samples tested in the Radio tracer
laboratory of Kerala Agricultural University.
Page 52
Test results of sample

Type of bin
Moisture
pH
N%
P%
K%
Ferrocement Thumburmuzhy model
7.54
6.5
1.96
0.45
0.30
Wooden bin
4.56
7.1
1.68
0.70
0.35
Concrete Brick model
6.37
6.9
2.10
0.60
0.32
Depending on the type of livestock waste the variation in nitrogen level was obtained. The ratio
of carbon to nitrogen was 20 to 30 : 1. The percentage of moisture content in compost mixture
was lowered to 50 to 60 percentage. The weight of organic waste was reduced to 1/3rd of its
initial weight in Thumburmuzhy compost bin within 90 days of time. The ideal pH required for
better microbial degradation should be between 6.5 to 8 and that of finished compost should be
between 6.8 and 8.9. The pH of compost in Thumburmuzhy model was recorded on an average
between 6.5- 7.1 which was in line with the above recommended range.
Conclusion:
The aerobic composting of organic waste has gained acceptance as an alternative to land filling
and incineration. The waste management crisis in the State has already emerged as a single major
development issue. Thus alternative ecofriendly and economically affordable models are
essential for the sustainable development and a clean environment. From the literature reviews, it
was studied that composts are currently utilized in various engineering applications such as
landscaping, erosion control and land reclamation.
References:
Francis, X. (2011). Farm Harms- Living with livestock and withering waste. Key Note address.
Procd. National Symposium on Waste Management- Experiences and Strategies,Thrissur,
Kerala. India ,30.
Mufeed, S., Kafeel A., Gauhar M. and Trivedi, R.C. (2008). Municipal solid waste management
in Indian cities A review. Science Direct, Waste Management, 28, 459467.
Page 53
Sustainable Waste Management

Priyadarsi Das
B TECH (CIVIL ENGINEERING), GATE, ODISHA
IGBC AP
priyadarsidas1@gmail.com
Waste has been dealt with through various techniques since it took its origin in an uncontrollable
quantity. The immediate solution was minimization of waste. This answer was of course
luxurious for a very short span of time. Soon the problem we found out was that minimization of
waste lead to severe other problems along the side track. This was no proper way to deal with the
issue. With the passage of time man found out a greener way to deal with waste. This method can
be called as Sustainable Waste Management. The 3R concept found out has helped us to solve
the problem in an eco-friendly way and this is indeed the only practical way that should be
applied in this field. Reduce the generation of waste at the very point of origin; reuse the portion
of waste that can be put to further use and recycle the proportion of waste for subsequent creation
of products is indeed the ultimate and most efficient technique that can hit back the problem
effectively.
INTRODUCTION:
The term waste refers to unwanted materials which have met their estimated life span and need
to be disposed. In the earlier period, up to the time when the amount of waste generated was
insignificant, the waste had to undergo disposal in its own natural ways. With the massive growth
of urbanization and industrialization, man found the use of various materials in diverse ways thus
producing waste in terms of tons. As a result of this, there was no alternative left other than
finding a proper technique to channelize the waste produced, failing which the further progress of
mankind would have been hampered severely. The process sketched for controlling of this waste
started right from the source of its production and lasted up to the time when it would be
completely disposed off with minimal effects on health and environment. This entire process is
termed as WASTE MANAGEMENT. The following pyramid illustrates the various stages of
waste management process according to their order:
Page 54
COLLECTION AT SOURCE
TRANSPORTATION TO
TREATMENT
PLANT/RECYCLING PLANT
PROCESSING OF WASTE
DISPOSAL/REUSE
PURPOSE AND IMPORTANCE:
Over 160,000 Metric Tons (MT) of municipal solid waste is generated daily in the country. Per
capita waste generation in cities varies from 0.2 kg to 0.6 kg per day depending upon the size of
population. This is estimated to increase at 1.33% annually. The total waste quantity generated
by the year 2047 is estimated to be about 260 million tons per year. It is estimated that if the
waste is not disposed off in
a more systematic manner, more than 1,400 km2 of land, which is equivalent to the size of city of
Delhi, would be required in the country by the year 2047 for its disposal. The Indian industrial
sector generates
an estimated 100 million tons/year of non-hazardous solid wastes, with coal ash from thermal
power stations accounting for more than 70 million tons/year. Over 8 million tons/year of
hazardous waste is generated in India. About 60% of these wastes, i.e., 4.8 million tons/year is
estimated to be recyclable
and the remaining 3.2 million tons/year is non-recyclable. A key development in waste
management is the focus on preventing the production of waste through waste minimization and
the re-use of waste materials through recycling. Thus we have to deal with procurement issues,
where careful selection of materials, suppliers, process redesign for disassembly and reverse
logistics can all reduce the amount of wastes produced or facilitate recycling and re-use.
Page 55
TYPES OF WASTES:
The various types of wastes can be broadly classified into the following order:
WASTE
CONTROLLED
HOUSEHOLD
COMMERCIAL
CLINICAL
UNCONTROLLED
INDUSTRIAL
AGRICULTURAL
RADIOACTIVE
EXPLOSIVE
CONTROLLED WASTE:
Its the waste that requires a waste management license for treatment, transfer and disposal. The
main exempt categories comprise mine, quarry and farm wastes.
UNCONTROLLED WASTE:
Uncontrolled waste is a group of waste types that do not fall into either the controlled, special
or hazardous waste categories.
HOUSEHOLD:
It includes waste from household collection rounds, waste from services such as street sweeping,
bulky waste collection, hazardous household waste collection, litter collections, household
clinical waste collection and separate garden waste collection, waste from civic amenity sites and
wastes separately collected for recycling or composting through bring/drop off schemes and at
civic amenity sites.
INDUSTRIAL:
Waste from any factory and from any premises occupied by an industry (excluding mines and
quarries).
COMMERCIAL:
Waste arising from any premises which are used wholly or mainly for trade, business, sport
recreation or entertainment, excluding municipal and industrial waste.
CLINICAL:
Page 56
Its waste consisting wholly or partly of human or animal tissue, blood or other body fluids,
excretions, drugs or other pharmaceutical products, swabs or dressings, or syringes, needles
or other sharp instruments, being waste which, unless rendered safe, may prove hazardous to
any person coming into contact with it; and any waste arising from medical, nursing, dental,
veterinary, pharmaceutical or similar practices, investigation, treatment, care, teaching or
research, or the collection of blood for transfusion, being waste which may cause infection to
any person coming into contact with it.
AGRICULTURAL:
Agricultural waste therefore includes a range of waste streams that originate from agricultural or
horticultural establishments, for example, agricultural plastics and packaging waste, empty
pesticide containers, clinical waste, tires, old machinery and oil.
RADIOACTIVE:
Radioactive wastes are wastes that contain radioactive material. Radioactive wastes are
usually by-products of nuclear
power generation
and
other
applications
of nuclear
fission or nuclear technology, such as research and medicine. Radioactive waste is hazardous to
most forms of life and the environment.
EXPLOSIVE:
Explosive waste includes any device or material which either is chemically or otherwise
energetically unstable, which can produce a sudden expansion of the material and is
accompanied by the production of heat or a large change in pressure. Explosive waste includes,
but is not limited to, fireworks, commercial explosives, military explosives, homemade explosive
devices, small and large ammunition and pressurized gas vessels, and cylinders.
SSTAINABLE WASTE MANAGEMENT:

REDUCE
REUSE
RECYCLE
WASTE MANAGEMENT
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REDUCE
RESTRICTING THE USE OF DISPOSABLE PRODUCTS
Business types that frequently use disposable products, such as paper cups and plastic bags, are
either restrained from the extensive use of such products or are prohibited from giving them out
to costumers for free. For example, the use of disposable cups, plates, bowls (synthetic resins,
foil), chopsticks, toothpicks, and plastic tablecloths can be restricted in restaurants and cafeterias.
In large shops and in wholesale and retail stores, the provision of disposable bags free of charge
can be prohibited.
PREVENTING PACKAGING WASTE GENERATION:
Reduction of unnecessary packaging materials wasted during transport, storage, handling, and
usage can be done. Packaging materials are intended to be replaced with recyclable
environmentally friendly materials, as well as packaging instructions (packaging dimensions and
packing sequence) that reduce the use of packaging materials.
FOOD WASTE REDUCTION:
More than 95% of food waste can be recycled. Businesses can voluntarily run quality
certification and damage compensation programs for the purpose of food waste reduction.
WASTE CHARGE POLICY:
This is the polluter pays principle, the policy obliges the manufacturers and importers of
products, materials, and containers that may be hazardous or are difficult to recycle and they
have to share the cost of processing the waste.
EXTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY:
These are the results that can be achieved by increasing public awareness on garbage
separation and by actively collaborating with manufacturers and recyclers for an improved
separate disposal system, expanded and advanced recycling facilities, and compulsory
recycling scheme.
Page 58
REUSE
If you can't prevent waste, you can try to get the most out of it by reusing items or giving them to
someone else that can reuse them.
Reuse means using items as many times as possible, which helps to save resources. For example
you can take your unwanted items to local charity shops to be reused by others.
REUSE MOBILE PHONE BATTERIES AND TONER CARTRIDGES
Mobile phone batteries and toner cartridges can be collected locally and refurbished for reuse.
REUSE PLASTIC BAGS AND BOXES
Plastic bags and boxes can often be reused for carrying shopping and other items. Why not try
and remember to use your bags and boxes again the next time you go shopping?
REUSE RECHARGEABLE BATTERIES
Rechargeable batteries are available from most major electrical stores. These batteries can be
recharged and reused numerous times and are good for frequently used appliances.
REUSE FURNITURE AND WHITE GOODS
A number of organizations collect furniture and white goods items such as Microwaves, Electric
Cookers, Sofas & Armchairs, Towels, Crockery, Cutlery, Pots and Pans, Cooking Utensils,
Electric Kettles, Basins, pails, dustpans and brushes.
RECYCLE
RECYCLING USED ELECTRONIC APPLIANCES AND CELL PHONES:
This is an effective recycling system for throwaway electronic appliances and cell phones.
Manufacturers and importers of 10 kinds of electronic appliances, including TVs, refrigerators,
and washing machines, must abide by the law, which restricts the content of 6 hazardous
chemicals including lead, mercury, and cadmium when designing and manufacturing their
Page 59
products. In addition, they must modify product designs and material quality to improve
recyclability, and must collect and recycle more than a certain percentage of the total amounted
released. Manufacturers and importers should provide useful information concerning the material
composition of their products and dismantling methods to recyclers.
SCRAP AUTOMOBILES RECYCLING:
Automobile manufacturers and importers have to abide by the regulations that limit the content
of 4 hazardous chemicals, including lead, mercury, and cadmium, when designing and
manufacturing automobiles. Recycling methods and standards appropriate for each step in
processing scrap automobiles, including handling scrap automobiles and recycling automobile
parts should foster environmentally friendly recycling. In particular, scrapped automobile parts
such as anti-freeze solution, which may cause changes in climate and the eco-system, should not
be recycled.
CONSTRUCTION WASTE RECYCLING:
Construction waste can be processed in an environmentally friendly manner. In particular, since

asphalt concrete waste can be recycled as a resource with high added value relatively easily, the
separation, storage and reuse of asphalt concrete waste to increase the recycling rate to above
50%, corporate and private contractors working on public constructions can use a certain amount
of the recycled concrete during the time of construction.
RESOURCE RECYCLABILITY EVALUATION:
In order to restrain waste generation and resource consumption, and to reduce the burden on the
environment by recycling and retrieving energy from waste, and then processing it in an
environmentally friendly manner, the material should be checked during the time of manufacture
for recyclability.
WASTE-TO-ENERGY:
o Facility Expansion and Policy Improvement
Converting waste into energy is a powerful solution to the issue of climate change, because it
substitutes fossil fuel and restrains methane emissions. Waste-to-energy initiatives, such as the
production and development of refuse-derived fuel (RDF) generated from inflammable waste and
biogas from organic waste is an attractive solution in the present day scenario.
o Low-CO2 Green Village Building
Rural farming and fishing communities and small towns have large amounts of potential
resources that can be used as energy, including inflammable and organic wastes, forest resources,
and by-products from farming and fishing.
Page 60
PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT:
Plastic waste can be processed in the following manner:

o We can derive fuel from the plastic waste
o Plastic waste can be used for construction of roads
o Value added products can be manufactured with improved performance from
plastic waste
Page 61
CONCLUSION:
Waste is an issue that affects us all. A modernized approach to waste management marks a shift
away from thinking about waste as an unwanted burden to seeing it as a valued resource.
Sustainability of waste management is the key to providing a continuous and effective service
that satisfies the needs of all the stakeholders and end users. Waste management differs for
different types of wastes and for wastes in different geographical locations such as urban, rural
and hilly areas. While the management of non-hazardous domestic waste is the joint
responsibility of the citizens and the local government, the management of commercial,
industrial and hazardous waste is the responsibility of the waste generators like commercial
establishments, healthcare establishments, industries and the pollution control boards.
Sustainable waste management can be achieved through strategic planning, institutional capacity
building, fiscal incentives, techno-economically viable technologies, public-private partnerships,
community participation and such others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
en.wikipedia.org
How to develop a waste management and disposal strategy by CIPS Knowledge Works
Being wise with waste: the EUs approach to Waste Management by European
Commission
Waste management in India by EBTC
Page 62
Study on Waste Management in Visakhapatnam using RIAM

analysis
V R Sankar Cheela1*, Basil B2, K. Sai Kiran3, N.Sri Harsha3
Assistant Professor, MVGR College of Engineering, Vizianagaram
2
Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
3
Under-Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, MVGR College of Engineering
*Author for Correspondence. Tel: +918500897538, E-mail: vrsankarcheela@gmail.com
Abstract:
In the present study, Visakhapatnam dumping yard at marikavalasa was considered as a study
area where, municipal solid waste compost yard occupies 95 acres. It is receiving 850-900 tons
of waste per day and the height of dump is around 10 15 m above ground level. Municipal
Solid Waste (MSW) generation is predicted to be 880 tons/day for the year 2013. Sampling was
done in accordance with ASTM D5231-92 ( ASTM 2008). The waste samples were segregated
manually onsite with the help of rag pickers present there. Solid waste constitutes 45.75%
vegetables & leaves, 6.48% of paper, 4.97% of paper, 6% stone and boulders, 37.32% of ash and
fine earth and 3% metal scrap, glass and ceramics. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was
conducted through multidisciplinary assessment of the baseline status of the site specific
environment for converting open dumping yard into recreational park using RIAM tool. The
impact assessment took into consideration the project activities and their interactions with
environmental components. Based on the study, secured landfill along with composting was
found to be economically, technically and environmentally sustainable.
Keywords: Municipal Solid waste, Environmental Impact Assessment, Sanitary landfill,

Composting
Page 63
Introduction:
Municipal solid waste management in India has been categorized under Item 7(i) as per Ministry
of Environment and Forests. The Municipal solid wastes (Management and Handling) rules,
2000 and Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 1991 abet proponents in selecting project sites
located in ecologically fragile or Coastal Regions sensibly by considering diverse environmental
components into consideration. The setting up of these projects requires an Environmental
clearance from the Government of India which is mandated by the EIA notification dated
September 14, 2006.
Waste disposal is the ultimate phase of the waste management cycle. About 90% of the
municipal waste collected by the civic authorities in India is dumped in low-lying areas outside
the city/town limits, which have no provision for leachate and gas collection and management.
As a result, leachate containing heavy metals finds its way to the underground water, rendering it
unfit for drinking. The landfill gas flee into the atmosphere, toting up to greenhouse effect, which
otherwise could be used as refuse derived fuel. SWM can be an income generating activity with
cost benefits. In the present paper, an attempt was made to understand characteristics of solid
waste being generated in the study area and scrutinize a choice of way out available to dispose
waste safe and sound recommending the same to reduce distress on developing a policy towards
integrated solid waste management.
Municipal solid waste of about 42 million metric tonnes is estimated to be generated in Indian
cities with a per capita waste generation ranging between 0.2 and 0.6 kg per day which was
increased by 1.3% per year due to social, economical and cultural changes. The physical and
chemical characteristics examination showed that about 80% of the waste is compostable.
Therefore, the improvement of apposite technology for utilization of wastes is essential to curtail
adverse impinge on health and environment
Study Area
Visakhapatnam is also known as City of Destiny, is one of the swiftly emergent metropolitan
cities in south India. The city covers the local planning area of 544sq. kms. The Greater
Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) consists of Municipal Corporation of
Visakhapatnam, 32 merged villages and Gajuwaka municipality. The population of
Page 64
Visakhapatnam as per 2001 census is 9.69 lakhs while that in 2011 is 17.06 lakhs so the growth
of population was 79% during 2001 to 2011. The GVMC is concerned with the prime areas of
public health, solid waste management including health care waste, sanitation and education. It is
active in working with non-governmental and voluntary organizations of all stakeholders in a
participatory approach to develop good solid waste management methodologies.
Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix (RIAM)
The RIAM is tool to analyze the various components and their impacts on each other. The results
are presented in both graphically and component wise enabling the end users to analyze and
assess the results qualitatively and quantitatively which considerably reduces the time factor in
EIA process. Table 1 describes the various assessment criterias considered for the study.
TABLE 1: Assessment Criteria
Criteria
Scale
A1: Importance of 4
condition
3
Important to national/international interests

Important to regional/national interests
Important to areas immediately outside the local condition
Important only to the local condition
No importance
A2: Magnitude of -3
change/effect
-2
B1: Permanence
Description
Major positive benefit

Significant improvement in status quo
-1
Improvement in status quo
No change/status quo
+1
Negative change to status quo
+2
Significant negative dis-benefit or change
+3
Major dis-benefit or change
Permanent
Page 65
B2: Reversibility
B3: Cumulative
Temporary
No change/not applicable
Irreversible
reversible
Cumulative/synergistic
Non-cumulative/single
1. Scoring System
The scoring system was adopted based on the multiplicative and additive formulae for various
assessment criterias is shown below
(A1) X (A2) = AT
--------- (1)
(B1) + (B2) + (B3) = BT
--------- (2)
(AT) X (BT) = ES
--------- (3)
Where A1, A2 are the individual criteria scores for group A; B1, B2, B3are the individual criteria
below scores for group B; AT is the result of multiplication of all group A components scores; BT
is the result of summation of all group B components scores; and ES is the environmental score
for the condition. The conversion of environmental scores into range bands is shown Table 2.
Table 2: Conversion of Environmental Scores to Range Bands
Environmental Score
Range Bands Description of Range Bands
+72 To +108
+E
Major Positive Change/Impacts
+36 To +71
+D
Significant Positive Change/Impacts
+19 To +35
+C
Moderately Positive Change/Impacts
+10 To +18
+B
Positive Change/Impacts
+1 To +9
+A
Slightly Positive Change/Impact
Page 66
No Change/Status Quo/Not Applicable
-1 To -9
-A
Slightly Negative Change/Impacts
-10 To -18
-B
Negative Change/Impacts
-19 To -35
-C
Moderately Negative Change/Impacts
-36 To -71
-D
Significant Negative Change/Impacts
-72 To -108
-E
Major Negative Change/Impacts
2. Environmental Components
RIAM requires specific assessment components to be defined through a process of scoping, and
these environmental components fall into one of four categories, which are defined as follows:
Physical/Chemical (PC): Covering all physical and chemical aspects of the environment.
Biological/Ecological (BE): Covering all biological aspects of the environment.
Sociological/Cultural (SC): Covering all human aspects of environment, along with cultural
aspects.
Economic/Operational (EO): Qualitatively to identify the economic consequences of

environmental change, both temporary and permanent.
Various components considered for impact assessment of site suitability for dumping site are
represented in the table 3 below
Table 3: RIAM components
Physical and Chemical components (PC)
PC1
Construction of the embankment
PC2
Construction of smaller embankments within the landfill
PC3
Drainage of the surface soil with direct discharge to the outlet
PC4
Leaching from the existing landfill into the new landfill
PC5
Collection of leachate in the bottom of the Landfill
PC6
Leaching to the groundwater
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PC7
Treatment of the leachate
PC8
Odours and gaseous emissions
PC9
Dust
PC10
Impacts from increased human activity
Biological and ecological components (BE)

BE1
Impacts on biota
BE2
Damage of habitats
BE3
Aesthetic impact
BE4
Littering
BE5
Effects of the construction of a drainage system along the embankment
BE6
Effects on ground water
BE7
Effects from construction of smaller embankments within the landfill
BE8
Effects of the drainage system at the surface of the filled landfill
Sociological and cultural components (SC)

SC1
Public acceptability
SC2
Work opportunity
SC3
Public health
SC4
Impacts on housing
SC5
Population growth
SC6
Dust from landfill affecting nearby housing
SC7
Public safety
SC8
Noise from landfill affecting nearby housing
Economical and operational components (EO)

EO1
Construction costs of embankment
Page 68
EO2
Construction costs of smaller embankment within the landfill
EO3
Construction costs of surface drainage System
EO4
Construction costs for drainage system in the bottom of the landfill
EO5
Costs for collection of Leachate and pumping
EO6
Costs of treatment plant
EO7
Costs for deposition of sludge from treatment Plant
EO8
Health costs to community
EO9
Operation and maintenance cost
EO10
Recycling
EO11
Traffic
EO12
Property value loss
Results and Discussion

i.
Physical Characteristics of MSW
The mean values of the physical constituents of MSW samples collected from Marikavalasa
dumpyard are represented in the figure 1 below. Physical characterization of the waste indicated
that 45.75% of organic matter waste including vegetables, fruits generated from various socioeconomic zones in the city. 6.48% of paper, 4.97 % of plastic and 0.1% of rubber and glass
represent separation and segregation of waste for recycling. 37.32% of fine earth and ash is due
to continuous burning of the ash by rag picker to recover the metal and ceramics. The slaughter
house at hanumanthavaka in the city contributes major component for the debris. The biomedical
waste is collected separately and incinerated at Maridi Incineration unit.
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0 0
37.32
45.75
6.48
4.97 0.1
Organic matter
4.97 & cardboard
paper
plastics
Figure 1: Physical Characteristics of Solid waste sample

ii.
Chemical characteristics of MSW
The Chemical characteristics of the waste were represented in the Table 4 below. Efficiency of
the waste treatment and processing system is determined by the chemical characteristics of the
waste. Wet moisture content of MSW was observed between 36.6415.56. Calorific value was
found to be low (24991409 kCal/kg) because of the lesser amount of paper and plastic and high
quantity of inert material, making it incompatible for incineration
[2]
. The concentrations of Zinc
(Zn) and Lead (Pb) for MSW, as shown in Table 4, were within the range of the Indian compost
standard of Municipal Solid Waste (Management and Handling) Rules. The basic nature of the
waste sample can be attributing to the fact that Khondalite rock formation induces basic nature
which is the major rock formation in the dumpyard site.
Table 4: Chemical characteristic of the solid waste
Property
Range
pH
8.261.14
Moisture Content, %
36.6415.56
Carbon content, %
29.4910.59
Nitrogen content, %
1.1050.425
Zinc, mg/kg
1.5251.375
Lead, mg/kg
0.390.31
Calorific value, k.Cal/kg 24991409

Page 70
RIAM Analysis Results

a) Option 1: Open dumping
Due to unsecured and improper dumping of municipal solid waste without proper processing and
pre-treatment creates lot of havoc to the existing environment. No positive impacts are observed
in physical and biological conditions. In case of, social conditions work opportunities to the
people is one case to be considered as positive while recycling in the case of economic factors.
The major impact is on the soil and ground water due to leaching of heavy metals present in the
waste. Due anaerobic decomposition of waste, noxious gases like methane are released out,
leading to flares. The rag pickers burn the waste to segregate the recyclables leading to
accumulated effect on the environment.
b) Option 2: Sanitary landfill
From physical and chemical characteristics analysis of waste it was observed that 70% of the
waste is biodegradable. Impermeable barriers (liners), leachate collection and treatment systems,
landfill gas management systems, and cover systems protect the public health and the
environment from potential negative impacts of landfills. On the other hand, construction,
operation and maintenance costs are major negative impact. Segregation of waste at source and
before final disposal should be implemented. Recycling, utilization of gas are economical
sources from this option.
c) Option 3: Incineration
Size reduction and complete sterilization of waste is a positive impact. It is applicable to biomedical waste reducing epidemics. Air pollution due to particulate matter, CO2, SOx and NOx are
the most negative impacts. Less percentage Moisture content (<45%), high percentage of
Volatile matter (>40%) and inerts (>40%), Calorific value (800-1200 k-cal/kg) are desirable
parameters for incineration process. Auxiliary fuel will be required for the waste without the
above mentioned parameters. This increases operation and maintenance cost .
a) Option 4: Composting
This is cost effective process as compared to other options. Biogas and compost produced during
anerobic decomposition of waste can be utilized for application onto soil with proper preEnvironment Observer
Page 71
treatment. The compost produced. The production of greenhouse gases is reduced. The
application of pathogens is one major negative impact biologically. Vermi composting is
advanced method developed to reduce the negative impact.
RIAM analysis results for the various options such as Open dumping, Sanitary Landfill,
ENVIRONMENTAL SCORE
15
EO
10
SC
BC
PC
(-E)
EO
10
SC
BC
PC
(-E)
CLASS
15
EO
10
SC
BC
PC
CLASS
25
20
15
EO
10
SC
BC
PC
(-E)
A
ENVIRONMENTAL SCORE
Class
15
20
(-E)
(-A)
C
20
ENVIRONMENTAL SCORE
20
ENVIRONMENTAL SCORE
Incineration and Composting are given in the Figure 2 given below.
CLASS
Figure 2: RIAM analysis output for Open dumping, Sanitary landfill, Incineration, Composting
Conclusions
1. It was observed from the study that open dumping of waste in Visakhapatnam city had more
negative effects on soil and ground water due to leaching of heavy metals.
2. The pungent smell due to decomposition waste by the microbes leads to epidemics adversely
affecting the people in the nearby locality.
Page 72
3. Incineration is also not suitable as it creates air pollution. The operation conditions and
desirable parameters represent that in un economical.
4. From the RIAM analysis it was observed that Sanitary landfill with composting is a better
option for disposal of waste as they both show less negative impacts.
5. Vermi composting techniques should be implemented as it is eco-friendly and income
generating technology.
6. Construction, operation and maintenance of sanitary land fill involves huge financial
requirements. Introduction user-fee for waste collection and management in accordance to
socio economic groups so as to enhance better management system.
References
i.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). (2000). Municipal solid waste

(management and handling) rules, The Gazette of India, New Delhi, India.
ii.
Sapna Sethi, N. C. Kothiyal; Arvind K. Nema; and M. K. Kaushik (2013)

Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in Jalandhar City, Punjab, India. J. Hazard.
Toxic Radioact. Waste, 17:97-106.
iii.
Sharholy, M., Ahmad, K., Mahmood, G., and Trivedi, R. C. (2008). Municipal solid
waste management in Indian citiesA review. Waste Manage, 28(2), 459467.
Page 73
E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
E-WASTE MANAGEMENT-THE PRESENT SCENARIO

Anna Donia Palett1, Aiswarya S2, PriyaA Jacob3
1. Former BTech Civil Engineering student, School of Civil Engineering, Karunya University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India, annadonia6@gmail.com
2,3. Assistant Professor, School of Civil Engineering, Karunya University, Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu, India, aiswarya@karunya.edu, priyajacob@karunya.edu.
ABSTRACT
With technology advancing, we come across various new products, gadgets, equipments, etc.
playing a very important role in our lives. But, we tend to forget what happens to these after a
while. This paper reviews the effects of these high tech trash or in other words electronic wastes,
e-wastes, waste electrical and electronic equipments (WEEE) on the environment and the
pollution caused by the disposal and management of the same.
Keywords: e-waste management, environmental pollution, recycling.
1. INTRODUCTION
Advances in the field of science and technology brought about industrial revolution in the 18th
Century which marked a new erain human civilization. In the 20th Century, the information and
communication revolution has brought enormous changes in the way we organize our lives, our
economies, industries and institutions. These spectacular developments in modern times have
undoubtedly enhanced the quality of our lives. At the same time, these have led to manifold
problems including the problem of massive amount of hazardous waste and other wastes
generated from electric products. These hazardous and other wastes pose a great threat to the
human health and environment. The issue of proper management of wastes, therefore, is critical
Page 74
to the protection of livelihood, health and environment. It constitutes a serious challenge to the
modern societies and requires coordinated efforts to address it for achieving sustainable
development. Todays society demands the usage of electronic equipments like never before.
Computers, home appliances and a lot more are a part and parcel of our living. Advancements in
the electronic world bring out new products at a constant pace resulting in a very short life time
for these products. As the usage of these high tech equipments is increasing so are the wastes of
the same.
E-Waste or Waste electrical and electronic equipments (WEEE) is a very broad term. It is used to
describe any electronic equipment which has reached the end of its useful life. E-waste is often
misunderstood to be discarded computers and other IT gadgets but it covers a wider range of
equipments, for instance, households give out e-wastes such as vacuum cleaners, coffee
machines,
irons,
toasters,
washing
machines,
dryers,
refrigerators,
air-conditioners,
communication equipments such as mobiles, telephones, fax machines, copiers, printers,

entertainment & consumer electronics which includes televisions, VCR/DVD/CD players, radios,
etc, lighting equipments for example fluorescent tubes, sodium lamps etc , electric and electronic
tools for instance drills, electric saws, sewing machines, lawn mowers etc, and even toys,
leisure, sports and recreational equipments such as electric train sets, coin slot machines,
treadmills etc [1].
On a global scale, USA tops the chart on producing E-wastes at 2,124,400 tones per year
followed by Germany producing 1,100,000 tones per year. India too plays a significant role in
the production of E-waste. In 2012, India recorded E-waste production of about 8,00,000 tones
per year. Along with the self production of E-wastes, its estimated that developing countries like
China, India and Pakistan receives 50-80% of the E-waste collected from the developed
countries. The cheap labor along with the relaxed environmental regulations makes these
countries a convenient dumping yard [2].
In Figure 1, all possible E-waste routes and flows and their potential environmental impact are
summarized. The chemical composition of E-wastes depends on the type and the age of the
electronic object discarded. It is usually predominated by several metal alloys, especially Cu, Al
and Fe attached to, covered with or mixed with several plastics or ceramics.
Page 75
Figure 1: E-Waste Routes
2. HEALTH HAZARDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF E-WASTE

Concerns regarding the safe disposal and management of these wastes have been rising. E-wastes
find a several ways to pollute the environment. Though it contains trace amounts of precious
metals like gold, silver and palladium, and larger quantities metal and alloys including copper,
aluminum and steel, they are seldom recovered. Recycling and recovering demands
disassembling of individual components which are complex and time consuming. So they are
usually left as trash.
Recycling of E-waste poses a great threat to the environment as well as our well being due to the
toxic chemicals released by the landfill as time passes. E-waste contains extremely hazardous
chemicals which include lead, mercury, cadmium, lead mainly used in cathode ray tubes (CRTs)
in monitors, tin-lead solders, etc. Lead content entering a human body can harm almost every
organ including nervous system, kidneys and reproductive system. Lead is dangerously certain to
damage human brains and cause miscarriage in pregnant women. Same way, compounds of
Page 76
chromium, such as calcium chromate, chromium trioxide and lead chromate are recognized
human carcinogens. Cadmium is classified as toxic with a potential risk of permanent effects on
human health. Like lead, cadmium can hoard in the body over time causing lasting impairment to
human parts [3].
The chemicals in E-waste eventually pollute the ground water. The landfills containing E-wastes
leaches acids and other toxic substances, polluting the soil and seeping down to join the ground
water and there by polluting the ground water. The burning of these wastes emits fumes and
gases polluting the air. Even the evaporation of metals like mercury is harmful to the
environment. Improper recycling and recovery methods can negatively affect the environment.
Recycling processes have minimum environmental impact when combined with the application
of apposite technology, such as in Japan [4], while, on the contrary, when using the practices
followed in developing countries (e.g. child labor, e-waste burning and emission of several
pollutants to the air, leachate seepage in underground and surface aquifers etc.) the final
environmental benefit-impact balance is not always affirmative. It must be also stressed out that
any environmental benefit from recycling vanishes when the waste to be recycled is transported
to great distance due to the adverse environmental impact of the energy consumed for its
transportation [5], while, recycling, in any case, has smaller ecological footprint than e-waste
dumping and burning.
2.1POLLUTANTS IN E-WASTE
Pollutants or toxins in e-waste are typically concentrated in circuit boards, batteries, plastics, and
LCDs (liquid crystal displays). Givenbelow is a table showing the major pollutants occurring in
waste electrical and electronic equipments:
Page 77
Table 1: Pollutants and their occurrence in waste electrical and electronic equipment
3. PRESENT SCENARIO
Countries like Japan, Switzerland, and Greece etc seem to understand the present call for the apt
management of E-wastes.
In the Japanese E-waste management system, the consumers are required to pay a certain amount
while returning the used electronic equipment. This law with strict penalties has been imposed from
1998 [6]. A basic trait of the Japanese system is the use of the chief disassembly procedure of large
parts initially with a more precise and concise method so that they handle the residues in a more
proper way.
While Japanese have got their E-waste under control, it was the Swiss who were the first ones to
come up officially with E-waste management. The country has got two active E-waste recycling
systems, one managing the brown electronic equipments (e.g. computers, televisions, radios,
etc.), and the other one handling the white electrical equipments (e.g. washing machines,
refrigerators, ovens, etc.) [7]. Furthermore, in the Swiss system, the producers are fully responsible
for the recycling of their products in an environmentally bearable manner.
Other than Japan and Switzerland, we see European Union with a very strict legislation regarding
the handling of E-wastes. The European Parliament is based on three axes, the prevention, recycling
and re-use of e-waste, so that the amount of the waste electrical and electronic equipments available
are reduced [8].
Page 78
In India, the Constitution assigns solid waste management as a primary responsibility to the
Municipalities under the Twelfth Schedule. The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management &
Handling) Rules, 2000 were enacted by the Central Government which came into force from 25
September 2000. Some of the guidelines for handling municipal solid wastes provided in the
Schedules are relevant for the management of e-waste and can be used as a model in the e-waste
recycling and disposal scheme.
Under the Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008,
the Ministry of Environment and Forests is the nodal Ministry to deal with the transboundary
movement of the hazardous wastes and to grant permission for transit of the hazardous wastes
through any part of India. The rules and regulations related to E-waste management in India needs
quite a lot of improvements as compared with other developing countries.
4. CONCLUSION
Today we see that pollution of the environment has reached an appalling level. There is an
immediate need to develop strategies and regulations to deal with e-waste and its management. It is
important to conduct proper research into the topic to avoid the mistakes made all around the world
where regulations were rushed without any research and thus help to build a future where humans
can live in harmony with the environment.
REFERENCES :
1. P. Partheban and S.TamilSelvan, An effective management of E-Waste as a part of Construction materials (2010).
2. Dr. KousarJahanAra Begum.Electronic Waste (E-Waste) Management in India: A Review, pp. 46-57 (2013).
3. Sunil Herat, PhD, Electronic Waste: An Emerging Issue in Solid Waste Management in Australia (2008).
4. H. Aizawa, H. Yoshida and S. I. Sakai, Current results and future perspectives for Japanese recycling of home
electrical appliances, Res ConservRecycl. 52, pp. 1399-1410 (2008).
5. Y. Barba-Gutierrez, B. Adenso-Diaz and M. Hopp, An analysis of some environmental consequences of European
electrical and electronic waste regulation, Res ConservRecycl.52, pp. 481495 (2008).
6. R. Widmer, H. Oswald-Krapf, D. Sinha-Khetriwal, M. Schnellmann and H. Boni, Global perspectives on e-waste,
Environ Impact Assess Rev. 25, pp. 436-458 (2005).
7. D. Sinha-Khetriwal, P. Kraeuchi and M. Schwaninger, A comparison of electronic waste recycling in Switzerland
and in India, Environ Impact Assess Rev. 25, pp. 492-504 (2005).
8. R. Hischier, P. Wger and J. Gauglhofer, Does WEEE Recycling make sense from an environmental perspective?
The environmental impacts of the Swiss take-back and recycling systems for waste electrical and electronic equipment
(WEEE), Environ Impact Assess Rev. 25, pp. 525-539,(2005).
Page 79
BEST PRACTICES IN CONSTRUCTION

WASTE MANAGEMENT
Utilization of Construction and Demolition Waste

as Pavement Material
SavioJohn[1], Sobin Joseph[2]
[1]
B. Tech Student, Toc H Institute of Science & Technology, Arakkunnam

[1]
savio10john@gmail.com
[2]
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Toc H Institute of Science &
Technology, Arakkunnam
Abstract
Road transportation is undoubtedly the lifeline of the nation and its development is a crucial
concern. The need to manage construction and demolition waste (CDW) has led to environmental
friendly actions that promote the reuse and recycling of this type of waste and other forms of waste
valorization. The main priority is to foment sustainable construction work, which has the advantage
of avoiding the deposit of large quantities of construction waste at landfills and greatly reducing the
use of borrow material in construction projects. The aim of this paper is to verify the technical
viability of using construction waste as material for the base pavement layers of road surfaces.
Keywords Construction and demolition waste, aggregate, engineering properties
Page 80
INTRODUCTION
Construction and demolition wastes consist of the materials generated during the construction,
renovation and demolition of building and other structures. Construction and demolition waste
constitutes one of the largest waste streams in the world. Management of Construction and
demolition waste is a major concern due to increasing quantum of demolition rubble, continuing
shortage of dumping sites, increase in transportation and disposal cost and above all growing
concern about pollution and environmental degradation. The primary objective is to foment the
reuse and recycling of this waste and other forms of valorization with a view to contributing to the
sustainable development of activities in the construction sector.
Large quantum of bricks and masonry arise as waste during demolition. These are generally
mixed with concrete, tiles and other construction materials. Concrete appears in two forms in the
waste. Structural elements of building have reinforced concrete, while foundations have mass nonreinforced concrete. Metal waste is generated during demolition in the form of pipes, conduits, and
light sheet material used in ventilation system, wires and sanitary fitting and as reinforcement in the
concrete. Metals are recovered and recycled by re-melting. Timber recovered in good condition
from beams, window frames, doors and partition and other fittings can be reused. Even then a large
quantity of remaining construction and demolition waste is generally dumped in the landfill sites of
our country. Management of such huge quantity of waste puts enormous pressure on solid waste
management system. The growing population of our cities and requirement of our land for other
uses has reduced the availability of land for waste disposal. It is mainly due to lack of awareness of
the recycling techniques in our country that construction and demolition wastes have not been
effectively utilized. To effectively use construction and demolition waste in road works, first
requirement would be to characterize the material in terms of its physical and engineering
properties. The present study deals with the suitability of construction and demolition wastes as a
construction material in road works.
TREATMENT PROCESS
The first step in the treatment process is to wash the materials manually and mechanically to
eliminate impurities, e.g., plastic, paper, and wood. Then, a track-mounted backhoe excavator with
Page 81
hydraulic pincers extracts metal from the waste, thus reducing the original size of the material.
Once the material is clean of impurities, the backhoe excavator is fed into an impact mill.
Fig. 1: Production process diagram
This mobile grinding unit consists of a pre-screening unit that separates and stores the material
whose diameter is less than 40 mm. The rest of the material is made to undergo a reduction process.
This phase of the process guarantees the absence of plasticity in the final product because it
eliminates dirt and any extraneous substances. The recycled artificial aggregate is thus composed
only of concrete, asphalt, and ceramic.
After the grinding process, an electromagnet is used to capture and separate any metal that might
have entered the mill. The rest of the material is transported on the conveyor belt to the entry of the
mobile screening unit. Here, the material is classified, and the final product obtained is recycled
CDW aggregate (0 - 32 mm). The production process is shown in Fig. 1.
PROPERTIES OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE

The test results relating to engineering properties of construction and demolition waste aggregates
are presented in Table 1.
Page 82
TABLE I: ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE AGGREGATES
Property
Test
Result
Permissible
Limits as per
MORTH
Unit weight (C & D aggregates):

Loose state (kg/m3)
1280
Compacted state (kg/m3)
1650
Aggregate crushing value (%)
37
Aggregate impact value (%)
33
30% max
45 kN
50 kN (min)
1.6
12% (max)
Ten percent fines value (C & D waste

aggregate representative sample)
Soundness (%)
The test results relating to engineering properties of powdered construction and demolition waste
aggregates are presented in Table 2.
TABLE 2: ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF POWDERED CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE
Property
Value
Modified Proctor Compaction Test

Maximum Dry Density (MDD) (g/cc)
1.93
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) (%)
10.5
Standard Proctor Compaction Test

Maximum Dry Density (MDD) (g/cc)
1.75
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) (%)
12.5
Direct Shear Test

Angle of internal friction ()
50
Cohesion (c)
6 kN/ sq.m
Plasticity Index
Non Plastic
Permeability (cm/s)
1.8610-4
FEASIBILITY OF USING CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTES IN ROAD WORKS
Crushed construction and demolition waste can be utilized as a fill material for construction of
embankment. The side slopes of such embankments should be protected against surface erosion.
Construction and demolition waste after crushing can be used for sub-grade construction.
Mechanically stabilized construction and demolition waste mixture can be used for sub-base layer.
Page 83
However, construction and demolition waste has a marginally lower ten per cent fines value and
hence it may be used in lower half of sub-base course or for low traffic volume roads on a trial basis.
Mechanically stabilized construction and demolition waste mix ( mixture of construction and
demolition waste aggregates and construction and demolition waste powder ) admixed with about
five per cent of cement can be used for base course construction. Usage of construction and
demolition waste for bituminous wearing courses is not advocated.
FIELD STUDY
In order to verify the technical viability of using construction wastes as material for the sub-base
of road surfaces, a field study was carried out by Herrador et al., (2012) in Malaga, Spain. They
analysed the characteristics of recycled material on a section conditions. The pavement surface
sections are shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Road surface section made of recycled CDW aggregate (Access road 1) and pavement made of quarry aggregate
from a mine (Access road 2)
A. Deflections and ADAR Testing

To obtain structural data regarding the surface course, on-site monitoring using the ADAR (highperformance dynamic monitoring) testing method (PPTG ADAR 2004) was performed. In the same
way as the conventional plate load test, the ADAR test also provides the load-bearing capacity of
road surface material. Even though it resembles the plate load test in so far as parameters and
results, it has the following advantages:
It is simple and quick to set up at the job site
It provides better data collection performance because the system is mobile and installedon a
vehicle
The ADAR test defines the load-bearing capacity of road surface layers. It verifies whether this
parameter meets project specifications and whether it is in accordance with the calculations of the
pavement structure. To measure the load-bearing capacity of the pavement, a DYNATEST HWD
Page 84
8081 falling weight deflectometer (FWD) is used. This deflectometer is equipped with at least
seven geophones located on the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. At least one of these geophones
was located below the application point of the load at the centre of the strike plate. The FWD is
designed to measure deflections in flexible and rigid pavements. It can calculate the resilient moduli
of all pavement structure components and of the underlying soil. The resilient modulus is the
parameter used in pavement design and is, thus, correlated with the structural capacity of the
pavement under analysis. The deflection measures the resilient response of the material to a given
load.
Fig. 3: ADAR test; deflections in CDW aggregate layer
Fig. 4: ADAR test; deflections in quarry aggregate layer
As can be observed from the data, the resulting measurements for CDW were satisfactory. In the
case of the recycled CDW aggregate, of the values obtained, most are lower than the theoretical
deflection (see Fig. 3). The results show that the performance of the recycled aggregate is
significantly better than the natural aggregate (see Fig. 4).
Page 85
ECONOMIC ASPECTS
The difference in price stems from the fact that the cost of recycled aggregate includes waste
cleaning and management. This is more expensive than blasting with explosives, a budget item that
is a necessary part of the cost of natural aggregate.
The cost of the mechanical treatment of recycled aggregate is higher than that of natural
aggregate because of the fact that the treatment of recycled aggregate requires the use of an
electromagnet to capture and separate metal and a blower with an air compressor to eliminate
plastics. Furthermore, the wear on the impact plates and bars of the mill is greater because the
material treated is abrasive and includes iron (e.g. reinforced concrete).
The cost of recycled aggregate is higher than natural aggregate. But it is a good solution for the
prevention of wastage of land used as dumping yards, reduction in use of natural quarry aggregates
and utilization of construction and demolition wastes.
CONCLUSIONS
Construction and demolition waste is a marginal material having some of its strength properties
slightly lesser than the specified limits as per IRC/MORTH. However, at the same time, it is
nonplastic, permeable and its strength can be improved by stabilization. The load-bearing capacity
of the recycled artificial construction and demolition waste aggregate is satisfactory. It performs as
well as natural quarry aggregate as long as the recycled construction and demolition waste
aggregate is free of impurities and only contains concrete, asphalt, and ceramic material. It is also
necessary to provide a greater quantity of water (as compared with natural aggregate) to achieve the
desired level of compaction. Hence, construction and demolition waste can be adopted for road
construction in different forms.
REFERENCES
[1] Chan, D. and Poon, C. S., (2006) Feasible Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregates and Crushed Clay
Brick as Unbound Road Sub-base, Construction Building Materials, Vol - 20,No.8, pp. 578 585.
[2] Bhise, N.N, Chandra Dinesh, Gupta, R.L and Jain, S.K, (1997) Solid Waste Utilisation An EcoFriendly Solution, Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, Vol 17, No. 3
[3] Nataatmadja, A., and Tan, Y. L, (2001) Resilient Response of Recycled Concrete Road Aggregates ,
Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol - 127, No.5, pp. 450 453.
[4] Sherwood, P.T., (1995) Alternative Materials in Road Construction, Thomas TelfordPublications,
London, U.K
Page 86
Bauxite Residue Management

Theja S N1, Life John2
1-
UG student ; Asst. Prof. Dept of Civil Engineering, TIST
Abstract:
About 3000 million tonnes of bauxite residue are generated globally from alumina refining
industries every year. Managing this residue is costly, and the reuse of bauxite residue is becoming
an increasingly attractive and sustainable solution to the problem. Using bauxite residue in various
applications has the potential for large volume reuse. The best management of the residue includes
its proper storage without affecting the environment and the proper reuse of the residue. This
seminar discuss the applications of bauxite residue in construction and chemical field,
environmental and agronomic applications and metallurgical applications.
Key words : bauxite residue, storage, applications.
1. Introduction:
Bauxite residue is the by product of the Bayer process for refining alumina. It is composed
of the insoluble fraction of the bauxite ore that remains after extraction of the aluminiumcontaining components. Iron oxides (1030%), titanium dioxide (215%), silicon oxide (520%)
and undissolved alumina (020%) make up the residue, together with a wide range of other oxides
which will vary according to the initial bauxite source or the region of bauxite deposits. The
concentration of iron compounds is quiet high and hence the residue has a red colour which is
why it is commonly called as red mud. Bauxite contains trace amounts of metals such as arsenic,
beryllium, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel and some naturally-occurring
radioactive materials, such as thorium and uranium. Most of these elements remain with the
residue after extraction of the alumina. Hence the residue must be stored carefully, otherwise
these radio active elements may seep into the ground water thus polluting it. Also the bauxite
residue has high alkalinity which causes environmental impacts. There are a number of methods
currently employed, including treatment with seawater or carbonation with CO2 to manage this
risk.
Page 87
Amount of bauxite residue produced by an alumina plant or refinery is dependent on the

sources of the bauxite used and secondarily on the extraction condition by the plant. It varies from
0.3 to 2.5 tonnes of residue per tonne of alumina produced. The bauxite used will have a major
impact on the characteristics of the residue, its particle size distribution, and behavior of the
residue. The coarse fraction ( greater than 100 microns) which is high in quartz content may be
separated from the finer silty muds. Sometimes these coarse fractions are given names such as
red oxide sand or sand residue or coarse bauxite residue, and fine fractions are called red
mud. The coarse fraction is used in road construction, as a base course material and provide a
drainage layer under the mud, or as a capping material for residue sites. Coarse fraction is easier
to wash, has good drainage characteristics, and has a lower residual caustic content. The red mud
is used for construction and chemical applications, environmental and agronomic applications and
metallurgical applications.
2. Disposal of bauxite resdidue:
After washing, the residue is stored or disposed in special facilities known as Bauxite residue
Disposal areas or residue storage areas. The type of disposal employed by alumina refineries varies
across the world, depending on factors such as availability of land, technology availability, climatic
& geographic conditions, logistics and regulatory requirements. The figure shows the bauxite
residue storage area of Ireland.
Fig.1 Bauxite residue storage area, Ireland
Page 88
2.1 Dry disposal:

After the residue is washed, the residue is filtered to form a dry cake (> 65% solids). Drum filters
have been used since the 1930s but there is now increasing use of press filters capable of achieving
70 to 75% solids. The dry residue material is then carried in a truck or conveyor to the storage site
and stored without any further treatment.
This method uses less land for its storage and also prevents the seeping of residue into
groundwater. Further, the rehabilitation and closure costs are greatly reduced and the material is in a
more readily usable form. For sites with a constrained space this approach is the best option.
2.2 Mud/Dry stacking or sloped deposition:
In this method, the residue is thickened to a slurry of high density (48-55% solids or higher). It is
then deposited and allowed to consolidate and is dried before successive layers are deposited. This
forms a slope on the deposit, allowing rainwater to run off and minimizes the liquid stored in the
disposal area; lowering risk of leakage and improving structural integrity.
The water reclaimed from the surface is pumped back to the refinery or plant to recover and
recycle the soluble sodium salts. Dry stacked residue is often under-drained to improve the
consolidation of the residue and to recover further water for re-use in the refinery. The combination
of dry stacking and a well drained deposits give rise to a very stable deposit of residue.
2.3 Lagooning or Ponding:
The residue is pumped into land based ponds where naturally impervious layers or sealants
minimize the seepage. The residue is deposited as a dilute slurry, with the solids settling and
consolidating over time and the surface water collected is returned to the refinery. The design,
construction and operation of these storage dams follow guidelines as set out in individual countries
and these are checked and maintained regularly.
2.4 Seawater discharge:
An early method of bauxite residue disposal in some countries was to transfer the material via
pipeline to deep sea locations following treatment to reduce the caustic soda levels. No new
refineries are built using this method since 1970.
Page 89
3. Utilization of bauxite residue:

Hundreds of patents have been issued and many trials have been undertaken on different uses of
bauxite residue. The majority of patents filed involves the use of bauxite residue being used in the
construction, building or agricultural industries. It is estimated that some two million tonnes is
recycled annually for cement production, refractories, soil amelioration and landfill covering. The
various applications of bauxite residue is mentioned below:
3.1 Cement Production:
The bauxite residue is used in Portland cement production. The Aluminium and iron content in
the residue is beneficial to the cement in terms of strength and setting characteristics of cement, but
the soda present is detrimental. Replacement of soda with calcia improves its performance as an
additive.
Iron rich special setting cements with improved strength have been made with upto 50% bauxite
residue from Renukoot, India along with bauxite and gypsum.
3.2 Aggregates:
Inert aggregate is the major component of concrete and is bound together by the cement.
Aggregates consists of wide variety of materials, and are classified as either coarse or fine. In most
of its basic form, coarse aggregate is natural gravel or coarser fraction of crushed rock and
similarly, fine aggregate is basically native or synthetic sand. There have been many studies on the
production of coarse aggregate from bauxite residues, in particular from the finer mud fraction.
The bauxite residue is mainly used in manufacture of light weight aggregrates. LWAs are in
increasing demand for the production of light weight concretes which is mainly preffered in highrise buildings, particularly in areas of high earthquake risk. They are good insulators and are fire
resistant too. LWAs are prepared by calcination of raw materials that contain chemically bound
water or carbonate, and form porous granules with low specific gravity and impervious outer
surfaces. Bauxite residues can be used as raw material in LWA production because they contain a
number of suitable hydroxide minerals like gibbsite, boehmite, goethite and carbonates. The
percentage of bauxite residue in the mix could be around 30% with the combination of other
materials, and the mixture is calcined at temperatures in the range 1000-1300oC.
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3.3 Sand Substitution:

The residue produced from the bauxite deposits of darling ranges of Australia contain high
sand fraction, approximately around 50%. This has led to the development of coarse bauxite
residue, a viable option for use in cement mix and as a road base material.
Coarse bauxite residue has been evaluated as a component of road base. The residue was mixed
with fly ash, lime kiln dust and cement to produce a pozzolanic stabilized mixture suitable for the
production of an improved base course material for road construction in western Australia. Road
construction alone could consume large quantities of residue sand. For example, the construction of
the highway connecting Perth to Burnbury (70.5 km dual carriageway construction) alone required
12 million tonnes of sand. The rate of production of the residue of the Alcoas three refineries in
Western Australia was approximately 17 million tonnes per annum in the year 2007, so the amount
of sand produced was about 8.5 million tonnes per annum. Allowing for about 25% of the sand to
be retained for use in the construction of residue storage area, the remaining 6.4 million tonnes per
annum of sand production required for the construction of highway potentially consumed 2 years
worth of coarse residue production, with the added benefit of reducing the use of natural sand for
the construction purpose.
3.4 Bricks production:
Mixtures with clay, shale, sand and fly ash have been used for manufacturing bricks. This was
studied by various teams of workers and was undertaken using bauxite residue from Jamaica,
Sardinia, hungary, and Korea. The presence of high levels of sodium ions will reduce the
weathering resistance and durability of the bricks, so the replacement of sodium ions by calcium
significantly improves the properties. Bricks are made with a bauxite residue content of above 90%
and is used with a firing temperature of about 1000oC. Studies have shown that bricks of
comparable quality to commercial clay bricks can be prepared from bauxite residue mixed with
natural materials such as clay or shale. Other waste products such as fly ash and coke dust may also
be added. Light weight bricks can be manufactured by using other additives such as ferrosilicon and
forming agents. The figure shows the steps of brick formation using bauxite residue.
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Fig.2 Brick manufacturing using red mud
Fig. 3 Building at the Jamaica bauxite institute with the bricks made from bauxite residue.
3.5 Geo- polymer formation:
Bauxite residue contains a number of aluminium and silicon containing minerals and some soda
that could be used for geopolymer formation. Some additional sodium hydroxide may be needed
to achieve the necessary dissolution. Other sources of alumina, silica or both may also be needed
to achieve the required final composition and properties. Fly ash or steel making slags may be
useful in this respect, or it may be necessary to add some amount of clay or sodium silicate.
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3.6 Environment And Agronomic Applications:

Modified bauxite residues can be used in waste water treatment. Acidic gases are removed from
water by passing it through a bauxite residue slurry. Substantial efforts have also been made in
agronomic applications for soil amendment taking into consideration the issues like acidity and
phosphorous retention.
3.6.1 Waste Water And Effluent Treatment:
Bauxite residue has the ability to absorb undesirable constituents of water such as arsenic and
phosphate. It is also used for the treatment of acid mine drainage and is primarily one among the
method used for the neutralization of the acid by excess hydroxide, carbonate, aluminate and
other buffers, both in soluble and solid states present in the bauxite residue. In the course of
neutralization, heavy metals present in acid mine drainage and bauxite residue may precipitate
and get adsorb on the surfaces of insoluble metal oxide surfaces already present. The application
of bauxite residues to environmental remediation has mostly focused on their high potential for
sequestration of metals and metalloids. Two characteristics of bauxite residues contribute to this
high sequestration potential: 1) high alkalinity, which favours hydrolysis and precipitation of
metals as hydroxides and carbonates, and 2) the large concentration of iron, aluminium and
titanium oxides present, which provides surface sites for sorption reactions by metals and
metalloids. So areas affected by metal and metalloid contamination are the areas where bauxite
residues can be applied. Some of them are listed below:
Waste waters and effluents from industrial and municipal facilities.
Acid mine drainage (AMD) and acid sulphate soils.
Soils contaminated with organic and inorganic toxins.
3.6.2 General soil amendment:

The beneficial application of bauxite residues for decontaminating the effluents, acid mine
drainage or contaminated soils can also be made use of in agronomic applications. Sandy soils
with little or no nutrient or water holding capacity are benefited from the application of bauxite
residues. The alkaline nature of bauxite residues can be used to raise the pH of organic soils. Direct
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addition of bauxite residues to soils can be beneficial, for example if the soil is acidic and the
addition rate is low. In many cases the phytotoxicity of the bauxite residue need to be reduced in
order to function as a soil amendment.
4. Conclusions:
The bauxite residue stored on land is currently estimated to be over 2.7 billion tonnes, with an
annual growth rate of over 120 million tonnes. This is one of the largest masses of mineral
processing residue globally. It is not randomly distributed about the globe in an uncontrolled
manner, but predominantly exists in discrete locations at which it is generally well stored and
closely controlled. The residue is best managed by reusing it in various fields and proper storage
where the impact on the environment and the surrounding community is progressively reduced.
References:
Klauber, Markus Grafe and Greg Power, Review of bauxite residue re use options,
,May 2009.
Bauxite residue management: Best Practice, April 2013.
Improving the sustainability of residue management practices- Alcoa World Alumina
Australia.
Page 94
Global Scenario Of Utilization Of Construction

And Demolition Waste
Job Thomas1 and Wilson P.M. 2
1
Reader, M.Tech. student
Division of civil Engineering, School of Engineering, Cochin University of Science and Technology,
Kochi, Kerala, India, Pin 682022, e-mail Id: job_thomas@cusat.ac.in
Abstract:
The utilization of construction and demolition waste for future construction is the need of the day.
The management of construction waste is important for sustainable development, which is the
thrust area of research today. Due to increased environmental concerns, land filling of
construction and demotion waste is prohibited in many countries. This paper overviews the
scenario of construction and demolition waste management system practiced in various countries.
Key Words: C&D waste, management, land filling, utilization
Introduction:
In almost every part of the world, construction industry is considered to be the biggest in terms of
its consumption of natural resources. The various aspects of civilizations are understood based on
the evidences of constructions built by them. Each civilization had a construction history that
fostered its growth and quality of life. Initially construction works were accomplished by the
muscle of man and beast. Later with mechanization, construction industry achieved a very fast
pace contributing significantly to the rapid growth of the society. It resulted in a large scale
increase in the quantum of construction. The construction and generation of waste is both sides of
the same coin and they cannot be separated. It may not be worthless to mention that it is the
improper management of material resources in construction industry that results in the enormous
increase in the generation of construction waste all over the world. The quantum of generation of
waste in construction can be controlled by appropriate management.
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By developing an appropriate waste management policy, it is possible to improve overall

efficiency of the project, which results in economy too. In developed countries, waste
management has become a profession and many construction firms associate with companies
which excel in C&D waste management. The waste management is also an environmental
concern and implementation of standards and law is not far. Hence, it is important to initiate
educating and practicing various C&D waste management methods for those who are employed
in various levels of construction industry.
Waste production scenario
All over the world, the growth of construction industry is enormous in the past decade. The pace
of generation of C&D waste is also significant. In general, there are two sources for generation of
waste materials, namely, bulk generators and retail or small generators. The classification of
sources is given in Fig 1. The infrastructure development sector and real estate sector are the bulk
generators of waste. Construction and repair of roads, bridges, flyovers etc. are classified under
infrastructure development sector. Real estate sector consists of housing, industrial, and
commercial building construction, demolition of unauthorized structures etc. Small commercial
enterprises and individual house building teams are considered as retail or small generators. The
contributors of C&D waste in a project are given in Fig 2. The project activities are to be planned
at every stage by every personnel, who are involved, to minimize the overall waste generation.
Construction and Demolition (C&D) Waste
Bulk Generators
Roads
Bridges
Flyovers
Flats
Parks
Malls
Small Generators
Houses
Small
Buildings
Fig 1 Sources of C&D waste generators
Page 96
Site management
Contractor
Manufacture
r
C&D WASTE
Owner
Procureme
nt
Supplier
Logistics
Designer
Fig 2 Contributors of C& D waste in a project

Global scenario of waste management
On an average 10 to 20 percent of the materials purchased in a construction project is generated
as a waste. The environmental impact due to wastes generated at different stages while
implementing a project needs serious consideration. This aspect should be considered from the
stage of extraction and processing of raw materials, manufacturing and transportation building
products, construction of building and disposal at the end of a buildings useful life (Resource
venture, 2005). The stages of the waste generation and its management in connection with
construction project are given in Fig 3.
Raw material
Building products
Extraction
Processing
manufacturing
Transportation
Building
construction
demolition
Environmental impact connected with waste disposal
Fig 3. Stages of waste generation environmental impact
Page 97
In this context, it is appropriate to have a bird eye view of the volume of C&D waste generated in
different countries. This would help to understand the importance of need of waste management
plan.
In 2004-05, C&D waste generation was 15.1 million tonnes in Australia, of which 7.6 million
tonnes was recycled and 7.5 million tonnes was residual waste used as landfill. In 200607, 16.6
million tonnes of waste was generated from the C&D stream. Further, in 2008-09, 19 million
tonnes of C&D waste was generated out of which 10.47 million tonnes were recycled thus
yielding natural resource recovery rate of 55 percent from C&D stream (Smith et al., 2012)
In United Kingdom, around 101 million tonnes of inert waste materials from construction,
demolition and excavation were generated in 2008. In addition to this, 86 million tonnes of waste
has been generated by mining and quarrying operations. In spite of sophisticated technologies
developed for recycling CD&E waste, it is estimated that over 25 million tonnes a year are
disposed of in landfill sites (defra, 2011).
About 136 million tonnes of C&D waste was generated in the United States of America during
1996. C&D wastes accounts for about 22 percent of the total waste generated in the country. Out
of this, approximately 92 percent of all C&D waste is from demolition and renovation (Franklin
Associates, 1998).
In Japan, 85 million tons of C&D waste was generated in 2000, of which 85 percent has been
recycled or reused. The quantity C&D waste generated was 76 million tonnes in 2005 and a
recycling ratio of 0.92 had been achieved. (Shiro Nakajima Building Research Institute, 2009)
In Netherlands, more than 15 million tonnes of C&D waste is being produced annually, out of
which, 80 percent is concrete and crushed brick wastes. Eighty five percent of this waste is being
recycled and reused in road construction or in concrete. (Hendriks and Janssen, 2001)
In China, rapid urbanization results in high rate of production of C&D waste. The C&D waste is
found to be about 30 to 40 percent of the total waste produced in the country. Recycling rates are
also dependant on a variety of factors including maturity of the local recycling industry, landfill
and recycling drop-off fees, landfill bans and cost of raw materials (Zhao et al., 2010).
Page 98
In 2002, 3.3 million tonnes of C&D waste was generated in Canada. Out of the total C&D waste,
only 16 percent was reused or recycled. (Canadians Home Builders association-CHABA, 2010)
In India C&D waste management has given least priority (TIFAC, 2002)
Present practices of waste disposal and related issues
Fig.4 illustrates the C&D waste handling practices currently adopted in India and the related
issues. The construction industry derives numerous benefits by proper handling of C&D wastes.
Issues
Practices
Antique value not

considered
Reduced salvage value
Re-usable items sold

at discount in
market
Non re-usable items

for land filling
Extra transportation
cost
Environmental impacts
neglected
Public resistance
No value addition by
recycling
Fig.4 C&D waste handling practices and related issues.

Indian industry is unable to grab appropriate economic and environmental benefits owing to
several reasons which need detailed analysis. Barriers for widespread adoption of waste
management system are (Jain, 2012)
Lack of awareness in the industry: The main reason for the
enormous quantity of waste
generation is the improper handling of material resources. In most cases, the architects,
consultants or construction labors neglect the environmental and economical cost aspects of
construction wastes. The basic principle of reduce waste is very often neglected by them.
Page 99
Lack of interest from the clients: Majority of the clients are interested only in those activities
which offer tangible benefits to them. The potential savings in cost by adopting
waste
management system is not given due importance. While considering timing to be the most
important milestone to be kept with, the feasibility of reuse and recycling are often neglected.
Lack of proper training and education: Lack of professional institutions in the country which
could significantly raise the awareness among the clients and contractors about the potential
economic, social and environmental benefits is yet another barrier in adopting a proper waste
management system.
Lack of skilled labour: Majority of construction labour involved in the industry is unskilled.
Because of this proper waste handling methods are not adopted. This emphasizes the need for
development of awareness and skills in the labour.
Lack of market competition: Presently, there is lack of competition among the contractors in
deriving the potential economic benefits from C&D wastes. The cost savings achieved by a
contractor by implementing waste management techniques in a project are not often
accounted. Waste reduction and recycling techniques are not widely adopted for this reason.
Lack of Government interventions: There is considerable laxity on the part of the Government
in promoting waste management techniques. For example, those who make cost savings on
account of proper and efficient waste management are not given any incentives. This has to be
viewed based on the principles of Life Cycle Costing and minimization of energy utilization.
Lack of waste reduction approach by architects:
A significant reduction in the quantum of
waste can be achieved by adopting proper design methodology. The role of designers and
architects is particularly important in this aspect. Design for deconstruction, adopting
principles of modular co-ordination etc. will definitely reduce wastes from the construction
industry.
Practicing self-regulation is a powerful factor for C&D waste management. In several developed
countries, many associations in the building products and materials industry issue guidelines and
offer assistance to their member companies to achieve better production and consumption
outcomes by minimizing the resource consumption with the motto doing more with less (Jeffrey,
2011)
Page 100
The 3R concept
These factors promoted governmental agencies to find ways to encourage the reuse and recycling
of C&D waste. However prevention is more beneficial than recycling. Identifying potential waste
early in the design process decreases waste generated during construction. It is worth to note that
if waste is not going to be created, a plan for reuse or recycle is not a requisite. Three strategies in
the 3R concept to handle the C&D waste and the related issues are:-
Reduce: Potential wastes can be identified early in the design process itself and measures
should be taken during design stage to minimize the waste that may generate. Waste reduction can
be achieved by :
1. Design with standard sizes for all building materials: This helps to avoid waste generation
when standard sized materials are cut to unusual lengths.
2. Design spaces to be flexible and adaptable to changing uses: This avoids potential waste
generation during remodeling.
3. Design for deconstruction: This would allow high reuse and recycling rates to achieve. The
dis-entanglement of systems, materials bolted together instead of glued, a construction and
deconstruction blueprint, use of non hazardous materials and highly recyclable materials etc.
are a few techniques that can be suggested in this regard.
Reuse: This involves identification of waste that can be salvaged for reuse on the current
project or another project or that can be donated. The initial costs for deconstruction services may
be offset by returns from salvaged materials or reduced purchasing costs. Some deconstruction
services also fetch a tax deduction for materials that are donated in many developed countries.
Fig.7 shows a comparison of new and salvaged materials used in construction industry which
illustrates the potential cost saving.
Recycle: After adopting all the options to prevent waste, salvage and reuse materials, the
next step is to recycle as much of the remaining debris as possible. Recycling saves money by
minimising disposal costs. It reduces waste going to the landfill, facilitates a cleaner and safer
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construction site, improves community relations, protects the environment, reduces pollution
problems owing to wastes and protects health of construction labour.
Methods like demolition by blasting etc were evolved as a result of such negligence or ignorance
of 3R concepts. The environmental and economical cost aspects of C&D waste shall be seriously
considered before taking a decision for land filling. The 3R concept is vital for a sustainable
development. With the increased interest in recycling demolition waste materials, newer
demolition procedures have been evolved which preserve building materials which can be reused
and allow for the separation of waste materials for recycling. In selective demolition, the valuable
materials are removed by hand for reuse or recycling. This procedure is sometimes expanded into
complete deconstruction or selective dismantling, where the entire building is taken apart piece by
piece (Edge environment Pty Ltd, 2011).
Relative price compared to new (%)
100
80
60
New
40
salvaged
20
0
brick
wood
steel
GI sheet
aggregate
Fig 5 Relative price of salvaged and new building materials

Green building concept
Green building or green construction or sustainable building refers to a structure that uses process
which is environmentally responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle.
The energy efficiency is to be accounted for in every stage, namely, site selection, construction,
operation, maintenance, renovation and demolition. A green building is the outcome of joint
Page 102
efforts of the design team, the architects, the engineers, and the clients at all project stages. By
adopting green building practices, it is possible to achieve comfort, utility, durability and
economy with minimum harm to the environment. Recently newer technologies are being
developed day by day to create greener buildings, with the objective to reduce the overall impact
of the built environment on human health and the natural environment. Following are the basic
objectives of green building concept (MNRE and ADaRSH, 2012)
Reduced energy consumption without sacrificing the comfort levels
Reduced destruction of natural areas, habitats, and biodiversity, and reduced soil loss from
erosion etc.
Reduced air and water pollution
Reduced water consumption
Limited waste generation due to recycling and reuse
Reduced pollution loads
Increased user productivity
Enhanced image and marketability
A green building concept involves serious consideration of various steps from the design to
disposal. The following strategies generally adopted in green building creation are given in Fig 6.
Strategies for green buildings construction
Follow
Adopt
Regional development plans
Integrated design approach
Building bye laws
Local materials & technologies
Codes and standards
Renewable energy technologies

Energy efficient technologies
Fig 6 Green building construction strategies
Page 103
Measurement and approval

Green buildings are being certified based on certain rating program by different agencies. The
internationally accepted one is being the United States Green Building Council (USGBC)
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is the green building rating program
sponsored by the USGBC.
In India, Green buildings are rated by Green Rating for Integrated
Habitat Assessment (GRIHA). It has been developed by The Energy and Resources Institute
(TERI) and is endorsed by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) consists of a suite of rating systems for
the design, construction and operation of high performance green buildings and neighborhoods.
LEED is intended to provide building owners and operators a concise framework for identifying
and implementing practical and measurable green building design, construction, operations and
maintenance solutions. The specialty of LEED is that it is an open and transparent process where
the technical criteria proposed by USGBC members are publicly reviewed for approval by the
almost 20,000 member organizations.
LEED awards project one, two or three points for
achieving a 50, 75 or 90 percent recycling rate respectively. A project can also earn one or two
points for using salvaged, refurbished or reused materials for 5 or 10 percent of building materials
respectively.
Summary
The maximum effort should be made to reuse and recycle and the waste and to minimize the
volume going to landfills. A widespread adoption of proper waste management techniques can
save huge amount of money which would otherwise go to landfills. Promoting Green Buildings
will definitely mitigate the issues that arise from C&D wastes.
References:
Barker, A.V. and Bryson, G.M. (2002). Bioremediation of heavy metals and organic toxicants by composting,
Scientific World Journal, 2, 407420.
Canadians Home builders association-CHABA (2010) CHBA Policy Position on C&D waste Management and
Extended
Producer
Responsibility
Retrieved
from:
http://www.chba.ca/uploads/policy%20archive/2010/
epr&wastemanagementpolicyposition-mar3-10.pdf on 07.11.2013
Page 104
defra, (2011) Waste Data Overview , Department for Environment, food and rural affairs, UK Retrieved from:
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130123162956/http:/www.defra.
gov.uk/statistics/files/20110617-
waste-data-overview.pdf on 07.11.2013
Edge Environment Pty Ltd (2011) Construction and Demolition Waste Guide Recycling and Re-use across Supply
Chain,
retrieved from http://www.environment.gov.au/system /files/resources/b0ac5ce4-4253-4d2b-b001-
0becf84b52b8/files/case-studies.pdf on 20.11.2013
Franklin Associates (1998) Characterization of building-related construction and demolition debris in the united
states, Report No. EPA530-R-98-010, The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, USA Retrieved from:
http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/generation/sqg/cd-rpt.pdf on 07.11.2013
Hendriks C. F., Janssen G.M.T. (2001) Reuse of construction and demolition wastes in the Netherlands for road
constructions, HERON, 46(2), 109-117 Retrieved from: http://heronjournal.nl/46-2/4.pdf on 07.11.2013
Jain M., (2012) Economic aspects of construction waste materials in term of cost savings- A case of Indian
construction industry, International Journal of Scientific Research Publications, 2(10), 1-7.
Jain M., (2012) Economic aspects of construction waste materials in term of cost savings- A case of Indian
construction industry, International Journal of Scientific Research Publications, 2(10), 1-7.
Jeffrey C. (2011) Construction and Demolition Waste Recycling- A Literature Review Retrieved from :
http://www.dal.ca/content/dam/dalhousie/pdf/sustainability/Final%20C% 26D%20literature%20review.pdf dated
20.11.2013
MNRE and ADaRSH (2012) The Little Book of GRIHA Rating, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
Government of India, retrieved from http://www.grihaindia.org/static/Griha%20Rating%20Booklet_Dec12.pdf on
20.11.2013
Resource Venture (2005) Construction Waste Management Guide, Retrieved from
resourceventure.org/free-
resources/get-started/.../CWM%20Guide.pdfon02.11.0212
Shiro Nakajima Building Research Institute (2009) Thing on going and done in Japan, Retrieved from:
http://www.iip.kit.edu/downloads/2009_Nakajima_Report_Japan.pdf on 07.11.2013
Smith K., O'Farrell K, Brindley F. (2012) Waste and recycling in australia 2011, department of sustainability,
environment, water, population and communities, Hyder Consulting Pty Ltd , Australia. Retrieved from:
http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/b4841c02-229b-4ff4-8b3b-ef9dd7601d34/files/wasterecycling2011.pdf on 07.11.2013
TIFAC, E. (2000). Utilization of waste from Construction Industry, Department of Science & Technology New
Delhi.Retrieved from: http://www.tifac.org.in/index.php?option
=com_content&view=article&id=710&Itemid=205 on 07.11.2013
Vilas, N. and Guilbetro, B. (2007), Construction and Demolition Waste Management: Current Practices in Asia,
Proceedings of International Conference on Sustainable Solid waste Management, Chennai, India , 97-104.
Zhao, W., Leeftink, R. B. and Rotter, V. S. (2010). Evaluation of the economic feasibility for the recycling of
construction and demolition waste in China: The case of Chongqing. Resources, Conservation and Recycling,
54(6), 377-389.
Page 105
Construction And Demolition Waste Management

Amrutha Mary. A1, Vasudev. R2
1
M.tech Student, Department of civil Engineering, TocH Institute of Science & Technology
Associate Professor, Department of civil Engineering, TocH Institute of Science & Technology
e-mail Id: amrthamary@gmail.com
Abstract:
Nowadays it seems very important to manage different wastes in different parts of the construction
industry. The production of waste not only increases the cost of a project but also remain a threat to
the environment. Since we are giving more importance to sustainable and environment friendly
construction practices, it is very important to consider about the control of waste production during
a construction work. The waste produced during a construction can be reduced in the preliminary
stage itself with the help of proper design and planning. Likewise the waste produced from the
demolition and renovation works can be managed with the help of a 3R ie; reduce, reuse, recycle
concept. Hopefully the content of this paper is beneficial for understanding the different ways for a
proper waste management in a construction industry.
Key Words: Waste, 3R concept, Waste reuse, recycle
Introduction:
Construction and Demolition waste is waste debris formed from the construction and destruction of
a building. Nowadays it seems very important to manage different wastes in different parts of the
construction industry. Most of the modern counties all over the world set different regulations in
order to decrease and also manage the amount of waste in different parts of their industries.
However in the construction industry production of waste is unavoidable and no construction site is
waste less. The diversion of construction, renovation and demolition (CRD) waste from landfill
sites is an issue that has been gaining attention within both the public and private sectors. Surveys
have indicated that as much as one third of the 20 million tonnes of solid waste of municipal waste
streams is generated by construction, renovation and demolition activities. Many of our landfill
Page 106
sites are reaching its capacity. In addition, the illegal dumping and burning of the CRD waste
causes land, air and water pollution.
The increasing costs of waste disposal are reflected in project costs, as contractors must incorporate
anticipated disposal costs in their bid costing. Such realities emphasize the need for initiatives that
focus on reducing and diverting as much waste as possible from CRD activities. During the recent
years, a new concept regarding the construction management waste has been proposed under the
name of 3R concept, which relates to three main concepts of waste management that is reuse,
recycle and reduce. Incorporating the 3R concept (reduce, reuse and recycle) into construction,
renovation and demolition waste management creates a closed-loop manufacturing and purchasing
cycle. This significantly reduces the need to extract raw materials, reduces the amount of materials
going to landfill sites and reduces the life-cycle costs of buildings and building materials.
Cost Benefit Analysis of the Waste

The availability and costs of waste haulage, landfilling, reuse, recycling and refurbishing, and other
waste handling alternatives varies from region to region across the world. Accordingly, the
economic costs and benefits of implementing recycling and other waste diversion initiatives for
CRD waste will vary from region to region as well. A preliminary estimate of the cost effectiveness
of a CRD waste diversion is prepared in a worksheet. It will be an iterative process including both
the Project Manager and the contractor to identify the most economically viable approach to
managing CRD waste. There are some data needed for the cost analysis, such as the cost of the
current waste management methods, the cost of implementing a CRD waste diversion program, and
the savings and benefits resulting from a recycling of the waste, reuse, and waste reduction
programs.
Comparison of Expenditures and Savings in the Waste Management: After the collection of
all the relevant information
and entered in the worksheet, the totals for each category must be
summed and compared. If the total cost of the waste management program including
deconstruction, reuse, and recycling, is less than the total savings, then recycling and other waste
reduction programs would be cost effective and should be further investigated.
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Further Analysis of the Solid Waste Management Program: If the cost benefit analysis
showed that either recycling or other waste reduction programs are feasible, then a more detailed
waste management audit and work plan are recommended.
The main steps involved in the construction and demolition waste management are:
Complete Waste Audit
A waste audit should be carried out by the Project Manager or contractor. It is done inorder to
identify the types and quantities of waste materials that will be produced during the project. The
audit process includes assembling and reviewing background information, site visits to identify
material types and to calculate the quantity of materials that will be generated. The audit should
identify the presence of any reusable fixtures or materials and such items should be inventoried and
included in the waste audit summary information.
Development Waste Diversion Work plan
The waste diversion work plan is a plan of action which is prepared on the bases of the audit results.
The work plan identifies the opportunities and actions that will divert materials from disposal. The
focus of the work plan should be on identifying reuse opportunities first, recycling opportunities
second and finally disposal options if required. The waste diversion work plan should include:
list of materials which is identified for reuse from the waste audit and potential diversion
options and a summary of the weight and volume of materials that can be diverted to reuse
list of materials identified as recyclable and potential diversion options for each of these
materials including a description of the market outlet which shows the name, location,
contacts, type of operation and a summary of the weight and volume of materials that can be
diverted to recycling;
Expected costs associated with handling and storage on-site (e.g. bin rent costs),
transportation costs (delivery to market or disposal unit), tipping fees and potential revenues
from the sales of materials
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Reuse of the construction and demolition waste

Reuse initiatives should be given the highest priority, as the reuse of the materials makes the most
efficient use of natural resources and also results in a better economic benefit. Proper planning
before commencement of the project will facilitate the identification of reuse options.
Reuse of Construction and demolition wastes and building materials can include a range of
activities available to the project proponents and contractors such as:
Reuse materials on-site in rebuild stage of the project (e.g. doors, raised flooring, demountable
drywall partions, using masonry as backfill).
Separate and reuse materials that can be used for another off-site project (e.g. cabinetry,
acoustical tiles, doors etc.).
Separate building materials for donation or sale (e.g. acoustical tiles and suspended tracking
system are sold to reuse centre who then sell them to contractors renovating a local business).
Careful removal and handling of reusable building materials and equipment typically require
additional labour time than would traditional "tear out" and removal retrofits. The additional
project time and impact on labour costs for the reuse material removal needs to be outlined and
included in the diversion work plan.
Recycling of the construction and demolition waste

The waste diversion work plan should identify materials for which local recycling options exist.
When contacting and identifying potential recyclers, it is important to itemize the following:
the type and condition of the materials to be diverted;
the volume and weight of the materials;
on site storage and handling limitations; and
the expected construction, renovation and demolition schedule.
Recycling markets for construction and demolition wastes typically fall into one of two categories,
they are: single material outlets or full-service or mixed recycling outlets. Single material outlets
accept a single or limited range of materials which require source separation on the job site. Source
separation on the job site improves the quality of material to be sent for recycling. Source
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separation requires extra storage area, plus greater awareness on the part of job site workers.
Examples of single material recycling outlets includes: scrap metal companies, wood waste
recycling; drywall recycling concrete/aggregate companies.
The goals of waste diversion work should be noted or pointed in any agreement with a haulage
firm. The agreement should specify the list of materials that are to be recycled, a price schedule,
pickup requirements, and documentation of recycling.
Hazardous Wastes
By definition, Construction and Demolition wastes do not include hazardous materials. Even
though there are chances of presence of materials that are hazardous or that contain hazardous
materials in CRD wastes. These include the waste such as fluorescent light tubes that contain
mercury vapour, which contaminate the soil and surroundings; paints that contain lead; fluorescent
light ballasts containing PCB's; lead sound barriers; ceiling tiles with asbestos and air conditioning
units with ozone depleting substances. These materials require special and careful handling and
disposal.
Monitoring and Reporting
Each project should include a brief measurement report after the completion of the project,
including the following information:
a summary about the weight and volume of the materials that were actually generated
throughout the project
a summary of the weight and volume of the materials that were reused, and recycled after
the project
a summary of the costs and savings related to the waste management including labour costs,
and shipping and disposal costs and savings
a comparison of projected diversion percentages from the rates predicted in the waste audit;
the condition of the reusable and recyclable materials upon shipping and receiving;
a summary of problems incurred and potential solutions; and
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Conclusion:
The effective waste management can be done by reducing the production of waste by means of
proper planning and monitoring of the construction work. The materials that can be reused or
recycled should be separated from the waste at the demolition stage. Introduction of proper rules
and regulations for proper waste disposal will also help in the waste management. Proper
training and Awareness should be given to the workmen and public about the impact of waste in
our environment and the need of a green environment.
References:
Hamid A (2013), Implementing 3R Concept in Construction Waste Management at
Construction Site, Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences

Daniela Dietz Viana, Carlos Torres Formoso, Waste in construction : a systematic literature
review on empirical studies
Page 111
Study on Concrete with Glass Powder

Shilpa Raju , Dr. Rajeev Kumar P
Department of civil engineering,
Toc H Institute of science & Technology, Arakkunnam, Ernakulam, Kerala
e-mail Id: shilparajuaries@gmail.com
Abstract:
The global warming is caused by the emission of green house gases, such as CO2, to the
atmosphere. Among the greenhouse gases, CO2 contributes about 65% of global warming. The
global cement industry contributes about 7% of greenhouse gas emission to the earths atmosphere.
Consequently efforts have been made in the concrete industry to use waste materials as partial
replacement of coarse or fine aggregates and cement. Waste glass is one materials when ground to a
very fine powder shows pozzolanic properties which can be used as a partial replacement for
cement in concrete. In this paper, an attempt has been made to find out the strength of concrete
containing waste glass powder as a partial replacement of cement for concrete. Cement replacement
by glass powder in the range 5% to 40% increment of 5% has been studied. It was tested for
compressive strength and flexural strength at the age of 7, 28 and 90 days and compared with those
of conventional concrete. Results showed that replacement of 20% cement by glass powder was
found to have higher strength. Also alkalinity test was done to find out resistance to corrosion.
Key Words: Concrete, Glass Powder, Strength, Alkalinity test, Global warming.
Introduction:
Concrete is one of the worlds most used construction material due to its versatility, durability and
economy. India uses about 7.3 million cubic meters of ready-mixed concrete each year. It finds
application in highways, streets, bridges, high-rise buildings, dams etc. (Meenakshi and Ilangovan,
2011).
Green house gas like CO2 leads to global warming and it contributes to about 65% of global
warming. The global cement industry emits about 7% of green house gas to the atmosphere. To
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reduce this environmental impact alternative binders are introduced to make concrete (Vijayakumar
et al., 2013).
Glass is an amorphous material with high silica content making it potentially pozzolanic when
particle size is less than 75m. The main problem in using crushed glass as aggregate in Portland
cement concrete are expansion and cracking caused by the glass aggregate due to alkali silica
reaction. Due to its silica content ground glass is considered a pozzolanic material and as such can
exhibit properties similar to other pozzolanic material. In this study, finely powdered waste glasses
are used as a partial replacement of cement in concrete and compared it with conventional concrete.
Concrete mixtures were prepared with different proportions of glass powder ranging from 5 to 40%
with an increment of 5% and tested for compressive strength after 7, 28 and 90 days of curing
(Dhanaraj and Kesav, 2013).
Material and methods:
Cement: The cement used in this study was 43 grade Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) confirming
to IS 8112-1989.
Fine aggregate: Locally available sand confirming to zone II with specific gravity 2.62 was used.
The testing of sand was done as per Indian Standard Specification IS: 383-1970.
Coarse aggregate: Coarse aggregate used was 20mm and down size and specific gravity 2.93.
Testing was done as per Indian Standard Specification IS: 383-1970.
Glass: Waste glass available locally was collected and made into glass powder. Glass waste is very
hard material. Before adding glass powder in the concrete it has to be powdered to desired size.
1. Chemical composition
Table 1. Chemical composition of cementing materials
(Bajad et al., 2011)
Composition (% by mass)/ property
Cement
Glass powder
Silica (SiO2)
20.2
72.5
Alumina (Al2O3)
4.7
0.4
Iron oxide (Fe2O3)
3.0
0.2
Calcium oxide (CaO)
61.9
9.7
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
2.6
3.3
Sodium oxide (Na2O)
0.19
13.7
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Potassium oxide (K2O)
0.82
0.1
Sulphur trioxide (SO3)
3.9
Loss of ignition
1.9
0.36
Fineness % passing (sieve size)
97.4(45 m)
80 (45 m)
Unit weight,Kg/m3
3150
2579
Specific gravity
3.15
2.58
The particle size distribution of the glass powder and cement are shown in figure 1.
2. Sieve analysis
Fig.1. Particle Size Distributions of Cementitious Materials

Mix design: The concrete mix without glass powder was proportioned as per Indian Standard
Specifications IS: 10262-1982. Mix design was done for M20 grade of concrete. The mixture was
prepared with water to cement ratio of 0.5. The mix proportion of materials is 1:2.35:4.47 as per IS
10262-2009. Then natural fine aggregate was used. Nine different mixes (M1, M2, M3, M4, M5,
M6, M7, M8, M9) were prepared at cement replacement levels of 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%,
30%, 35% and 40% in concrete. To impart workability to the mix, a superplasticiser was used with
a dos age of 2% by weight of cement.
Casting and Testing: The 150 mm concrete cubes were cast for compressive strength and 150
x150x 700 mm beams were cast for flexural strength according to the mix proportion and by
replacing cement with glass powder (GP) in different proportion.
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1. Strength test: Using a compression testing machine (CTM) of capacity 2000KN in accordance
with the provisions of the Indian Standard specification IS: 516-1959, strength of specimens were
tested at 7, 28 and 90 days (Bajad et al., 2011).
2. Workability test: Workability is the property of freshly mixed concrete that determines the ease
with which it can be properly mixed, placed, consolidated and finished without segregation.
Workability depends on water content, aggregate cementitious content and age and can be modified
by adding chemical admixtures. The workability of fresh concrete was measured by means of the
conventional slump test as per IS: 1199-1989. Before the fresh concrete was cast into moulds, the
slump value of the fresh concrete was measured using slump cone (Bajad et al., 2011).
3. Alkalinity test: For conducting the alkalinity test specimen are taken out from curing tank after
28 days of curing. Then oven dry the specimens at 105C for 24 hours. The dry specimens are
cooled to room temperature. Mortar was separated from the concrete by breaking down the dry
specimen. Then the mortar is grinded into powder form. The powdered mortar is sieved in 150. 10
gm of mortar is taken and it is diluted in 50ml distilled water and stirred it completely. Then
immerse the pH meter into the solution and pH value of the solution is noted. The general pH value
of the solution and the level of inducing corrosion in the concrete were noted (Vijayakumar et al.,
2013).
Fig.2. Alkalinity test on glass powder added concrete

(Web Ref. 1)
Test Results
Test results are presented graphically and in tubular forms and have been discussed under different
categories.
Workability
Table 2 and Figure 2 shows the results of workability of concrete with cement replacement by glass
Page 115
powder in various percentages ranging from 5% to 40% in increments of 5% (0%, 5%, 10%, 15%,
20%, 25%, 30%, 35% and 40%).
Mix
Designation
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
M8
M9
Table 2. Overall result of slump of concrete

Percentage replacement of Slump Percentage increase or decrease
cement by glass powder
(mm) with respect to reference mix
0(Ref.mix)
100 05
94
-6
10
91
-9
15
88
-12
20
82
-18
25
76
-24
30
73
-27
35
72
-28
40
66
-34
From table 2 and figure 3 we can conclude that workability of concrete decreases as the glass
content increases.
Fig.3. Variation of slump of concrete with cement replacement by glass powder

Strength tests
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1. Compressive Strength
Table 3.Overall results of development of compressive strength in concrete with age
Compressive strength, MPa
Age, days 0%
5% GP 10% GP 15% GP 20% GP 25% GP 30% GP 35% GP 40% GP
GP
7
21.05 22.28 23.27
24.86
27.30
23.72
17.62
16.04
12.93
28
27.05 28.58 29.77
31.56
33.50
30.52
24.22
22.44
19.03
90
27.33 28.87 30.08
31.85
33.86
30.82
24.44
22.72
19.25
The table gives the results of test conducted on hardened concrete with 0-40% glass powder for 7,
28 and 90 days. From table 4 and figure 4, the results shows that the compressive strength increases
with increasing curing time. It seems the compressive strength obtained for concrete with 20%
replacement by glass powder showed a higher value by 30%, 24%, 24% compared to control
concrete for 7 days, 28 days and 90 days respectively.
Fig.4. Variation of compressive strength development in concrete

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2. Flexural Strength
Table 4. Overall results of development of flexural strength in concrete with age.
Flexural strength, MPa
Age, days 0%
5% GP 10% GP 15% GP 20% GP 25% GP 30% GP 35% GP 40% GP
GP
7
2.40 2.45
2.78
2.85
3.05
2.90
2.82
2.42
2.32
28
3.50 3.62
3.78
3.95
4.17
4.00
3.90
3.57
3.41
90
3.60 3.64
3.82
4.00
4.21
4.05
3.92
3.60
3.45
Table 4 and figure 5 shows the result of variation of flexural strength of concrete with cement
replacement by glass powder for 7, 28 and 90 days. It seems flexural strength of concrete with 20%
cement replacement by glass powder showed a higher value by 27%, 20%, 17% compared to
control concrete for 7 days, 28 days and 90 days respectively.
Fig.5. Variation of flexural strength development in concrete with age

3. Alkalinity test
Table 5.The alkalinity test values for glass powder added concrete
(Vijayakumar et al., 2013)
% Replacement of Glass powder in concrete pH Value
0
12.6
10
12.7
20
12.46
30
12.67
40
12.98
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The pH value observed from the alkalinity test showed that the specimen tested found to be more
alkaline and hence more resistant towards corrosion.
Discussion on Test Results
Workability
As the glass content increases (i.e. cement content decreased) workability decreases. As
there is a reduction in fineness modulus of cementatious material, quantity of cement paste
available is less for providing lubricating effect per unit surface area of aggregate.
Therefore, there is a restrain on the mobility.
Strength
As the percentage of replacement of cement with glass powder increases strength increases
up to 20% and beyond that it decreases. The highest percentage increase in the compressive
strength was about 30% and flexural strength was about 22% at 20% replacement level. The
increase in strength up to 20% replacement of cement by glass powder may be due to the
pozzolanic reaction of glass powder due to high silica content. Also it effectively fills the
voids and gives a dense concrete microstructure. However, beyond 20%, the dilution effect
takes over and the strength starts to drop. Thus it can be concluded that 20% was the
optimum level for replacement of cement with glass powder (Bajad and Modhera, 2010).
The strength improvement at early curing ages was slow due to pore filling effect. Later
waste glass powder on hydration liberates sufficient amount of lime for starting the
secondary pozzolanic reaction leading to more quantity of C-S-H gel getting formed
(Nathan and Narayanan, 2008).
Conclusions
Based on experimental observations, the following conclusions are drawn:
As the percentage of glass powder increases the workability decreases. Use of super
plasticizer was found to be necessary to maintain workability with restricted water cement
ratio.
Compressive strength increases with increase in percentage of glass powder upto 20%
replacement and beyond 20% strength decreases.
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Flexural strength also increases with increase in percentage of glass powder upto 20%
replacement and beyond 20% strength drops down.
Considering the strength criteria, the replacement of cement by glass powder is feasible.
Therefore we can conclude that the utilization of waste glass powder in concrete as cement
replacement is possible.
Very finely ground glass has been shown to be excellent filler and may have sufficient
pozzolonic properties to serve as partial cement replacement, the effect of ASR appear to be
reduced with finer glass particles, with replacement level.
References:
Bajad, M. N. and Modhera, C.D. (2010). Experimental Investigations in Developing Concrete Containing Waste
Glass Powder As Pozzolana., Journal of information, knowledge and research in civil engineering, 1(1), 32-37.
Bajad, M. N., Modhera, C.D. and Desai, A. K. (2011). Effect of glass on strength of concrete subjected to sulphate
attack., International Journal of Civil Engineering Research and Development, 1(2), 1-13.
Dhanaraj, M. P. and Keshav, K. S.(2013). Experimental Investigation Of Waste Glass Powder as Partial
Replacement of Cement in Concrete ., International Journal Of Advanced Technology In Civil Engineering, 2(1),
2231 5721.
Meenakshi, S.S. and Ilangovan, R. (2011). Performance of copper slag and ferrous slag as partial replacement of
sand in concrete., International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering, 1(4), 918-926.
Nathan, S. and Narayanan, N., (2008). "Influence of a fine glass powder on cement hydration: comparison to fly
ash and modeling the degree of hydration," Cement and Concrete Research, 38, 429-436.
Vijayakumar, G., Vishaliny, H. and Govindarajulu, D. (2013). Studies on Glass Powder as Partial Replacement
of Cement in Concrete Production., International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering,
3(2), 153-157.
Shetty M.S., (2006). "Concrete Technology Theory and Practice" S.Chand and Company Ltd., New Delhi.
Web References:
1.
http://www.ijetae.com
IS 383(1970) Indian Standard Specification For Coarse And Fine Aggregates From Natural Sources For
Concrete.
IS 516(1959) Methods of test for strength of concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS 10262(2007), Indian Standard Concrete Mix Proportioning- Guidelines.
IS 1199(1959), Methods of sampling and analysis of concrete, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Page 120
Concrete Technology In Sustainable Development

Jithin Thomas A
B-Tech student, Civil Engg.
Thejus Engineering College
Vellarakkad , Thrissur Dist. Kerala
e-mail Id: jithinarangassery@gmail.com
ABSTRACT :
Efforts to correct the results of past transgressions as well as to balance economic

development against legitimate concerns of conservation are pervading almost all aspects of life,
including the construction industry. Concrete, being the most widely used material worldwide, is a
natural target for conservation of natural resources. The cement industry is a major producer of
greenhouse gases and energy user. Recent research has led to the point where numerous byproducts of industrial processes with pozzolanic properties can be substituted partially for cement,
such as fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag. Also other recycled materials are finding
increased application in concrete production. For example, recycled concrete has been used
successfully in numerous projects, and crushed waste glass is now available as a valuable source
of aggregate, since the problem of alkali-silicate reaction has been solved. The key to commercial
success is beneficiation, i.e. the targeted utilization of specific properties of the recycled material,
which adds value to the end product
KEYWORDS : Fly Ash, Recycled Aggregate
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INTRODUCTION :
The concept of a sustainable development in the field of engineering offers several
possibilities for utilization of the recycled solid waste materials. This paper deals with the
properties of cementitious composites (concrete and mortar) based on recycled materials and the
specific problems for their production technology and application. The main goal of the
performed study was to find out how to achieve more sustainable concrete using different
recycled aggregate types, such as, demolished concrete, crushed bricks, etc. Also, part of the
report included the details about the possible applications of supplementary mineral materials
such as rice husk ash, slag, fly ash etc. The acquired experience in this field and a possible
practical application of such composites are also presented in the paper .
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH PAPER :
1. To discuss the possibilities of various materials to be used as an effective cement substitute.
2. To discuss the use of recycled aggregate in concrete mix.
THE ROLE OF THE CONCRETE INDUSTRY :
Worldwide, the cement industry produced about 1.4 billion tons in 1995, which caused the
emission of as much Carbon die oxide gas as 300 million automobiles accounting for almost 7%
of the total world production of Carbon die oxide. Concrete is the most widely used material
worldwide. Our industry has a responsibility and societal duty to make a contribution towards
sustainable development that is commensurate with its size.
There are two major opportunities to achieve such a goal that shall be addressed here. As
portland cement production is known to require large amounts of energy and is responsible for the
release of greenhouse gases, any effort to reduce the cement content in concrete will be beneficial.
The other possibility is to substitute recycled materials for aggregate or reinforcement. This
includes the recycling of concrete itself. By one estimate, the concrete industry is currently
consuming 8 billion tons of natural material each year. Any efforts to reduce such dependence of
virgin materials will therefore be a contribution towards sustainable development.
CEMENT SUBSTITUTES :
Cement is the key component of concrete that binds the other components together and
gives the composite its strength. A considerable amount of work has been reported in the literature
on how to use waste products of combustion or industrial processes as supplementary cementitious
Page 122
materials. Because of their cementitious or pozzolanic properties these can serve as partial cement
replacement. Ideally, the development of such materials serves three separate purposes
simultaneously. On the one hand, waste byproducts have an inherent negative value, as they require
disposal, typically in landfills, subject to tipping fees that can be substantial. When used in
concrete, the materials value increases considerably.
The fundamental challenge for the researcher is to identify waste materials with inherent
properties that lend themselves to beneficiation. Below, a few examples shall be mentioned.
Fly ash is the byproduct of coal burning power plants and is known to have excellent
pozzolanic properties. Its use in the concrete industry has a long and successful tradition. However,
in terms of the ratio of fly ash utilized to fly ash produced, there remains considerable room for
improvement. For example, of the 60 million tons of ash produced in 1995 in the U.S., only 8.1
million tons were utilized. India beneficiated only 2 million of the 57 million tons produced there in
the same year.
The use of fly ash as partial cement replacement is not without its challenges. There are
limits as to how much of the cement may be replaced. 20% is an often mentioned and easily
achieved goal. Malhotra has shown that as much of 60% cement replacement by American Society
for Testing and Materials Class F fly ash is feasible. Recent research has shown that it is possible to
replace 100% of the cement with chemically self-activated fly ash. However, the activators
proposed so far either need to be added in unreasonable amounts or are relatively expensive. A
major point of concern is the generally slow strength development of fly ash concretes. However, in
construction practice, high early strength is important only for some projects. In many others, such
as those involving mass concrete, slow strength development may even be an advantage, as it
generates lower heat of hydration rates. Another potential problem is quality control, because the
exact properties of the fly ash may change from batch to batch, depending on the source material.
Fly ash has been found to effectively and economically reduce the risk of ASR (AlkaliSilica Reaction). Under certain conditions, this problem can result in accelerated concrete
deterioration. The inclusion of fly ash in suspect concrete mix designs containing unclean and
deleterious aggregates has been found effective in mitigating the effects of ASR and is historically
the most common method employed .
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RECYCLED AGGREGATE :
Aggregate constitutes approximately 70% of concrete volume. Worldwide, this amounts to
billions of tons of crushed stone, gravel, and sand that need to be mined, processed, and transported.
In some parts of the country, suitable gravel pits and sources of construction grade sand are
depleting, while the opening of new sources requires time-consuming environmental impact
statements.
The substitute material that comes to mind first is recycled concrete. Construction debris
and demolition waste constitute 23% to 33% of municipal solid waste, and demolished concrete
contributes the largest share of this waste material. The use of recycled concrete poses many
interesting research problems. The fines and dust produced during demolition and crushing,
together with the pore structure of old concrete, increase the water absorption, which has to be
considered in the mix design.
Dredged material is a further important example that is being evaluated for use in concrete.
One of the most pressing problems confronting most major seaports of the world is the need for
dredging in order to keep the shipping lanes open. Until recently, the dredged material was simply
disposed of in the open ocean. But since it may be highly contaminated, national legislation and
international agreements are now prohibiting such practice. The material consists mostly of clays
and silts, much of it highly contaminated with oils, heavy metals, Printed Circuits Boards and other
toxic substances. A major research project is currently underway at Columbia University to search
for a beneficiation technology that renders the toxic components harmless.
When we look into the Indian scenario, there is high demand of infrastructural facilities like
houses, hospitals, roads etc. in India and large quantities of construction materials for creating these
facilities are needed. The planning Commission allocated approximately 50% of capital outlay for
infrastructure development in successive 10th & 11th five year plans. Rapid infrastructural
development such highways, airports etc. and growing demand for housing has led to scarcity &
rise in cost of construction materials. Most of waste materials produced by demolished structures
disposed off by dumping them as land fill. Dumping of wastes on land is causing shortage of
dumping place in urban areas. Therefore, it is necessary to start recycling and re-use of demolition
concrete waste to save environment, cost and energy.
Realising the future & national importance of recycled aggregate concrete in construction,
Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC), Ghaziabad had taken up a pilot R&D project
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on Recycling and Reuse of Demolition and Construction Wastes in Concrete for Low Rise and Low
Cost Buildings in mid nineties with the aim of developing techniques/ methodologies for use
recycled aggregate concrete in construction.
CONCLUSIONS :
The concrete industry is a major contributor to air pollution and user of natural resources.
As such it bears a special responsibility to make a contribution towards sustainable development
that is commensurate with its size. It can do so by pursuing three goals:
1.
Searching for cement production technologies that are less energy-intensive and cause
less air pollution. Since such technologies will not be available in the foreseeable future, the more
realistic approach is to reduce the need for Portland cement, primarily by increased use of
supplementary cementitious materials, especially waste materials.
2. Replacing concrete ingredients by recycled materials, such as recycled concrete or waste
glass.
3.
Through careful concrete mix design and prudent choice of admixtures, improve the
durability of structures such that they need to be replaced less frequently.
REFERENCES :
ASME/Bureau of Mines Investigative Program on Vitrification of Residue from Municipal Waste
Combustion Systems, American Society of Mechanical Engineers Report CRTD-24, 1993.
Malhotra, V.M., Role of Supplementary Cementing Materials in Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions, in
Concrete Technology for a Sustainable Development in the 21st Century, O.E. Gjorv and K. Sakai, eds.,
E&FN Spon, London, 2000.
Page 125
Reduction of Construction Wastes through Efficient Jobsite Practices.

Abhijith Harikumar, UG Student, Karunya University, abhi009009@gmail.com
Sreejith M H, UG Student, Karunya University, jithu.m.bio@gmail.com
Priya A.Jacob, Assistant Professor, Karunya University, priyajacob@karunya.edu
ABSTRACT:
Construction waste consists of unwanted material produced directly or incidentally by

the construction or industries. This includes building materials such as insulation, nails, electrical
wiring, and rebar, as well as waste originating from site preparation such as dredging materials, tree
stumps, and rubble. Construction waste may contain lead, asbestos, or other hazardous substances.
Much building waste is made up of materials such as bricks, concrete and wood damaged or unused
for various reasons during construction. Observational research has shown that this can be as high
as 10 to 15% of the materials that go into a building, a much higher percentage than the 2.5-5%
usually assumed by quantity surveyors and the construction industry. Since considerable variability
exists between construction sites, there is much opportunity for reducing this waste. Government or
local authorities often make rules about how much waste should be sorted before it is hauled away
to landfills or other waste treatment facilities. Some hazardous materials may not be moved, before
the authorities have ascertained that safety guidelines and restrictions have been followed. Hence
proper management of waste materials from construction sites has now become very crucial. This
paper discusses about the commonly seen construction waste materials. A detailed study is made on
the methods by which these construction waste materials can be recycled, reused or even disposed,
so that proper management of construction materials is ensured. Proper construction waste
management can help in prioritizing reduction of building-related wastes through efficient jobsite
practices.
KEYWORDS:
Construction waste management, Plasterboard, Waste treatment, Efficient jobsite practices
Page 126
Introduction:
Construction waste consists of unwanted material produced directly or incidentally by

the construction or industries. This includes building materials such as insulation, nails, electrical
wiring, and rebar, as well as waste originating from site preparation such as dredging materials, tree
stumps, and rubble. Construction waste may contain lead, asbestos, or other hazardous substances.
Much building waste is made up of materials such as bricks, concrete and wood damaged or unused
for various reasons during construction. Observational research has shown that this can be as high
as 10 to 15% of the materials that go into a building, a much higher percentage than the 2.5-5%
usually assumed by quantity surveyors and the construction industry. Since considerable variability
exists between construction sites, there is much opportunity for reducing this waste. Certain
components of construction waste such as plasterboard are hazardous once landfilled. Plasterboard
is broken down in landfill conditions releasing hydrogen sulfide, a toxic gas.
There is the potential to recycle many elements of construction waste. Often roll-off containers are
used to transport the waste. Rubble can be crushed and reused in construction projects. Waste wood
can also be recovered and recycled. Government or local authorities often make rules about how
much waste should be sorted before it is hauled away to landfills or other waste treatment facilities.
Some hazardous materials may not be moved, before the authorities have ascertained that safety
guidelines and restrictions have been followed. Among their concerns would be the proper handling
and disposal of such toxic elements as lead, asbestos or radioactive materials.
Characteristics
This category of waste is complex due to the different types of building materials being used but in
general may comprise the following materials :
Major components :
Cement concrete
Bricks
Cement plaster
Steel (from RCC, door/window frames, roofing support, railings of staircase etc.)
Rubble
Stone (marble, granite, sand stone)
Timber/wood (especially demolition of old buildings)
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Minor components :
Conduits (iron, plastic)
Pipes (GI, iron, plastic)
Management Strategy for Construction Waste
When determining management strategies for construction waste, the Government's objectives are
to:
Reduce waste generation, maximise reusing and recycling, reduce the intake of mixed construction
waste at landfills.
The overall strategy involves the maintenance of a well-managed public filling programme with
sufficient facilities and access. But given the high level of waste generation, the emphasis is also
being placed on producers. This involves the Government encouraging the industry to:
Sort mixed construction waste and not just dispose of it in a single place, reuse and recycle as far as
possible, design better and construct more efficiently to minimise waste.
Utilisation of Waste from Construction Industry
Indian Construction Industry is highly employment intensive and accounts for approximately 50%
of the capital outlay in successive 5-Year Plans of our country. The Projected investment in this
industrial sector continues to show a growing trend. Construction activity leads to generation of
solid wastes, which include sand, gravel, concrete, stone, bricks, wood, metal, glass, plastic, paper
etc. The management of construction and demolition waste is a major concern for town planners
due to the increasing quantum of demolitions rubble, continuing shortage of dumping sites,
increase in transportation and disposal cost and above all growing concern about pollution and
environmental deterioration. Central Pollution Control Board has estimated current quantum of
solid waste generation in India to the tune of 48 million tons per annum of which waste from
Construction Industry accounts for 25%. Management of such high quantum of waste puts
enormous pressure on solid waste management system.
Construction waste is bulky and heavy and is mostly unsuitable for disposal by incineration or
composting. The growing population in the country and requirement of land for other uses has
reduced the availability of land for waste disposal. Re-utilization or recycling is an important
strategy for management of such waste. Apart from mounting problems of waste management,
other reasons which support adoption of reuse/ recycling strategy are- reduced extraction of raw
materials, reduced transportation cost, improved profits and reduced environmental impact. Above
all, the fast depleting reserves of conventional natural aggregate has necessitated the use of
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recycling/ re-use technology, in order to be able to conserve the conventional natural aggregate for
other important works.
Considerable research has been carried out in U.S.A, Japan, U.K, France, Germany, Denmark etc.
for recycling concrete, masonry & bricks, bituminous and other constituents of waste from
Construction Industry. These studies have demonstrated possibility of using construction waste to
substitute new materials of recycling. In view of significant role of recycled construction material
and technology in the development of urban infrastructure, Technology, Information, Forecasting
and Assessment Council (TIFAC) has commissioned a techno-market survey on Utilization of
waste from Construction Industry. The focus of the present study is housing /building sector and
road construction segment.
Waste is generated at different stages of construction process. Waste during construction activity
relates to excessive cement mix or concrete left after work is over, rejection/ demolition caused due
to change in design or wrong workmanship etc. Estimated waste generation during construction is
40 to 60 Kg. per sq. m. Similarly, waste generation during renovation/ repair work is estimated to
be 40 to 50 kg/sq. m. The highest contribution to waste generation is due to demolition of
buildings. Demolition of Pucca and Semi-Pucca buildings, on an average generates 500 & 300 kg/
sq.m. Of waste respectively. Concrete appears in two forms in the waste. Structural elements of
building have reinforced concrete, while foundations have mass non-reinforced concrete.
Excavations produce topsoil, clay, sand, and gravel. This may be either re-used as filler at the same
site
after
completion
of
excavation
work
or
moved
to
another
site.
Large quantum of bricks and masonry arise as waste during demolition. These are generally mixed
with cement, mortar or lime. Stone arises during excavations or by demolition of old buildings.
Metal waste is generated during demolition in the form of pipes, conduits, and light sheet material
used in ventilation system, wires, and sanitary fittings and as reinforcement in the concrete. Metals
are recovered and recycled by re-melting. Timber recovered in good condition from beams,
window frames, doors, partitions and other fittings is reused. However, wood used in construction
is often treated with chemicals to prevent Termite infestation and warrants special care during
disposal. Other problems associated to wood waste are inclusion of jointing, nails, screws and
fixings. Bituminous material arises from Road planning, water proofing compounds, Breaking and
digging of Roads for services and utilities. Other miscellaneous materials that arise as waste
include glass, plastic material, paper, etc. The total quantum of waste from construction industry is
estimated to be 12 to 14.7 million tons per annum. Quantity of different constituents of waste that
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arise from Construction Industry in India are estimated as follows:
Constituent
Quantity Generated in million

Tons p.a. (Range)
Soil, Sand & gravel
4.20 to 5.14
Bricks & Masonry
3.60 to 4.40
Concrete
2.40 to 3.67
Metals
0.60 to 0.73
Bitumen
0.25 to 0.30
Wood
0.25 to 0.30
Others
0.10 to 0.15
Rebuilding C&D waste recycling efforts in India
In India nearly 50% of Construction & Demolition waste is being re-used and recycled, while the
remainder is mostly landfilled. Professor Sadhan Ghosh explains why the management of this
material is becoming a major concern for town planners, and challenges of increasing awareness
about recycling.
In India it's common practice for large Construction and Demolition (C&D) projects to pile waste in
the road, resulting in traffic congestion. C&D waste from individual households finds its way into
nearby municipal bins and waste storage depots making the municipal waste heavy, and degrading
its quality for treatments such as composting or energy recovery. The Indian construction industry
is highly labour intensive and has accounted for approximately 50% of the country's capital outlay
in successive Five Year Plans, and projected investment continues to show a growing trend. Out of
48 million tonnes of solid waste generated in India, C&D waste makes up 25% annually.
Rapid economic growth leading to urbanisation and industrialisation is generating waste, which is
adversely effecting the environment. The percentage of India's population living in cities and urban
areas increased from 14% at the time of independence to 27.8%. Projections for building material
requirement by the housing sector indicate a shortage of aggregates to the extent of about 55,000
million m3. An additional 750 million m3 of aggregates would be required to achieve the targets of
the road sector. There is also a huge demand for aggregates in the housing and road sectors, but
there is a significant gap in demand and supply.
Estimated waste generation during construction is 40 kg per m2 to 60 kg per m2. Similarly, waste
generation during renovation and repair work is estimated to be 40 kg per m2 to 50 kg per m2. The
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highest contribution to waste generation comes from the demolition of buildings. Demolition of
pucca (permanent) and semi-pucca buildings, on average generates between 300kg per m2 and 500
kg per m2 of waste, respectively.
The presence of C&D waste and other inert matters makes up almost one third of the total MSW on
an average, but so far no notable development has taken place for using this in an organised
manner. At present, private contractors remove this waste to privately owned, low-lying land for a
price, or more commonly, dump it in an unauthorised manner along roads or other public land.
Recycled roads in Kolkata A Case Study
In Kolkata the recycling of bituminous material is carried out using hot or cold mixing techniques
either on site, or at a central asphalt mixing plant. It offers benefits including reduced use of asphalt,
energy savings and a reduction in aggregate requirements. Cold in-situ recycling is done by
pulverising chunks of road material to a certain depth, mixing in cement, bitumen emulsion or
foamed bitumen and compacting. This recycling process is best suited to roads with light traffic.
For hot in-situ recycling, the upper layer of the road is pre-heated and the asphalt is loosened by
milling devices. It is mixed together with a recycling agent and the mixture is spread along the road
and compacted. Both practices are widespread in Kolkata.
Reusing materials
Some materials can be reused. For example, doors and windows in good, resalable condition might
substitute for new products, or be donated and or sold for use on another projecta form of
beneficial reuse.
Materials and products which cannot efficiently and effectively be eliminated, minimized or reused
ultimately are collected, and unless managed, will probably be disposed at the lowest cost. In many
areas of the country, disposal fees at solid waste landfills are substantially higher than the cost of
separation and recovery, including the disposal cost for residues.
Disposal
Being predominantly inert in nature, construction and demolition waste does not create chemical or
biochemical pollution. Hence maximum effort should be made to reuse and recycle them. The
material can be used for filling/leveling of low-lying areas. In the industrialised countries, special
landfills are sometimes created for inert waste, which are normally located in abandoned mines and
quarries. The same can be attempted in our country also for cities, which are located near open
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mining quarries or mines where normally sand is used as the filling material. However, proper
sampling of the material for its physical and chemical characteristics has to be done for evaluating
its use under the given circumstances.
Emerging issues
In an era of increasing energy prices, construction and demolition waste will be more widely
recognized as a recoverable resource. Technology and attendant regulations may promote
improvements in the diversion of wastes from the landfill and increasingly toward energy
generation and recycling of materials. Organic materials such as wood and plant wastes will
increasingly be recognized as important components of biofuel feedstock in the generation of socalled green power.
Building product manufacturers will continue to look for and find opportunities to reclaim their
used products, and to increase and promote their use of recycled materials into new and improved
products.
Industrial recycling equipment manufacturers are investing in development of improved machinery
which has potential to revolutionize the efficient sorting and diversion of waste. Industrial shredders
reduce physical volume and produce particles of consistent dimension, allowing efficient
mechanical separation. Industrial air separation technology allows efficient segregation of materials
with differing mass characteristics, thus separating small pieces of wood and plastic from metal and
aggregate.
Our role
There are a number of ways in which we can help to solve the problem of construction waste. Most
of this waste is generated because people are not aware of proper waste management, or even that
they should produce less waste. Construction companies can reduce waste through:
More careful purchasing and design, including the use of more advanced and less wasteful
technologies.
Managing raw materials more effectively.
Providing education and training to their workforces.
When renovating our own home, it is important to:
Work with our renovation contractor to minimise generation of construction waste.
Record how much waste we are producing, so that we can appreciate the problem and the
cost of waste disposal.
Separate inert and non-inert materials for recycling/disposal as appropriate.
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Give our renovation contractor clear instructions on the separation and removal of
construction waste.
Arrange with recyclers for the collection of recyclable waste.
We should also remember to ensure that waste is disposed of legally, so we can all benefit from a
clean environment.
Conclusions
1. The idea of reusing the waste material is very exciting and encouraging specially when it
will be helpful in minimizing destruction of earths crust and green forest cover by virtue of
reduced mining.
2. By suitable recycling and reuse, these waste materials will not contribute to waste loads at
dumping and disposal sites.
3. Construction industry can contribute towards its commitment to protection of environment
by encouraging use of recycled concrete stones and bricks.
4. Durability aspects of recycled building materials should be further examined in great details.
5. There is enough scope for further research on this topic which will further contribute
towards saving of earth and its resources.
References
1. Advanced Construction & Demolition Waste Management for Florida Builders, Center for
Construction
2. Building Deconstruction and Material Reuse in Washington, D.C., HUD.
3. A Builder's Guide to Reuse & Recycling, Alameda County.
4. Construction &Demolition Recycling magazine
5. Characterization of Building Related Construction & Demolition Debris in the United
States.
6. Deconstruction Training Manual; Waste Management Reuse & Recycling at Mather Field,
CIWMB.
7. Guide for Construction Waste Management Plan and Specifications, Lake County.
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Waste Plastic As A Stabilizing Additive In

Stone Mastic Asphalt
K. Akhil1, Liz Maria Joseph2
Assoc. Professor Vasudev.R3
1. BTech Student, Department of Civil Engineering
2. BTech Student, Department of Civil Engineering
3. Assoc. Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
ABSTRACT
Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) is a type of surface course for heavy traffic roads which has
high coarse aggregate content that interlocks to form a stone skeleton that resists
permanent deformation. The stone skeleton is filled with a mastic of bitumen and filler to
which fibres are added to provide adequate stability of bitumen and to prevent drainage of binder
during transport and placement. When polymers are added to SMA to improve the performance, it
is termed as Polymer Modified Stone Mastic Asphalt. As Polymer Modified SMA mixture is costly
as compared to other conventional mixes, waste plastics in shredded form are utilized as substitute
for costly additives. Various tests were conducted to check the performance of Stone Mastic
Asphalt when waste plastics are added in shredded forms.
Keywords:
Stone Mastic Asphalt, Polymer Modified Stone Mastic Asphalt, Shredded Waste
Plastic
INTRODUCTION
The quantum of plastic waste in Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is increasing due to increase in
population, urbanization, development activities and changes in life style, which leading
widespread littering on the landscape. Thus disposal of waste plastic is a menace and become a
serious problem globally due to their non-biodegradability and anaesthetic view.
Several studies have proven the health hazard caused by improper disposal of plastic waste. The
health hazard includes reproductive problems in human and animal, genital abnormalities etc. But
present life style a complete ban on the use of plastic cannot be put, although the waste plastic
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taking the face of devil for the present and future generation. We cannot ban use of plastic but we
can reuse the plastic waste.
Plastic is a very versatile material. Due to the industrial revolution, and its large scale production
plastic seemed to be a cheaper and effective raw material. Today, every vital sector of the economy
starting from agriculture to packaging, automobile, electronics, electrical, building construction,
communication sectors has been virtually revolutionized by the applications of plastics.
The plastic wastes could be used in road construction and the field tests withstood the stress and
proved that plastic wastes used after proper processing as an additive would enhance the life of the
roads and also solve environmental problems.
Since 1960s, Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) pavement surfaces have been used successfully in
Germany on heavy traffic roads. In recognition of its excellent performance a national standard was
set in Germany in 1984. Since then, because of its excellent performance characteristics, the use of
SMA increased in popularity amongst the road authorities and asphalt industry. Stone Mastic
Asphalt is a gap graded bituminous mixture containing a high proportion of coarse aggregate and
filler. It has low air voids with high levels of macro texture when laid, resulting in a waterproof
layer with good surface drainage. Stabilizing additives are needed in the mastic which is rich in
binder content to prevent the binder from draining down from the mix. Polymers and fibres are the
commonly used stabilizing additives in SMA.
Currently, polymer modified asphalt mixture is a relatively costly mixture for paving roads. One
way to reduce the cost of such constructions is by using inexpensive polymers, i.e. waste polymers.
The main purpose of this seminar is to determine the effect of incorporating waste plastic on the
engineering properties of stone mastic asphalt (SMA) mixture. The volumetric and mechanical
properties of asphalt mixes that include various percentages of waste plastics were calculated and
assessed with laboratory tests. The results show that the addition of waste plastics has a significant
positive effect on the properties of SMA and it can promote the re-use of waste material in industry
in an environmentally friendly and economical way.
PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS OF STABILIZED SMA MIXTURES
An optimum asphalt content of 6.63% as found from Marshal control mix design (by weight
of total mix) was used in preparing all other plastic modified mixes to maintain consistency
throughout the study.
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MATERIALS:
Aggregates
Bitumen
Plastic
Filler
The following steps were performed for the formulation of compacted specimens:
Graded aggregates were heated at 160-170C in an oven and waste plastic in shredded form
varying from 5%-12% at an increment of 1% was added into hot aggregates before mixing
an optimum binder content.
The bitumen was heated up to 160C in an oven.
The combination of plastic coated aggregates, filler and binder was mixed uniformly.
The specimens formulated were then compacted at 135C using Marshal apparatus.
LABORATORY TESTS
TESTS ON PLASTIC COATED AGGREGATES
A series of tests were carried out on plastic coated aggregates such as the Impact Test, Los Angeles
Abrasion Test, Stripping Test, Water Absorption Test and Soundness Test. The results were
recorded.
Table 4: Comparison of Physical Properties of Aggregates with Plastic Coated Aggregates

Property
Ordinary Aggregates
Plastic Coated Aggregates
Impact Value (%)
16
14
Abrasion Value (%)
20
16
After hours
After hours
Stripping Value (%)

Water Absorption
Value (%)
Soundness Value (%)
24
72
96
24
72
96
0.4
Nil
Nil
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MARSHALL TEST
Five specimens were prepared for each percentage of plastic and kept in water immersion for 35
min at 60C. The loading was applied to the specimen at a rate of 50.8 mm/min till the specimen
fails. The maximum load at which the specimen fails was taken as the Stability. During the loading,
an attached dial gauge measures the specimens plastic flow. The variation of Marshall properties
with percentage plastic and the variation of Marshall properties with percentage bitumen are
recorded.
Table 5: Design Parameters for Various Plastic Contents
% Plastic
Stability
(kN)
Flow (mm)
10.25
4.19
Bulk
Density
(kg/m3)
2447
13.92
4.05
2457
4.18
14.12
4.15
2463
4.08
14.84
3.97
2476
3.92
15.64
3.8
2492
3.78
10
16.82
3.56
2505
3.29
11
15.98
3.4
2548
3.12
12
14.96
3.2
2572
2.94
Air Void
(%)
4.2
he Marshall stability value of SMA with 10% waste plastic is 16.82 kN and the percentage
increase in stability value has been found to be 64% as compared to the mix without plastic.
This was attributed due to the enhanced interlock of aggregates. Beyond 10% plastic content the
stability decreases and the flow increases. This is related to the decrease in interlocking offered by
binder and plastic coated aggregate particles. Density is increasing with plastic content. The air
voids decreased for all plastic content due to the filling property attributed by plastic coating.
MOISTURE SENSITIVITY TEST
The test was carried out to find the water susceptibility of SMA mixtures. The difference in the
stability loss of SMA mixtures with and without plastic is determined by immersing the six
Marshall samples for each plastic content in the water bath at 60C. The stability values for three
samples from each mixture were obtained after 35 minutes of water immersion and the remaining
samples were tested after 24 hours of water immersion. The results were recorded.
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TRI-AXIAL TEST
This test measures the shear strength of test mix and its results give better information for the
prediction of field performance. The tests were carried out on cylindrical specimens 100 mm in
diameter and 150 mm in height. Sixty tri-axial samples were prepared with and without plastic
content at varying confining pressures of 0.25 kg/cm2, 0.5 kg/cm2, 0.75 kg/cm2 and 1 kg/cm2. Each
test was repeated thrice and average values were taken to represent Mohr-Coulomb envelope. The
strength parameters c and corresponding to with and without plastic content are obtained from
Mohr-Coulomb envelope.
SPLIT TENSILE TEST
Although SMA is not nearly as strong in tension as it is in compression, SMA tensile strength
is important in pavement applications. Tensile strength is typically used as a SMA performance
measure for pavements because it effectively stimulates tensile stresses at bottom of the SMA
surface course as it is subjected to loading. These stresses are typically the controlling structural
design stresses. It is difficult to directly measure the tensile strength because of secondary stresses
induced by gripping a specimen so that it may be pulled apart. Therefore, tensile stresses are
typically measured indirectly by a splitting tensile test. The results indicate that tensile strength is
increased, while the percentage loss in tensile strength is decreased for both testing temperature
(i.e., increase the adhesion between aggregate and asphalt which leads to a decrease in the stripping
of SMA). Tensile strength for stabilised mixtures is slightly higher than for conventional mixtures.
It can be seen that the plastic modified SMA mix improves the resistance to moisture susceptibility
of the bitumen mixtures.
COMPRESSION STRENGTH TEST
A set of 40 specimens were prepared to determine compressive strength values and divided
into two groups similar to those for split tensile test but tested with a deformation rate of 3.2
mm/min. Then the compressive strength and index in retained strength were calculated.
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CONCLUSIONS
Based on this study of utilisation of shredded plastic in SMA mixtures, the following findings
were made:
The Marshall stability value of stabilised SMA was found to be 17 kN, which is higher than
the prescribed value of 6.2 kN and percentage increase in stability value has been found to be
64% as compared to conventional mix.
The flow value of SMA with 10% plastic was found to be 3.56 mm which is in the range of
the prescribed value (2 to 4 mm) for as the flow value of the conventional mix is 4.19 mm.
Retained stability of SMA increases in plastic content upto 10% and the percentage increase
in retained stability as compared to conventional mix was found to be 16%.
Tri-axial test results show that stabilised SMA has 44% higher cohesion and 29% decrease in
angle of shearing resistance than the conventional mixes.
14% increase in the index to retained compressive strength of stabilised mix than the
conventional mix. This indicates that the stabilised SMA mix has good strength under
soaking.
Results indicated that flexible pavement with high performance and durability can be
obtained with 10% plastic content.
REFERENCE
Bindu C.S, Waste Plastics as a Stabilizing Additive in Stone Mastic Asphalt, International
Journal of Engineering And Technology, Vol. 2, 2010
Taher Baghaee Moghaddam, Dynamic Propertied of Stone Mastic Asphalt Mixtures

Containing Waste Plastic Bottles, Construction And Building Material, Vol. 34,September
2012
Celaleddin E Sengul, Evaluation Of SBS Modified Stone Mastic Asphalt Pavement,

Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 41, April 2013
Page 139
A Review On Strength And Fracture Properties Of

Post Consumed Waste Plastic
Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Asha S. PG Student
Asso. Prof. Manju P.M.
Asst. Prof. Joone Joy
(Department of Civil Engineering )
Sree Narayana Gurukulam College of Engineering
e-mail Id: ashas263@gmail.com
Abstract:
This research paper seeks to optimize the benefits of using post consumed waste PET bottles in the
fiber form in concrete (WPFRC).The post consumed waste mineral water plastic bottles are
shredded into fibers of specific size and shape. Several design concrete mixes with different
percentages (0 % to 3 %) of waste plastic fibers for two aspect ratios, are casted into desire shape
and size as per requirement of the tests. Each specimen was cured for 28 days. The workability
(slump, compaction factor), compression, split tension and flexural tests were carried out. The
results are compared with control concrete. The improvement in mechanical properties of concrete
was observed. The behavior of WPFRC depending on sizes of fibers is resulted in this paper.
Key Words: Solid Waste, PET Fibers, Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Strengths
1. INTRODUCTION
The building trades are great contributors to environmental degradation, more than
automobiles and other renowned polluting activities, but builders in the last years have made
great strides in reducing the environmental impact of the construction process. In the context of
a growing interest towards innovative materials recycling and sustainable buildings, particular
attention is receiving the experimentation and the study of concrete. Several waste materials,
like, e.g., recycled plastics, glass, cellulose, tire cords, and wood and carpet fibers, exhibit
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extreme versatility, light weight, durability, resistance to chemicals, excellent thermal and
electrical insulation properties. Such properties can be usefully exploited to build-up innovative
and sustainable composite materials. Concrete is a versatile material for civil engineering
construction. It is clear that the post consumed PET bottles in fiber form can be used to improve
the mechanical properties of concrete. The fibers developed thorough recycling process are
costly thats why the fibers are simply shredded to required shape and size. The present paper
reports the investigation of effect of the addition of various volume fraction of PET fibers on
behaviour of cement based matrix. The compressive strength, tensile strength and flexural
strength behaviour of concrete is discussed. The PET fibers inclusion in concrete is an
innovative material that can be promote in construction field.
2. EFFECT OF FIBERS IN CONCRETE
Fibers are usually used in concrete to control cracking due to plastic shrinkage and to drying
shrinkage. They also reduce the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water.
Some types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion, and shatterresistance in concrete.
Generally fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, and so cannot replace
momentresisting or structural steel reinforcement. Indeed, some fibers actually reduce the
strength of concrete.The aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber length (l) by its
diameter (d). Fibers with a non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for the
calculation of aspect ratio. If the fiber's modulus of elasticity is higher than the matrix (concrete
or mortar binder), they help to carry the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material.
Increasing the aspect ratio of the fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of
the matrix. Some recent research indicated that using fibers in concrete has limited effect on the
impact resistance of the materials. This finding is very important since traditionally, people
think that ductility increases when concrete is reinforced with fibers. The results also indicated
that the use of micro fibers offers better impact resistance to that of longer fibers.
3. STUDY ON PET BOTTLES
Polyethylene terephthalate , commonly abbreviated PET, PETE, or the obsolete PETP or PET-P,
is a thermoplastic polymer resin of the polyester family and is used in synthetic fibers; beverage,
food and other liquid containers; thermoforming applications; and engineering resins often in
combination with glass fiber. The term polyethylene terephthalate is a source of confusion
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because this substance, PET, does not contain polyethylene. PET consists of polymerized units of
the monomer ethylene terephthalate, with repeating C10H8O4 units. PET bottles are
characterized by high strength, low weight, and low permeability of gases (mainly CO 2) as well
as by their aesthetic appearance (good light transmittance, smooth surface).
4. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
4.1.Materials Used
Portland Pozzolana Cement (Fly Ash based) was used in this experimentation conforming to IS:
1489-1991 (Part I). The physical properties of used cement are as follows - Fineness (90 micron
sieve) = 2.7 %, Normal consistency = 32 %, Initial setting time = 210 minute, Final setting time
= 330 minute, Soundness (Le-Chat.) = 1.5 mm and 28 days compressive strength = 50.7 MPa.
Locally available natural sand from river was used as fine aggregate. The sand was having
specific gravity 2.53, water absorption 1.2 %, bulk density 1718.52 Kg/cu.m, fineness modulus
2.65, silt content 0.61% and conformed to grading zone- II as per IS: 383-1970. The crushed
stone aggregates were collected from the local query. The maximum sizes of aggregates were
20 mm and 10 mm and tested as per IS: 383-1970 and 2386-1963 (Part I, II and III)
specifications.
4.2. Water :
Potable water was used for mixing and curing of specimens throughout the
experimentation.
4.3. Super Plasticizer :
To impart additional workability a super plasticizer AC-PLAST-BV-M4 was used. It is concrete
plasticizer with less than 0.05 % chloride content and conforms to IS: 9103-1999. The super
plasticizer was added 0.6 % by weight of cement to all mixes.
4.4. Plastic Fibers:
The post consumed PET mineral water bottles of single brand were collected from local
restaurants. The fibers were cut after removing the neck and bottom of the bottle. The length of
fibers was kept 25 mm and the breadth was 1 mm and 2 mm. The aspect ratio (AR) of waste
plastic fibers were 35 (AR-35) and 50 (AR-50).The plastic fibers used were having specific
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gravity 1.34, water absorption 0.00 %. The different fractions for two aspect ratios were used in
this experimentation.
5. EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY
5.1.Concrete Mix
Based on the trial mixes for different proportion of ingredients the final design mix was
prepared for M30 grade of concrete as per IS 10262:2009.The concrete mix proportions of
1:1.42:3.55 (Combined) with water cement ratio 0.48 was selected. The plastic fibers were
added into dry mix of concrete in the percentages of 0.0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5%, and
3.0% by weight of cement. The different specimens as per requirements of tests were casted.
These specimens were tested after 28 days of curing. In each category there were three
specimens tested and average value is reported in the form of graphs.
5.2. Properties of Green Concrete
The workability of green concrete is determined with the help of slump cone test and
compaction factor test for each percentage of plastic fibers. These tests were carried out at every
batch of the concrete and average value is reported.
5.3.Specimen Dimensions And Different Tests
The compressive strength specimens of dimensions 150x150x150 mm were casted with
different percentages of PET fibers. Similarly tensile strength specimens of dimensions 150 mm
(dia.) x 300 mm and flexural strength specimens of dimensions 100x100x500 mm were casted.
The concrete filled moulds were vibrated on table vibrator. The compressive strength and
flexural strength specimens were tested under compression testing machine and universal
testing machine respectively as per IS 516-1959. The flexural test specimens were tested for
two points loading with 400 mm span. The indirect tension test (Brazilian test) was conducted
on tensile strength specimens under compression testing machine as per IS 5816-1970.
6. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The results of fresh and hardened normal concrete (0 % fibers) are shown in tables. The
behaviour of properties of WPFRC reported in the form of graphs.
Page 143
6.1.Workability and Dry Density

The following table 3 shows the results of workability (Slump and Compaction factor test)
and dry density of normal concrete for M30 grade. The figures show the behaviour of fresh
WPFRC and the dry density of WPFRC.
Table 1: Slump, Compaction Factor and Dry Density of Normal Concrete
% Fibers
Slump (mm)
67
Compaction Factor
0.877
Dry Density (KN/cu.m)

25.382
Page 144
Table 2: Compressive Strength, Tensile Strength and Flexural Strength in MPa
% Fibers
0
Compressive Strength
41.19
Strengths (MPa)
Tensile Strength
Flexural Strength
3.48
4.99
Page 145
7. DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS
All the tests were conducted on green and hardened concrete as per relevant standards.
The results were obtained experimentally after 28 days of curing of each specimen. The
results of fiber reinforced concrete are compared with the normal concrete.
8. WORKABILITY
8.1.Slump and Compaction Factor
Fibers
Slump
Compaction
Dry Density
(mm)
Factor
(KN/cu.m)
AR 35
0
AR 50
AR 35
67
AR 50
0.877
AR 35
AR 50
25.382
57
39
0.86
0.82
25.36
25.21
32
22
0.78
0.723
25.19
25.09
The workability of green concrete was measured in terms of slump and compaction
factor. From the values of slump and compaction factor it can be observed that the
workability decreases when the fiber % increases.
Table 3: Slump, Compaction Factor and Dry Density of WPFRC
9. STRENGTHS
Table 4: Compressive Strength, Tensile Strength and Flexural Strength in MPa
Page 146
10. CONCLUSIONS
The major conclusions based on the results obtained in the experiments are as follows.
The maximum percentage increase in compressive strength, split tensile strength
and flexure strength at 1% of fiber content were 5.26 %, 15.47% and 17.32 % for
aspect ratio 35 and 7.35%, 24.91% and 24.105% for aspect ratio 50 respectively
over control concrete (0% fibers).
It can be observed from test results that improvement in strengths was higher for
aspect ratio 50.
It was found that normal concrete specimens were suddenly broken into two
pieces at ultimate strength but WPFRC specimens did not suddenly
broken.The behavior of WPFRC was found ductile due inclusion of fibers.
The significant improvements in strengths were observed with inclusion of plastic
fibers in concrete. The optimum strength was observed at 1% of fiber content for all
type of strengths.
% Fibers
Strengths ( MPa )
Compressive Strength
AR 35
AR 50
Tensile Strength
Flexural Strength
AR 35
AR 35
41.19
AR 50
3.48
AR 50
4.99
42.96
42.96
3.87
4.13
5.71
6.00
31.70
33.19
2.58
2.83
3.89
4.17
From this experimental investigation, the composites would appear to be low-cost

materials which would help to resolve some solid waste problems and preventing
environment pollution.
Page 147
11. REFERENCES
T. Ochi, S. Okubo, K. Fukui (2007), Development of recycled PET fibre and its
application as concrete reinforcing fiber, Cement and Concrete Composites 29,
448-455
Ms K. Ramadevi, Ms R. Manju (2012), Experimental investigation on the

properties of concrete with Plastic PET (bottle) fibers as fine aggregates,
International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering
Volume 2 Issue 6, 42-46
Venu Malagavelli, Rao P.N. (2010), Effect of non bio degradable waste in
concrete slabs, International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering
Volume 1 No 3 , 449-457
Fernando Fraternali, Vincenzo Ciancia, Rosaria Chechile, Gianvittorio Rizzano,

Liciano Feo, Loredana Incarnato (2011), Experimental study of the thermomechanical properties of recycled PET fiber-reinforced concrete, Composit
Structures 93, 2368-2374
Rafat Siddique, Jamal Khatib, Inderpreet Kaur (2008), Use of recycled plastic
in concrete: A review, Waste Management 28, 1835-1852
IS: 2386-1963, Indian standards code of practice for methods of test for
Aggregate for concrete, Bureau of Indian Standard Institution, New Delhi.
IS: 383-1970, Indian standards specification for coarse and fine aggregates
from natural sources for concrete Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
IS: 10262:2009, Recommended guidelines for concrete mix design, Bureau of

Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Page 148
WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT
Polishing Domestic Wastewater With Subsurface Flow

Constructed Wetland
Reenu Lizbeth Roy 1,J. S. Sudarsan2 ,V. T. Deeptha3,
1
MTech, Environmental Engineering Student, 2,3 Assistant Professors,

Department of Civil Engineering, SRM University,Kattankulathur,
Kancheepuram District,Chennai,India
E-mail:reenuroy5@gmail.com, sudarsan.j@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in
Abstract:
Wetlands are ecosystems that occur where water conditions are intermediate
between uplands and deep-water aquatic systems. The water quality improvement ability of
natural wetland systems has been recognised for more than 25 years and during this period,
the use of engineered wetlands has evolved from a research concept to an accepted
pollution control technology.
Engineered wetland systems are treatment technologies that mimic natural wetland
systems and these treatment techniques were incorporated as components of waste water
treatment systems. Two general types of shallow vegetated ecosystems are being used for
water quality treatment: (1) free water surface (surface flow) and (2) subsurface flow
(vegetated submerged bed) systems.
This paper reviews treatment wetland performance for Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Nitrogen,
and Phosphorus and discusses the organic loading removal efficiency of subsurface flow
constructed wetlands. In this study the plants used were typha latifolia and phragmites
australis. The pollutant removal mechanism was also reviewed. Pollutant removal is highly
dependent on hydraulic loading and influent concentration and by the action of internal
plant communities and microorganisms, water depth, and hydraulic efficiency.
Page 149
The engineered wetland system achieved desirable removal efficiencies of 77.89%

for BOD, 62.02% for COD, 79.76% for TSS, 37.20% for N and 75% for P. The wastewater
that was used for the treatment efficiency analysis was taken from the sewage treatment
plant in SRM university campus. The analysis was done on a lab scale model developed
using a PVC tub with a size of 130X50X40 cm and a slight slope of (<1%) between inlet
and outlet zones. This technology acts as a natural and low cost treatment facility for
domestic wastewater and is now adopted in our university (SRM University) campus.
Key Words: Constructed wetlands, Wastewater, Typha latifolia and Phragmites
australis.
Introduction:
The demand for water is growing exponentially. The steadily increasing demand for
food and manufactured goods, the pressure on limited freshwater resources is rapidly
becoming unsustainable due to the growth of world population. The search for alternate
water resources is more critical than ever. But the reality is that wastewater reuse and
seawater desalination are currently the only significant alternatives to address this
challenge. Constructed wetland technology helps communities make use of every drop of
water that is available for reuse. For small settlements constructed wetlands is a good
alternative and is becoming popular in many countries.
Constructed wetlands can be used for primary, secondary and tertiary treatment of
municipal or domestic wastewaters, storm water, agricultural and industrial wastewaters
such as landfill leachate, petrochemicals, food wastes, pulp and paper and mining, usually
combined with an adequate pre-treatment (Kadlec, et al, 2000).Constructed wetlands are
classified on the basis of vegetation type (emergent, submerged, floating leaved, free
floating) and hydrology (free water surface and subsurface flow). Subsurface flow wetlands
are further classified according to flow direction (vertical and horizontal). Among various
types of Constructed wetlands Horizontal subsurface flow type is common. (Padma
Vasudevan, et al, 2011). These systems are commonly used to treat domestic and municipal
waste waters. In vertical flow constructed wetland, wastewater is pumped in large batches
to the bed and allowed to percolate through the media. A new batch is fed only after all the
water has drained from the bed.
Page 150
Horizontal constructed flow wetlands consists of a bed media, usually gravel or

soil, sealed by an impermeable layer and planted with wetland vegetation. Wastewater is
fed at inlet and flows through porous media under the surface of bed down a small gradient
at floor level until it reaches outlet zone, where it is collected. In media, pollutants are
removed by microbial degradation and chemical and physical processes in a network of
aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic zones,its aerobic zones being restricted to the surface and
areas adjacent to roots where oxygen leaks to substrates (Cooper P F, et al, 1996).Most
important role of plants in Horizontal flow constructed wetland is provision of hydraulic
pathways through media to maintain hydraulic conductivity.
The choice of plants is an important issue in CWS, as they must survive the
potential effects of the wastewater and its variability. The most widely used plants are
Phragmites australis( common reed) and typha spp. (cattails) (Vymazhal, 2005).
The present study aimed at treatment wetland performance for chemical oxygen
demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS),
nitrogen, and phosphorus and discusses the organic loading removal efficiency of
subsurface flow constructed wetlands. The pollutant removal mechanism was also
reviewed. A Horizontal subsurface flow unit was developed and was evaluated.
Materials and Methods:
Wetland site
The experimental pilot units were located at the civil engineering department of the SRM
University, kattankulathur Campus. The domestic wastewater was collected from the
sewage treatment plant in the university and is discharged into the wetland site after
primary treatment. The study was done for several trails in lab scale units continuously for
one year.
Wastewater sampling and analysis
The sewage to be treated and reused in the campus was subjected to characteristic
study. The following parameters were determined based on standard methods (APHA
1998): Biochemical oxygen demand, Chemical oxygen demand, Total suspended solids,
Total Nitrogen and Total Phosphorous. The analysis was done immediately after sample
collection, and it was tested for above said parameters.Waste water samples were taken
Page 151
using a gouge from the depth 10cm. The samples were stored in polyethylene plastic
bottles, transported to the laboratory on the same day and stored in the dark at 4 0C until
making the experimental procedure.(K. Cavusoglu et. al 2010)
Constructed wetland unit
The prototype model was designed based on the design manuals of EPA and CPCB. The
dimension of the constructed wetland was 130X 50X40 cm with a slope of 0.01 (1%). The
design is as per Darcys law. The wetland model of cross section 0.65m2 has been designed
with hydraulic loading of 20 litres and average flow of 2.8 m3/d .The aspect ratio (length to
width ratio) is taken as 2.6: 1(<3%). The retention time provided is 24, 48 and 72 hrs. The
effluent yield is approximately 12 litres.
The wetland media consisted of a gravel bed underlain by an impermeable layer.
The bed was filled to a height of 25cm with coarse rock, medium gravel, fine gravel,
gravelly sand and coarse sand. The top portion of the wetland unit was filled with local
sandy clay loam soil to support vegetation.
Plant material
Phragmites australis and typha spp. (wetland plant species) were used in the study.
The plants were collected from a nearby lake and planted in the wetland unit. They increase
the residence time of water by reducing velocity, and increase sedimentation of the
suspended particles. They also add oxygen and provide a physical site for microbial
bioremediation. The plants have been used to remove suspended solids, nutrients, heavy
metals, toxic organic compounds and bacteria. (M Deepak etal, 2012.)
These plants were transplanted from this site to the wetland unit. Plants that were
used in the lab scale units were apparently well established in their place of origin. The
vegetation was planted by hand.
Maintanence
The systems were inspected on a weekly basis concerning the overall functioning.
Major attention was given to the inlet flow, which was checked twice a week, as clogging
may occur due to the presence of suspended solids.
Results and Discussion :
Page 152
The efficiency of the lab unit subjected to designed hydraulic conditions was
monitored through their operation and characteristics of wastewater collected from the
inflow and outflow of the unit for several months and several trails were done with the
retention time of 24,48, and 72 hours. The mean average values of reduction efficiencies
were taken for discussions. In the first day of wastewater application after 24 hours of
contact time in the lab scale pilot unit the outflow water showed subsequent reduction of
COD, BOD, TSS, N and P. The reduction percentages were increased as the contact time
was increase to 48 and 72 hours. The mean average reduction efficiencies of COD, BOD,
TSS, N, P during several trails are shown in figure 1. Figure 1 shows the overall
reduction efficiency and it was found that reduction efficiency are high with contact time
and the characteristic values are also showing considerable variations.
Parameter values( mg/l)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Raw
24hrs
48hrs
72hrs
BOD
190
67
42
21
COD
258
134
98
54
TSS
257
111
52
14
43
33
27
20
Fig 1-Variation in parameters of raw sewage in lab scale wetland unit planted with
Phragmites australis and typha latifolia. BOD-Biochemical oxygen demand, CODChemical oxygen demand, TSS-Total suspended solids, N- Total Nitrogen, P-Total
Phosphorous.
Fig 2 discusses the reduction efficiency of the lab scale unit which is a horizontal
Page 153
subsurface flow constructed wetland. The reduction percentages are clearly indicated in the
following the graph. The unit showed considerable reduction for various parameters at
different time intervals. Residence time of 24hrs, 48hrs and 72 hrs were considered in the
study. The reductions attained for BOD were from 64 to 88%, COD 48 to 79%, TSS 56 to
90%, for N 23 to 53% and for P 37 to 75%. Constructed Wetlands with subsurface
horizontal flow usually provide high removal of organic matter (BOD and COD) and
suspended solids but lower nutrient removal (Vymazhal, 2005; Kadlec et al, 2000).
The constructed wetland set up developed has proven good capacities for BOD and
COD removals. Nitrification is influenced in a planted wetland by the oxygen concentration
of the media, which is bringing in subsurface flow wetland by the plant roots and by its
transfer at the interface atmosphere bed surface. Indirectly the plant types used could
influence oxygen transfer in the sand media, which can have impact on nitrification.
Removal effeciency of CW
100
90
80
% reduction
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
24hrs
48hrs
72hrs
BOD
64.73
77.89
88.94
COD
48.06
62.02
79.06
TSS
56.8
79.76
94.55
23.25
37.2
53.48
37.5
75
75
Fig 2- Removal efficiency of subsurface flow constructed wetland lab scale unit at 24,
Page 154
48 and 72 hrs planted with phragmites australis and typha latifolia.

4. Conclusion
The engineered wetland system achieved desirable removal efficiencies of 77.89%
for BOD, 62.02% for COD, 79.76% for TSS, 37.20% for N and 75% for P. The wastewater
that was used for the treatment efficiency analysis was taken from the sewage treatment
plant in SRM university campus and based on this study it is proposed to develop a large
scale unit in the campus for treating campus wastewater. If it is properly designed and
maintained it will act as an effective tertiary treatment technology for domestic wastewater
treatment with low operation and maintenance cost comparing to the normal Sewage
treatment Plant (STP) in practice.
References:
Cristina S.C. Calheiros, Antonio O.S.S. Rangel, Paula M.L. Castro 2007. Constructed wetland systems
vegetated with different plants applied to the treatment of tannery wastewater: Water research , 41 :1790
1798 .
Cooper P F, Job G D, Green M B & Shutes R B E, 1996, Reed beds and constructed wetlands for wastewater
treatment( WRC Publications, Medmenham,UK)
EPA Manual, 1993, Subsurface constructed wetlands
for wastewater treatment. EPA 832-R-93-008
Kadlec , R.H, Knight, R.L.,Vymazal, J., Brix,H, Cooper, P, Haberi,R., 2000. Constructed wetlands for
pollution control-processes, performance,
design and operation. IWA Scientific and Technical report
No.8.IWA, publishing , London,UK

Kadlec R H & Wallace S D, 2008, Treatment wetlands, 2nd edn (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA)
Kultigin Cavusoglu, Kursad Yapar, Kadir Kinalioglu, Zafer Turkmen, Kursat Cavusoglu and Emine Yalcin
2010. Protective role of Ginkgo biloba on petroleum wastewater-induced toxicity in Vicia faba L. (Fabaceae)
root tip cells: Journal of Environmental Biology, 31: 319-324
M. Deepak, J. S. Sudarasan, V. T. Deeptha, G. Baskar 2012. Low cost Dairy Wastewater Treatment using
constructed wetland. Journal of institution of public health engineers:Vol 3 page. 55-60
Schnoor, J.L., L.A.Licht,S.C. McCutcheon, N.L. Wolfe and L.H. Carreira 1995. Phytoremediation of organic
and nutrient contaminants: Environ. Sci. Technol., 29: 318A -323A
Stephen E. Mbuligwe, 2005, Comparative treatment of dye-rich wastewater in engineered wetland systems
(EWSs) vegetated with different plants 2004. Water Research, 39 :271280.
Susarla, S., V.F. Medina and S.C. McCutcheon 2002. Phytoremediation: An ecological solution to organic
chemical contamination: Ecol. Engineering, 18, 647-658.
Vymazal J, 2005 , Constructed wetlands with horizontal sub surface flow and hybrid systems for wastewater
treatment, Ecol Engg, 25, 478-490
Vymazal J, 2010 ,Constructed wetlands for wastewater
treatment, water 2 , 530-549.
Page 155
Recovery Of Nutrient From Waste Water

Through Struvite Crystallization
J. S. Sudarsan, Aswin Menon & Chandrayee Purkhayastha
Assistant Professors, Department of Civil, SRM University,
Kancheepuram District, Chennai.
B.Tech, Civil Engineering Student, SRM University,Kancheepuram District,
Chennai,India E-mailId : sudarsan.j@ktr.srmuniv.ac.in
Abstract
Discharge of untreated domestic wastewater is a problematic issue. It causes root burning,
eutrophication and results in the formation of crystalline deposits in wastewater treatment plants.
Domestic wastewater is recognized as nutrient rich water. Various treatment methods have been
adopted in various industries throughout the globe. But the major disadvantages among all these
plants are cost inefficiency and non-feasibility. Also in most treatment plants, the nutrient value of
the waste water is not utilised.
In this case study, waste water from the treatment plant in SRM University, Chennai was studied
and through a series of chemical processes, a value added nutrient called struvite was obtained,
which is a slow releasing fertilizer. This was achieved using a Mixed Suspension Mixed Product
Removal Batch Reactor (MSMPRBR). When compared to the conventional methods, it was found
that the MSMSPRBR is an effective substitute due to its low cost and high efficiency.
In this study, we had to deal with raw waste water that had been collected from the treatment plant
of SRM University as well as artificial waste water. The main objective of using artificial waste
water is to obtain the pure struvite crystal from it so that it can be used to form the precipitate and
obtain useful nutrients from the raw waste water.
Page 156
Introduction
A major constituent of wastewater is struvite. Magnesium ammonium phosphate hexa-hydrate
(MgNH4PO4.6H20) is more commonly known as struvite. It is slowly soluble in neutral water.
Formation of Struvite
Struvite precipitates spontaneously in wastewater treatment environments with high concentrations
of soluble phosphorus and ammonium. Additional essential conditions are low concentration of
suspended solids and pH above 7.5 [3]. Normally municipal wastewater tend to be rich in
ammonium, but deficient in magnesium, so supplementation of magnesium is required and this
helps to increase solution pH.
Struvite crystals can grow significantly in 3 hours. Natural aging with phosphate precipitation can
be obtained in a few days with a different percentage of struvite. The struvite production rate
depends upon the concentration of struvite and mixing intensity in the reactor [5].
The source of waste water is SRM University sewage treatment plant. The waste water coming for
treatment is mainly from the University hostel toilets, bathrooms and kitchens.
From the experiments conducted on the collected samples of raw wastewater from SRM treatment
plant, the two main constituents of wastewater are found to be Nitrogen and Phosphorus [2].
Nitrogen in domestic wastewater consists of approximately 60% to 70% Ammonia-Nitrogen
(mostly derived from urea) and 30% to 40% Organic Nitrogen [6].
Total phosphorous typically ranges between 4 and 8 mg per litre. Major sources of phosphorous
includes, fertilizers, detergents, human and animal wastes etc. It is usually present in one of the
three forms; Orthophosphate, Polyphosphate and organically bound phosphorus.
Objectives of research paper

1. To design an isothermal lab scale struvite reactor
2. To demonstrate a strategy to maintain semi-continuous controlled struvite
crystallization using a lab scale reactor
3. To establish a relation between pH and amount of crystallization
Research Methodology
The present case study was formulated based on existing literature references and secondary
literature materials in the form of papers and journals available in websites and reference
books.
Page 157
Struvite precipitates spontaneously in wastewater treatment environments with high

concentrations of soluble phosphorous and ammonium. Additional essential conditions are
low concentration of suspended solids and pH above 7.5. Additionally magnesium was
supplied to increase pH. To increase the production rate of struvite, a chelating agent EDTA
was added to dissolve most of the precipitate into solution [8].
Method
DESIGN OF BATCH REACTOR
A Mixed Suspension Mixed Product Removal Batch Reactor (MSMPRTR) [1], [4] of 12 litres
volume made of clear Perspex was used. The reactor is cylinder of diameter 200 mm and a height of
250 mm with a conical base. The height of conical part of the reactor is 100 mm. A cylindrical
aeration tank of diameter 100 mm andheight 200 mm was installed in the middle of the reactor for
aeration of waste water. The lower part of the reactor acts as settling zone of struvite and an outlet
was provided for the removal of sludge and crystals.
Another outlet was provided in the upper part for removal of excess waste-water. A mechanical
operated mixer was installed in the middle of the reactor of capacity of 33 rpm. Due to vibrations,
mixing is achieved by aeration pump of capacity 5 litres/minute.
FIGURE: -MSMPRBR Schematic sketch
Page 158
PREPARATION OF ARTIFICIAL WASTE WATER AND FORMATION OF STRUVITE

Lab-scale artificial waste water was prepared in order to obtain a comparative study of the raw
waste-water. Artificial waste water was prepared by the mixing of tap water, ammonium chloride
and potassium di hydrogen phosphate in the ratio 1 : 1, 1 : 1.5 and 1.5 : 1. The pH of the solution
was adjusted between 7.5 and 8, and kept for room temperature for 8 to 10 hours to minimise the
effect of Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe3+. The magnesium solution, 20 % and 30 %, was prepared using
MgCl2.6H2O salt. The pH was adjusted to 7.5 8.0.
A series of batch tests and jar tests were conducted to identify the optimum pH and the best ratio of
reactant at which maximum precipitation occurred.
From the primary test it is concluded that maximum turbidity in the solution was observed with 1:1
ratio at pH 10. Purity of struvite was checked by dissolving it in 5N HCl solution. Maximum pH
was between 9 - 9.5. 83% phosphate and 16% ammonia were removed along with struvite.
The maximum spontaneous precipitation was observed at a range of pH 9 10. Also by varying the
concentration of synthetic solution, the maximum and minimum pH was obtained. This is known as
the operating zone of crystallization also called the meta-stable zone of crystallization. This zone,
here, was observed in the range of pH 8.5 10.After repeated experiments the exact pH value for
maximum precipitation was observed as 9.2.
A Small scale lab test of struvite crystallization was conducted in the MSMPRBR.8 litre of artificial
waste water was taken, whose pH was increased at the rate of 5 litres per minute, till the required
pH. 2 litres 30 % MgCl2 solution was added at the rate of 7.5 ml per minute and mixed using air
pump. The HRT of the reactor was maintained for about 5 hours, after which the solution was kept
for 24 hours for formation [7].
Pure struvite formed was sieved using 45 o 63 m ASTM standard sieves. 1 g of parent struvite
seedwas added to the raw waste water and experiments were carried out. It was mixed uniformly
using air pump. Air was used to obtain the optimum pH and the experiment was conducted within
the metastable zone.
Results
The pH of the waste water was increased to 9.2 from its actual pH of 6.5. Following this, 1.5 litres
of 30% MgCl2 solution was mixed with the raw waste water and when precipitation starts the pH
Page 159
falls down to the range of 8.7 to 8.9. This addition of MgCl2 also affects the TDS concentration and
it increases at the rate of 4323 4467 mg/l. The BOD and COD concentration of the solution
decreases and are found in the range of 74 6.53 mg/l and 176 - 204 mg/l. After the precipitation of
struvite, it was found that the concentration of calcium sharply decreases whereas the magnesium
concentration sharply increases. The concentration of total hardness and magnesium hardness
sharply increases, whereas that of calcium hardness decreases. The phosphate concentration declines
sharply and about 95% of it was recovered. The ammonia concentration declines sharply and about
91% of it was recovered
Taking into account the feasibility of the reactor, about 3.22 0.15 gram per eight litres of pure
struvite (79 83 %) was obtained. Also, the fertilizing potential of struvite was tested and observed
that there was an increase in the fresh and dry weight of broad bean plant at different stages.
10
9
8
7
pH
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
10
Number of batch experiments

influent
effluent
Table: pH of mixed wastewater in each batch experiment
Page 160
TDS of mixed waste water ()mg/l
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1
10
Number of batch experiments

influent
effluent
Table: TDS of mixed wastewater in each batch experiment
3.5
3.4
gram per eight litre
3.3
3.2
3.1
gm of struvite ppt
3
2.9
2.8
2.7
1
10
number of batch experiment
Table: struvite precipitate obtained in each batch experiment
Page 161
84
83
82
purity (%)
81
80
79
purity in %
78
77
76
75
1
10
number of batch experiment
Table: Purity of struvite precipitate obtained in each batch experiment
Conclusion
This paper mainly focusses on struvite crystallization and investigation of struvite growth
kinetics. A 10 litre capacity Mixed Suspension Mixed Product Removal Batch Reactor
(MSMPRBR) was designed to perform the experiment. The maximum precipitation was
observed at a pH range of 9.0 - 10 and reactant ratio of 1:1:1. The metastable zone was
observed in pH range of 8.5 10. The amount of struvite precipitate from 8 litres of mixed
wastewater was found to be 3.22 0.15 grams. The purity of struvite crystals were found in
the range of 79 83 %. The remaining 21 17 % was other complexes which affect the
purity of struvite. The fertilizing potential of struvite was also confirmed by observing an
increase in the fresh and dry unit weight of broad bean plant at different stages of growth.
References
1. Adnan, A.Koch, F.A and Mavinic, D.S (2003), Pilot-scale study of phosphorous
recovery through struvite crystallization-II: Applying in reactor saturation ratio as a
process control parameters, Journal of Environment Engineering Science, Vol.2,
Page 162
473-483.
2. J.E Lee, M.M. Rahman, C.S, Ra (2009). Dose effect of Mg and PO4 source on the
composition of swine manure, Journal of Hazardous materials, Vol.169, 801-804
3. K. Ohlinger, T.Young, E.Scroeder (1998), Predicting struvite formation in digestion,
Water Resources, Vol. 32, 3607-3614
4. K. Ohlinger, T.Young, E.Scroeder (2000), Postdigestion struvite precipitation using
fluidized bed reactor, Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 126 (4), 361-368.
5. M.I Ali, Struvite crystallization in fed-batch pilot scale and description of solution
chemistry of struvite, chemical Engineering Research and Design, Vol 85(A3) , 344356.
6. Md. Imtiaj Ali (2005, Struvite crystallization from nutrient rich wastewater, Ph.D
Thesis, James cook University, Australia.
7. J.W Mullin (1993), crystallization, 3rd Butterworth-Heinemann publication, Ispwich,
UK.
8. P.Battistoni, P. Pavan, M. Prisciandaro, F. Cechi (2000), Struvite crystallization: a
feasible way to fix phosphorous in anaerobic supernatant, Water Resource, Vol. 34,
3033-3041.
Page 163
The Treatment Of Pulp And Paper Mill Wastewater

By Wet Oxidation
1
Amrutha K,2Annie Joy
B-tech student, 2Asst.Prof.

Toc H institute of Science and Technology
Email id: 1amrkve@gmail.com,2annjoy87@gmail.com
Abstract
In India a number of small, medium, and large pulp and paper mills exists which are
producing a wide variety of paper products. In pulp and paper mills large quantity of water required
for the processing and subsequent bleaching. Most of the pulp and paper manufacturing units are
not equipped with proper waste water management system. The waste water generation is more,
since the increase in paper production is expected due to ongoing and future development activities.
Therefore a sustainable wastewater treatment system needs to be developed to meet the discharge
standards prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi. One of the solution for the
treatment of waste water in pulp and paper mill is the wet oxidation. Wet oxidation is an effective
method to degrade persistent organic or inorganic impurities present in industrial waste water. The
process utilizes severe oxidation conditions to achieve the efficient degradation of pollutants. This
seminar report mainly deals with the wet oxidation treatment for pulp and paper mill effluent.
Keywords: Pulp and paper mill effluent, Wet oxidation, Persistent compounds
Introduction
Pulp and paper industries use tons of water during wood processing and paper making. The
water becomes contaminated as it removes toxic and hazardous organic chemicals from the wood
material which may eventually be released into freshwater ecosystems. Their toxic nature is derived
from the presence of several naturally occurring and xenobiotic compounds which are formed and
released during various stages of papermaking. Environmental conservation drive and policies to
produce less toxic wastewater before discharging into the ecosystem have compelled wood and
paper industries to treat their wastewater to meet acceptable standards before discharging or
recycling it in the process.
Page 164
Many waste water treatment methods are already developed and are in use. Most of these
conventional methods are incapable of effectively removing all organic pollutants. Biological
treatment is very effective for many industrial pollutants. However, waste waters produced by paper
mills contains organic that are nonbiodegradable or toxic and are found in high concentrations
therefore making biological treatment not very effective. Therefore,
the search for an intensified, efficient and better technology development to treat paper mill waste
water has been a major concern throughout the world.
Wet oxidation (WO) is a hydrothermal process which takes place under high temperature
(125 3200c) and pressure (0.5 20 MPa) in the presence of a source of oxygen. Several
homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts have been used for the WO reaction.The oxidation
reaction is exothermic. So it can generate sufficient heat for maintaining the desired temperature
during the reaction provided the waste stream has enough chemical oxygen demand (>10,000 mg/l).
Even under lower operating conditions if a suitable catalyst is added to the reaction system the
process can show similar level of degradation. Homogeneous catalysts require a post treatment to
be separated and recycled, while heterogeneous catalysts can be separated easily after the reaction
from the resulting effluent. This report mainly deals with the suitability of the WO process for the
treatment of pulp and paper mill waste water.
Waste water generation

The schematic representation of paper making process and source of waste water is shown in
fig. 1.
Wood preparation for pulping

Solid, BOD, color
Chip digester and liquor evaporator

High strength BOD, reduced sulfer compounds, AOX, VOCs
Post pulping process

High amount waste water including SS and BOD
Bleaching
BOD, color, chlorinated compounds, AOX, VOCs
Paper making and coating

Solid, BOD, color,acetone
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of paper making process and source of waste water
(Source: www.intechopen.com)
Page 165
Wastewaters from pulp and paper mill are discharged at a rate of 20250 m3/t of ADP (air
dried pulp). Pulping and bleaching sections are considered the sources of two most polluted streams
in a pulp and paper mill. Pulping is the initial stage and the source of the most pollutant of this
industry. In this process, wood chips as raw material are treated to remove lignin and improve fibers
for papermaking. Bleaching is the last step of the process, which aims to whiten and brighten the
pulp. Tabe 1 shows fresh water requirements and waste water quantities from pulp and paper mill.
The wastewater from the pulping process is highly alkaline and intensely colored due to the
presence of lingo-cellulosic compounds. Wastewater from bleaching sessions generally contains
adsorbable organic halides (AOX), lignin and other cellulosic compounds. Formation of these
compounds is directly proportional to consumption of chlorine or chlorine based bleaching agents .
Some of the chlorinated compounds known to impart toxicity are: di, tri, tetra chlorophenols,
chloroguaiacols, tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (TCDD) and furans (TCDF). These compounds are
recalcitrant to degradation and tend to persist in nature. They are thus known as persistent organic
pollutants (POPs). Since some of the contaminants in pulp and paper industry effluents are nonbiodegradable, conventional biological treatment processes are not sufficient for treatment. The
extent of toxicity, total organic carbon (TOC) and color removal by conventional biological
treatment vary depending on the pulping process used. The conventional treatment for Indian pulp
and paper mills include primary treatment and secondary aerobic biological system. Some of the
mills have adopted anaerobic system also. It has been observed that the secondary effluent still
contains color and high level of chlorinated organic compounds (AOX) that impart toxicity to the
wastewater. In order to meet increasingly stringent discharge limits, pulp and paper mills are forced
to adopt technologically advanced treatment systems such as wet oxidation. Whole processes of this
industry are very energy and water intensive in terms of the fresh water utilization.
Table.1 Fresh water requirements and wastewater quantities
Source: www.springer.com
Quantity of fresh water, m3/ton
Waste water generation m3/ton
Pulping
21.7
27.0
Bleaching
11.0
16.2
Total water requirement

/ wastewater generation
91.9
72.7
%of total
water/wastewater
35.6
59.4
Operation
Page 166
Water treatment by wet oxidation

Wet oxidation can be defined as the process through which organic contaminants, in liquid
or solid form, are extracted into water where they come into contact with an oxidant under
conditions that promote their rapid destruction.
A simple diagram of a general wet oxidation flow-scheme can be seen in Figure2. The waste
is pumped through a high-pressure pump; this can be a standard reciprocating diaphragm pump for
liquids or a more exotic high pressure pump for slurries. The oxygen for oxidation is supplied by
either air or pure oxygen and in this general flow scheme an air compressor is shown. The air is
combined with the liquid andthey pass through a feed/effluent (F/E) heat exchanger (HX) where the
fluid is heated to near reaction temperatures. The two phase fluid then flows into the bubble reactor
where the exothermic reaction takes place. The usual retention time in the reactor is 1 hour. The
oxidized effluent and off-gas then pass through the hot side of the F/E HX to be cooled while
simultaneously heating the influent. Auxiliary heaters and coolers are also employed (not shown).
Depending on material of construction constraints, steam balance desires, or other factors, separate
heat exchangers rather than an F/E HX have been used. After cooling, the wet oxidized effluent
then passes through a pressure control valve that controls the pressure on the WAO system. A
separator downstream of the pressure control valve allows the depressurized and cooled vapor to
separate from the liquid. The liquid is discharged, typically to conventional biological treatment
facilities for final treatment. The gas is usually vented to some form ofthermal oxidation such as a
boiler or a dedicated flare header.
Fig.2 General WAO Process Flow Diagram

Source:www.water.siemens.com
Generally two types of wet oxidation processes: catalytic WO and non-catalytic WO. Catalytic wet
oxidation need post treatment to remove the catalysts. Copper based homogeneous as well as
heterogeneous catalysts have shown their efficiency for WO process performed at mild operating
Page 167
conditions. The main advantage of non- catalytic process is that there is no post treatment is
required to eliminate catalysts, but need much temperature and pressure considerations. Many
studies are there aiming for the treatment of pulp and paper mill waste water by WO process. The
summaries of selected studies are given in table 3.
Table. 3 Summary of selected studies on WO of pulp and paper mill wastewater4
S.No
1.
2.
3.
Substrate
Catalysts used
Major result
Evaporate and membrane
CuSO4,Cu/Co/Bi-C,
Tem.130-2000C, oxygen
Upto 80% COD and
concentrate from thermo
Fe/Mn-C,Cu/Co/Bi-
partial pressure 1 MPa
TOC removal achieved
chemical pulp and paper mill
Al,Fe/Mn-Al
Pulp and paper waste liquor
CuO,CuOMnO2,MnO2,Pd Tem.140-1900C, oxygen
Upto 85 % COD removal
O,CuO/PdO,MnO2,PdO
partial pressure 0.5MPa
was achieved
Non catalytic
Tem.120-1700C, oxygen
A max. 95-97% removal
partial pressure 0.5-
of LWEs could be
1.5MPa
achieved
Thermo mechanical pulping

circulation water
4.
Reaction condition
Pre-treated diluted black
CuSO4,CuO/C,CuO/CeO2
Tem.110-1700C, total
Around 90% of COD
liquor
,CuO/MnO2
pressure 0.85MPa
was removed
Diluted black liquor
CuO/CeO2
Ca.77%COD reduction
pressure 0.6MPa
6.
7.
Diluted/undiluted black
Solid wasted containing
liquor
iron oxide
pressure 1.5MPa
Diluted black liquor
CuO/CeO2
Ca.51%COD reduction
pressure 0.95MPa
and biodegradability was
Ca.30%COD reduction
enhanced to 0.6.
Page 168
Conclusion
WO is a promising method for enhancing the biodegradability of pulp and paper mill
wastewater by degrading complete compounds like lignin from the wastewater into biologically
active compound. There is catalytic and non-catalytic wet oxidation. Homogeneous CuSO4 was also
proved to be good oxidation catalyst for the reaction performed at milder conditions.to overcome
the difficulty in recovering the catalyst, heterogeneous catalysts are encouraged because such
catalysts are not susceptible to the loss of their identity under thermal conditions as well as the
particles are stronger enough to tolerate vigorous agitation during the oxidation reaction. During
WO treatment, extent of oxidation pollutants is restricted mainly due to the accumulation of the
lower molecular weight carboxylic acids which are biodegradable at moderate temperatures (below
2000c) and can be used as a carbon source in biological treatment processes. Though the
coagulation followed by WO process reduce significant COD and color from the wastewater and
the safe disposal of sludge may be a major concern for the treatment plant operation.
Reference
1. Akolekar D B, Bhargava S K, Shirgaonkar I, and Prasad J (2002), Catalytic wet oxidation: an
environmental solution for organic pollutant removal from paper and pulp industrial waste
liquor,Journal of Applied Catalyst A: General, vol. 236, pp. 255-262.
2. AnuragGarg, Narayana V VV S S, ParmeshChaudhary and Shri Chand (2004), Treatment of pulp and
paper mill effluent, Journal of scientific and industrial research, vol. 63, pp. 667-671.
3. Bahar K. Ince, ZeynepCetecioglu and OrhanInce (2011), Pollution Prevention in the Pulp and Paper
Industries, Environmental Management in Practice, Dr. ElzbietaBroniewicz (Ed.), pp 223-246.
4. Garg A (2012), Wet oxidation: A promising option for the treatment of pulp and paper mill
wastewater,Journal of institute of engineers India series A, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 137-141.
5. Harada Y, Yamasaki K (1994), Treatment of wastewater and sludge by a catalytic wet oxidation
process Desalination, vol. 98, pp 27-39.
6. Mishra V S, Mahajani V V, Joshi J B (1995), Wet air Oxidation, Ind. Eng. Chem., vol.34, pp. 2-48.
7. Tewari P K, Batra B S, Balakrishnan M (2009), Efficient water use in industries: Cases from the
Indian agro-based pulp and paper mills, Journal of Enviromental Management, vol. 90, pp. 265275.
8. Verenich S, Laari A, Kallas J (2000), Wet oxidation of concentrated wastewaters of paper mills for
water cycle closing Journal of Waste Management, vol.20, pp. 287-293.
Page 169
Comparative Studies on Bioremediation of Municipal Wastewater Using

Macrophytes and Microalgae
Hossein Azarpira1*, Pejman Behdarvand2 , Kondiram Dhumal1 & Gorakh Pondhe1
1
2
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Pune, Pune-07-India
Department of Agricultural and Natural Resources, Ahvaz Branch, Islamic Azad

University,Ahvaz, Iran
* E-mail of the corresponding author: hazarpira912@gmail.com
Abstract
Global demand for quality of water is ever increasing and there is a big gap between
supply and demand of portable water. The wastewater treatment is one of the most
important technologies to fulfill the requirement of drinking and irrigation water including its
domestic use. The present study was attempted on wastewater treatment of Pune
Municipal Corporation using the green and eco-friendly method of phytoremediation with
aquatic macrophytes as Azolla and Lemna. Similar investigation was also conducted using
phycoremediation
with
cyanophycae
members
such
as
Oscillatoria
and
Nostoc
at
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Pune (MS), India. The goal of this
study was the removal of toxic substances and contaminants from wastewater. The
results revealed that the aquatic macrophytes and BGA members were equally efficient to
purify the wastewater and to reduce BOD, COD and Cl- up to 98 %. But Lemna and
Oscillatoria, both were the best candidates for treatment of municipal wastewater, which
can be recommended for commercial level treatment.
Key words:
Bioremediation, macrophytes, microalgae, wastewater
Introduction
Page 170
Population growth, urbanization and industrialization have led to rapid degradation of the
environment and public health due to improper sewage disposal, especially in developing
countries.
Conventional
solutions
are
inappropriate
and
expensive
because
the
infrastructure and skilled labor are lacking (Fonkou et al. 2002). Development of
aquatic
plants-based
wastewater
treatment
systems
is
now
recognized
as
suitable
alternative to cost-effectively and safely treat sewage. The scientific bases and technical
feasibility of this eco-technology are well established (Dar et al. 2011).
Regular
monitoring of these contaminating routes and their effective action plan has to be evolved
for better control of water pollution (Goel 2006).
The role of aquatic macrophytes
such as Lemna, Azolla, Eichhornia, Wolffia and Pistia is well documented (Priya et al.
2012). In present investigation emphasis was given on most popular and efficient
macrophytes such as Azolla and Lemna for the treatment of municipal wastewater.
Phycoremediation is the use of micro or macroalgae for the removal or biotransformation
of pollutants, including nutrients and toxic chemicals from wastewater (Mulbry et al.
2008,
Olguin
2003).
Its
main
applications
are
nutrient
removal
from
municipal
wastewater and nutrients as well as xenobiotic compounds removal with the aid of
algae- based biosorbents (Sharma and Khan 2013). The current study was conducted
to assess the pollution load carried by municipal drains into the water bodies and its
treatment with Oscillotaria and Nostoc. A comparison was made to find out the plants
and algal species with best reduction efficiency.
Materials and methods
Collection of wastewater samples

The sewage water samples were collected from STP at Bopodi (Pune) and brought to
the laboratories in plastic cans for determination of physic-chemical characteristics.
Collection of plants
Page 171
The selected plants like Azolla pinnata and Lemna minor were collected from aquatic
pond at Ganesh Khind Garden and stabilized for 4-5 days under laboratory conditions.
Collection of algae
The selected blue green algae such as Oscillotaria and Nostoc were collected from Mula
river at Rajive Gandhi bridge, Aundh. These were cultured in lab and pure culture was
used along with BG11 medium.
Analysis of physic-chemical parameters

Pre and post treatment analysis of wastewater was carried out for determination of
(BOD, COD and Cl-) using standard methods (APHA, AWWA, WEF, 2005).
Experimental set up
Phytoremediation
Factorial arrangement with randomized complete block design with three replications was
used to conduct the experiments at Department of Environmental Science, University of
Pune, India. Treatments included P0: no plant, P1: Azolla pinnata and P2:
Lemna
minor and ratios for dilution of wastewater with distilled water were as follows: R0:
wastewater, R1: (3:1), R2: (1:1) and R3: (1:3). The wastewater after dilution was
mixed with 5 g each of Azolla pinnata and Lemna minor separately in each treatment.
Phycoremediation
Randomized
complete
block
design
with
triplicates
was
used
for
conducting
the
experiments for the duration of 25 days under uniform laboratory conditions. A1/A2
represents Nostoc and Oscillatoria, while wastewater without medium and algae represents
control. The wastewater was mixed with 50 to 250 ml BG11 medium and inoculated
Page 172
with 0.5 g of each algae (Nostoc and Oscillatoria) separately in the corresponding
treatment.
Statistical analysis
The results of pyto and phycoremediation were analyzed statistically by using MSTATC
computer software applying Duncans multiple range test.
Results and discussion
BOD
The interaction effect between different plant species and dilution ratios revealed that
highest BOD (342.3 mg/L) was recorded in 100 % wastewater and no plant species.
However BOD values were drastically reduced in presence of Lemna (2.7 mg/L) and
Azolla (3.9 mg/L) in the dilution ratios 1:3 (Table 1). Biochemical oxygen demand
increases due to biodegradation of organic materials and exerts oxygen tension in water
body (Abida 2008). The oxygen consumed during microbial utilization of organics
indicates BOD value. Dar et al. (2011) reported reduction in BOD using water hyacinth.
They further noted that dilution of wastewater was having maximum reduction as compare
to 100 % concentration in which plants can not performed well. Results of present study
corroborates with above findings. Priya et al. (2012) and Fonkou et al. (2002)
showed about 90 % decrease in BOD by using Lemna for the treatment of domestic
wastewater.
The analysis of data (Table 2) revealed that combination of wastewater and algae had
significant effect on BOD during phycoremediation. Maximum reduction (98 %) was
recorded in presence of Oscillotaria and it was followed by Nostoc (96 %) as compare
to control. The level of toxicity of wastewater is indicated by high BOD which was
reduced by using Nostoc species. Results of present study are in agreement with
Page 173
Gannpathy Selvam et al. (2011) who reported more than 53 % reduction in BOD of
distillery effluent after 30 days with Nostoc species. The reduction in BOD using
cyanobacteria like Oscillotaria, Nostac, Phormidium, Microcystis etc was also reported by
several workers. Sharma et al. (2003) and Vijayakumar et al. (2005) also recorded
reduction in BOD for different types of effluents using algal cultures.
COD
The interactions effect of dilution in presence of both the aquatic plants indicated
considerable decrease in COD at 1:3 dilution ratios with Lemna (6.3 mg/L) and Azolla
(14 mg/L) as compare to 100 % municipal wastewater and no plant species (753.3
mg/L) (Table 1). Highly significant reduction in COD was noted by using different
macrophytes and dilution ratios by Ozengin and Elmaci (2007) and Nzabuheraheza et
al. (2012). They further explained that Lemna was having highest potential to lower
down COD as compare to other plants. The results of present investigation corroborate
with above finding. We have also noted that Lemna was performing better than Azolla.
Results shown in (Table 2) indicated significant reduction in COD of wastewater by
98.5
and
95
in
presence
of
Oscillotaria
and
Nostoc
respectively
in
lowest
concentration of wastewater at final stage. Our results are inconformity with Chandra et
al. (2004) who also recorded 94.6 % reduction in COD of tannery effluent using
Nostoc species. This clearly indicates significant role of microalgae in removal of toxic
material and improving the different physic-chemical characteristics. Similar observation
was reported by Ahmad et al. (2013) during comparative study of phycoremediation of
sewage water using various species of algae like Chlorella, Spirogyra etc and they
reported 98.27 % reduction in COD.
Sharma and Khan (2013) recorded substantial
removal of COD (90 %) using Chlorella and Nostoc species without adverse effect on
Page 174
their growth rate. Elumalai et al. (2013) observed considerable reduction in COD by
using Chlorella and Scenedesmus.
Chlorides
The interactions of dilution ratio and plants together revealed that highest Cl- (952.3
mg/L) was in absence of plants and without dilution. However it was greatly reduced
(10.1 mg/L) in presence of Lemna and 75 % dilution which was followed by Azolla
(11.7 mg/L) (Table 1). The chloride content in wastewater dropped down to lowest
level by using highest dilution (75 %) in presence of both the plants but Lemna was
superior to Azolla in phytoremediation. El-Kheir et al. (2007) studied the assessment
of Lemna in wastewater and reported reduction in chlorides up to 21 %. The reduction
in Cl- content was also reported by Elumalai et al. (2013). According to Tripathi and
Upadaya (2003) there was high Cl- content in dairy effluent which was brought to the
minimum level with aquatic macrophytes. The results of present investigation are in
conformity with above reports.
The data recorded in Table 2 clearly shown that Cl- were reduced to the maximum
level by 98.6 % in presence of Oscillotaria and by 95.2 % with Nostoc over control at
final stage of treatment. The optimum performance by both the algal species was
reported in lowest concentration of wastewater.
Elumalai et al. (2013) observed very
high reduction in Cl- of effluents from textile industry using Chlorella, Synedesmus and
consortium. More than 90 % reduction in Cl- was also noted with Nostoc by Chandra et
al. (2004) during the treatment of tannery effluents. Ahmad et al. (2013) reported
very
high
reduction
in
Cl-
using
Chlorella
and
mixed
algae
culture
during
phycoremediation of sewage water. The reduction in Cl- is contributed to their uptake by

algal species as they have good potential for biabsorption of ClSummary and conclusion
Page 175
From the significant findings of present study following conclusions have emerged out, 1)
the pollution load and contaminants in municipal wastewater are effectively removed by
phyto and phycoremediation, 2) Azolla and Lemna were more efficient than Oscillotaria
and Nostoc to reduce BOD, COD and Cl- from wastewater, 3) Amongst the plants and
algae
used,
Lemna
and
Oscillotaria
were
better
candidates
for
phyto
and
phycoremediation which can be recommended for large scale treatments.
Table. 1. Effect of plant species and dilution on BOD, COD and Cl - of municipal
wastewater
Treatme
nt
BOD (mg/L)
COD
(mg/L)
Cl- (mg/L)
Initial
Final
Initial
Final
Initial
Final
P0R0
357.0a
342.3a
788.0a
753.3a
971.7a
952.3a
P0R1
261.0b
257.0b
591.0b
574.0b
739.0b
712.2b
P0R2
177.0c
169.0c
390.0c
381.0c
486.3c
477.6c
P0R3
79.00d
65.0e
213.0d
204.3e
232.0d
227.3e
P1R0
357.0a
141.0d
788.0a
408.0c
971.7a
501.0c
P1R1
261.0b
64.3d
591.0b
127.0f
739.0b
154.1f
P1R2
177.0c
19.7g
390.0c
39.3g
486.3c
52.2h
P1R3
79.00d
3.9hi
213.0d
14.0g
232.0d
11.7i
P2R0
357.0a
167.0c
788.0a
345.0d
971.7a
433.6d
P2R1
261.0b
50.3f
591.0b
98.0f
739.0b
111.0g
P2R2
177.0c
12.0gh
390.0c
23.7g
486.3c
43.1hi
P2R3
79.00d
2.7i
213.0d
6.3g
232.0d
10.1i
Means with different letters are significantly different at P=0.05, using Duncan's
Multiple Range Test.
Page 176
Table 2. Effect of blue green algae on BOD, COD and Cl- of municipal wastewater
Treatme
nt
BOD (mg/L)
COD (mg/L)
Cl-
(mg/L)
Initial
Final
Initial
Final
Initial
Final
Control
357.7a
430.3a
787.3a
845.3a
983.0a
972.0a
A1 C1
357.7a
146.3b
787.3a
376.0b
983.0a
464.7b
A1 C2
357.7a
124.0c
787.3a
286.3d
983.0a
348.3d
A1 C3
357.7a
54.7f
787.3a
111.0g
983.0a
130.3g
A1 C4
357.7a
17.0h
787.3a
67.7h
983.0a
71.3h
A1 C5
357.7a
30.7g
787.3a
38.7i
983.0a
46.7i
A2 C1
357.7a
145.7b
787.3a
353.7c
983.0a
438.3c
A2 C2
357.7a
112.0d
787.3a
209.0e
983.0a
307.0e
A2 C3
357.7a
66.0e
787.3a
133.3f
983.0a
151.3f
A2 C4
357.7a
29.0g
787.3a
35.0i
983.0a
48.7i
A2 C5
357.7a
5.7i
787.3a
12.3j
983.0a
14.0j
Means with different letters are significantly different at P=0.05, using Duncan's
Multiple Range Test.
Acknowledgment
The authors are thankful to Head Department of Environmental Sciences, University of
Pune, Pune-7 for providing research facilities.
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Priya, A., Avishek, K. and Pathak, G. (2012). Assessing the potentials of Lemna
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Sharma, G.K. and Khan, S.A. (2013). Bioremediation of sewage wastewater using
selective algae for manure production. International Journal of Environmental Engineering
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Vijayakumar, S., Thajuddin, N.
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Environmental Remediation.
Role of Phytoremediation in Soil Waste Management

Aarya Vimal1, Aardra.K.A2 , Arun.N.R3, Dr P. R. Kumar4
1M-Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering ,Toc-H Institute of Science and Technology, Arakkunnam, Kerala
2B-Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Sree Narayana Gurukulam College of Engineering, Kadayiruppu ,Kerala
3Asst.Professor, Department of Civil Engineering ,LBS College of Engineering, Kasaragod, Kerala
4 Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Toc-H Institute of Science and Technology, Arakkunnam, Kerala
Abstract:
Phytoremediation is an environment friendly remediation technique using plants to remove, destroy
or sequester hazardous contaminants from various media like soil, water and air. The plants used in
this technique must have a considerable capacity of metal absorption, its accumulation and strength
to decrease treatment time. Both organic and inorganic contaminants can be removed using this
process by several mechanisms. It can be applied over large areas, it is cost effective, and the soil
does not undergo significant damage. However, the restoration of a contaminated site by
phytoremediation requires a long time since the remediation depends on the growth and biological
cycles of the plant.
Although it is cheaper, it requires technical strategy as well as expert project designers.
Nowadays, researches are being conducted in the field of phytoremediation efficiency enhancer
methods.
Keywords : Phytoremediation, Contaminants
Introduction
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Global industrialization and rapid increase in human population in the twentieth century, resulted
in heavy metal contamination of soil, water and air, which has created various uncompromising and
fatal effects on humans and the stability of the ecosystem. Organic contaminants are biodegradable,
whereas heavy metals are non degradable and are biologically magnified through the food chain.
Certain plants have the property to absorb these toxic metals and help to clean up them from soils
and such plants are termed as hyper accumulators. These plants are capable of accumulating heavy
metals into their roots and leaves and thus, reducing their concentrations in the soil.
Phytoremediation is an environmental friendly, safe and cheap technique to eliminate the pollutants.
Heavy metal contamination
Soil contamination is mainly caused due to the disposal of municipal wastage, which are either
dumped on roadsides or used as landfills or dumped into rivers. Other sources can include
uncontrolled application of pesticides, fungicides and fertilizers (Jadia et.al., 2009). All plants have
the ability to accumulate essential metals (Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Se, V and Zn) from the
soil solution.
When concentrations of the metals inside the plant cells increase above threshold levels, it can
cause direct toxicity by damaging cell structure.
Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation may be defined as the use of plants to remove , destroy or sequester heavy metal
contaminants from various media like soil, water and air. Phytoremediation consists of the Greek
word phyto which refers to plant, and the Latin suffix remedium which means to cure or
restore. The main reason for the use of this technique was to collect the contaminants from the
media and turn them into easily extractable form. Such a process has been used to clean up heavy
metals, pesticides, xenobiotic and organic compounds, toxic aromatic pollutants and acid mine
drainage.
Phytoremediation of toxic metals from the contaminated soil basically involves the inactivation of
these metals in soils. It works effectively if the soil has become polluted or is suffering ongoing
chronic pollution. Phytoremediation refers to the natural ability of certain plants called hyper
accumulators to accumulate and degrade harmful contaminants in soils. Many plants such as
mustard plants, alpine pennycress, pigweed etc have proven to be clean, cost effective and ecofriendly technology, to reduce the heavy metal contamination in soil.
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Reason for take up of heavy metals by plants

To grow and complete life cycle, plants require micronutrients such as Fe, Zn, Mn, Ni, Cu and Mo
along with essential macronutrients (N,P,K,S,Ca and Mg). Plants have their own mechanisms to
take up, translocate and store these nutrients [Fig.1]. In addition, certain sensitive mechanisms
maintain the concentration of metal ions in the cells within the physiological range (Jankaite et.al,
2005). In general, the uptake mechanism is selective as far as ions are concerned. The specialty of
hypreaccumulator plants do not only accumulate high levels of essential micronutrients, but can
also absorb significant amounts of non-essential metals, such as Cd (Mudgal. et.al, 2008)
Fig.1. Uptake of metals by plant roots

Plant selection
Plants are selected according to the levels of the contaminants of concern. The vegetation must be
fast growing and hardy, easy to plant and maintain, utilizes a large quantity of water by
evapotranspiration and transforms the contaminants to non-toxic or less toxic products. In
temperate climates, phreatophytes (eg. hybrid poplar, willow, cottonwood, aspen) are often selected
because of their fast growth, a deep rooting ability down to the surface of groundwater and large
transpiration rate. Hybrid poplar was selected for the terrestrial species and pondweed, arrowroot,
and coontail were selected for the aquatic species. At petrochemical sites, other trees(mulberry,
apple, and osage orange) have been selected for their ability to release flavoids and phenolics ).
Grasses are often planted in tandem with trees at sites with organic contaminants or as the primary
remediation method. They provide a tremendous amount of fine roots in the surface soil which is
effective at binding and transforming hydrophobic contaminants. Grasses are often planted between
rows of trees to provide for soil stabilization and protection against wind-blown dust that can move
contaminants off-site. Legumes such as alfalfa, alsike clover, and peas can be used to restore
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nitrogen to poor soils. Fescue, rye, and reed canary grass have been used successfully at several
sites, especially those contaminated with petrochemical wastes. The grasses are harvested
periodically and disposed to compost or burned. Hydrophobic contaminants do not translocate
appreciably, so the top portion of grasses are not contaminated. The system achieves
phytoremediation via rhizosphere processes and absorption to roots.
Techniques in phytoremediation
Techniques of phytoremediation include phytoextraction, phytofiltration, phytostabilization,
phytovolatilization, phytodegradation, rhizodegradation, and phytodesalination.
Phytoextraction
Phytoextraction is the uptake of contaminants from soil by plant roots and their translocation to and
accumulation in shoots. Metal translocation to shoots is an important biochemical process which is
required in an effective phytoextraction. Phytoextraction offers significant cost advantages over
alternative schemes of soil excavation and treatment or disposal.
Phytofiltration
Phytofiltration is the removal of pollutants from contaminated surface waters or waste waters by
plants. It may be rhizofiltration (use of plant roots) or blastofiltration (use of seedlings) or
caulofiltration (use of excised plant shoots). In phytofiltration, the contaminants are absorbed or
adsorbed and thus their movement to underground waters in minimized.
Phytostabilisation
Phytostabilization is the use of certain plants for stabilization of contaminants in contaminated soils.
This technique is used to reduce the mobility and bioavailability of pollutants in the environment,
thus preventing their movement to groundwater or their entry into the food chain. Plants can reduce
the concentration of heavy metals in soil through absorption by roots, precipitation, complexation
or metal valence reduction in rhizosphere. Phytostabilization limits the accumulation of heavy
metals in soil and minimizes their leaching into underground waters. However, this is not a
permanent solution because the heavy metals remain in soil; only their movement is limited.
Phytovolatilization
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It is the uptake of pollutants from soil by plants, their conversion to volatile form and subsequent
release into the atmosphere. This can be used for the organic pollutants and some heavy metals like
mercury and selenium. Phytovolatilization is the most controversial of phytoremediation
technologies; it does not remove the pollutant completely but only transfers it from one form to
another and into a different medium.
Phytodegradation
It is the degradation of organic pollutants by plants with the help of enzymes such as dehalogenase
and oxygenase. Plants can accumulate organic xenobiotics from polluted environments and detoxify
them through their metabolic activities. Phytodegradation is limited to the removal of organic
pollutants only because heavy metals are non-biodegradable.
Rhizodegradation
Rhizodegradation refers to the breakdown of organic pollutants in the soil by microorganisms in the
rhizosphere (extends about 1mm around the root and is under the influence of plant). The main
reason for the enhanced degradation of pollutants in the rhizosphere is the increase in the number
and metabolic activities of the microbes. Plants can stimulate microbial activity about 10-100 times
higher in the rhizosphere by the secretion of exudates containing carbohydrates, amino acids,
flavonoids. The release of nutrients containing exudates by plant roots provides carbon and nitrogen
sources to the soil microbes and creates a nutrient rich environment in which microbial activity is
stimulated.
Phytodesalination
It refers to the use of halophytic plants for removal of salts from salt-affected soils in order to
enable them for supporting normal plant growth.
Advantages and disadvantages of phytoremediation
Advantages
Less expensive
Aesthetically pleasing
No maintenance is required once instituted
Solar driven technology
Soil does not undergo significant damages
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Green technology
Disadvantages
Limited to sites with lower contaminant concentrations

Food chain could be adversely effected by the degradation of chemicals
Restricted to sites with contamination as deep as the roots of plants being used
Requires a long treatment time since it depends on the growth and biological cycles
of plant.
Conclusion
Environmental pollution is one of the major problem that we face today. It is our duty to join our
hands and put forth effort to conserve our mother nature. Phytoremediation is a green, eco-friendly
and solar driven technology to reduce the contamination level in soil. It is a cost effective method
that can be adopted to reduce the contamination of soil and water. Different type of plants can be
used for different type of pollutants. Several researches have been carried out to study the
effectiveness of plants in reducing the level of contaminants in soil. Researches are being carried
out to enable plants for hyperaccumulation of heavy metals and also transgenic plants could be
developed to secrete certain materials which could solubilize elements of interest. Plants have a
prominent role in this system, and the entire accompanying techniques are for higher and faster
bioaccumulation of contaminants in plant tissues.
References
Hazrat A ., Ezzat K ., and Muhammad A S ., Phytoremediation of heavy metals concepts and
application , Chemosphere , Volume 91 , May 2013
Jankaite A ., Vaseravicius S ., Heavy metals in plants: phytoremediation: plants used to remediate
heavy metal pollution, Journal of environmental engineering and land management, Volume 13,
August 2005
Jadia C D ., Fulekar M H ., Phytoremediation of heavy metals : recent techniques, African
Journal of Biotechnology,Volume 8, March 2009
Mudgal A ., Mudgal N ., Mudgal V ., Heavy metals in plants : Phytoremediation : plants used to
remediate heavy metal pollution, Agriculture and Biology Journal of North America, Volume 7,
July 2008
Page 185
Incorporating Cement Kiln Dust into Mine

Tailing - Based Geopolymer Bricks
Kavya R Varma1, Asst. Prof. Sangeetha S2
1. B. Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering, TIST
2. Asst.Prof., Department of Civil Engineering, TIST
Abstract:
Copper mine tailings are used for the production of eco - friendly bricks based on
Geopolymerization technology. This paper studies the feasibility of enhancing the physical and
mechanical properties and the durability of copper mine tailings based geopolymer bricks with
cement kiln dust (CKD). The effects of CKD content, sodium hydroxide concentration, and initial
water content on unconfined compressive strength, water absorption, and weight and strength losses
after immersion in water are studied. Geopolymerization, microscopic and spectroscopic techniques
are used to investigate the micro/nanostructure and the elemental and phase composition of
Geopolymer brick specimens. The results show significant improvement of unconfined
compressive stress and durability when cement kiln dust is used.
Key Words: Mine tailings (MT), geopolymer bricks, cement kiln dust (CKD),
Geopolymerization.
Introduction:
Global warming is the most challenging problem in the 21st century and the need for sustainable
development due to the diminishing natural resources have urged recycling and reuse of wastes.
Each year, significant amount of waste is generated from mining and const ruction industry. The
huge amount of mine tailings from mining operations has led to growing concerns about their
ecological and environmental impacts such as occupation of large areas of land, generation of
windblown dust, and contamination of surface and underground water. The massive demand from
housing industry due to population explosion has entailed the need for sustainable building
materials especially bricks.
Cement kiln dust (CKD) is a by - product collected from cement kiln exhaust gases in the OPC
manufacturing process. To produce OPC, calcium carbonate and clay are ground, mixed and
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calcined by heating at very high temperatures. During this process, which is called a kiln process,
calcium silicate is produced and dust, called CKD, is generated. In current practice, CKD is
collected and then landfilled or fed back into the kiln process for further calcination. CKD contains
very fine particles of clinker, un-reacted or partially calcined raw minerals, and fuel ash. Silica and
calcium compounds constitute a major portion of CKD and minor amount of alumina and other
types of metals such as Fe, K, Mg, and Na are also present. Due to the presence of Ca, Na and K,
CKDs natural pH is alkaline. CKD imposes costs to cement plants due to material loss, usage of
energy for collecting and reprocessing, and landfilling.
Fig 1: Cement Kiln Dust

(Source: http://www.jcsteele.com)
Significant amounts of Mine Tailings (MT) are generated every year from mineral processing of
ore. These are transported in slurry form to large impoundments, the disposal of which occupies
large area of land. Storage of mine tailings in impoundments has major disadvantages including
failure of the impoundment dam, surface erosion and dust generation, and release of heavy
metals due to acid mine drainage. The technology called Geopolymerization can be used to
stabilize mine tailings so that they can be used as construction material. This paper studies the
enhancement of the physical and mechanical properties and the durability of MT - based
Geopolymer bricks by adding a small amount of CKD. Addition of CKD also reduces the required
amount of NaOH and makes the production of MT - based Geopolymer bricks more economical.
The effects of CKD content and other factors on the unconfined compressive strength (UCS), water
absorption, and durability of MT - based geopolymer bricks at different conditions are also studied
in this paper.
Geopolymerization
Page 187
Geopolymerization is the reaction undergone by aluminosilicates in a highly concentrated alkali

hydroxide or silicate solution, forming a very stable material called Geopolymer having amorphous
polymeric structures with interconnected SiOAl bonds. Geopolymer not only provides
performance comparable to OPC in many applications, but also shows additional advantages such
as rapid development of mechanical strength, high acid resistance, no/low alkali - silica reaction
(ASR) related expansion, excellent adherence to aggregates, immobilization of toxic and hazardous
materials and significantly reduced greenhouse emissions. These characteristics have made
Geopolymer an ideal material for sustainable development.
Geopolymer Bricks
Conventional production of bricks utilizes clay and shale as source material and requires high
temperature kiln firing which is not required in the case of geopolymer bricks. The characteristic of
copper tailing bricks are: density 1.8 gm/cm3, water absorption 17.7% and compressive strength
260 kg/cm2 .
Fig 2: Geopolymer Bricks

(Source: http://geopolymerhouses.wordpress.com/tag/geopolymer/page/27/ )
Materials
The materials used in this investigation include copper MT, CKD, reagent grade 98% NaOH,
and de-ionized water. MT consists mainly of silica and alumina with substantial amount of calcium
and iron. In contrast, calcite constitutes the major component of CKD and silica and alumina are the
minor components. The mean particle sizes of MT and CKD are respectively around 120 m and
36.2m with 91.3% and 36.0% particles passing No. 200 (75 m) sieve, indicating that CKD is
much finer than MT. The specific gravity of the MT and CKD particles is respectively 2.83 and
3.15. The MT particles have irregular shapes and the fine particles are attached to the surface of the
coarse particles. The CKD particles are very fine (finer than 20 m) and have irregular shapes. The
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EDX analysis results also indicate that Ca is the major constituent of CKD and there are substantial
amount of Si, Al and Mg in CKD.
Preparation of Geopolymer Brick Samples and Experimental Study

For the preparation of MT - based Geopolymer specimens, CKD was first dry mixed with MT at a
specified content, 0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10%. Then the NaOH solution was slowly added to the
mixture while mixing. The resulted paste was placed in the Harvard miniature compaction
cylindrical moulds of 33.4 mm diameter and 72.5 mm height. Minor compaction was carried out.
The compacted specimens were then compressed at a specified forming pressure for about 10 min.
After the compression, the specimens were de - moulded and placed uncovered in an oven for
curing at 90 C for 7 days before tested. Before testing, the specimens were left in room
temperature for 6 hrs. The specimens were prepared respectively at 12%, 16%, and 20% water
contents with corresponding forming pressures of 25, 0.5, and 0 MPa. Six specimens were prepared
for each preparation condition; three were used for dry UCS tests and the rest were soaked in water
for water absorption and durability tests.
Results and Discussion
The effects of adding CKD in MT Based Geopolymer bricks are discussed below.
Macro - Scale Properties
The figure given below shows the Dry relationship between UCS and CKD content for Geopolymer
brick specimens prepared with 16% initial water content and cured at 90 C for 7 days: (a) 10 M
NaOH concentration and (b) 15 M NaOH concentration.
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Fig 3: Dry and wet UCS vs. CKD content for Geopolymer brick specimens
(Source: Saeed Ahmari, Lianyang Zhang Utilization of cement kiln dust to enhance mine tailing based
geopolymer bricks; Construction and Building Materials Vol 40 (2013) pp 1002-1011)
The dry UCS significantly increases with higher CKD content at both 10 and 15 M NaOH
concentrations. Addition of 10% CKD at 10 and 15 M NaOH concentrations respectively results in
about 200% and 90% increase in UCS. The 10% CKD added specimen at 10 M NaOH exhibits
higher strength than the no CKD added one at 15 M NaOH, meaning that more than 30% NaOH
can be saved by adding 10% CKD. This will further reduce the cost of MT - based Geopolymer
bricks. The results, in fact, indicate the durability in an alkaline solution since after immersion of
the brick specimens, the water turns into an alkaline solution due to the release of un - reacted Ca
and Na. Thus, enhancing the degree of Geopolymerization by adding CKD improves the durability
of the CKD - added specimens. At higher initial water content, the CKD is more likely to hydrate
and contribute to the strength. Since CKD is much finer than MT, higher initial water content is
required to reach the same level of consistency when CKD is used.
Addition of more CKD results in less weight loss for the MT - based Geopolymer bricks. This is
possibly because of the formation of more durable Geopolymer after the incorporation of Ca.
Formation of denser microstructure, charge - balancing effect of Ca, less affinity of Ca than Na to
ion exchange, and formation of Ca - based products such as CaCO3 are the main reasons for
enhanced durability.
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Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of adding CKD includes reduction in air, land and water pollution decrease initial
and final setting times, increases strength, pore refinement, energy efficient manufacturing process,
cost effective, durability and availability.
The disadvantages are reduction in workability, more water is required for mixing and also
inhalation of CKD may cause lung disease.
Conclusions
Based on the experimental results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
Addition of CKD results in significant improvement of the physical and mechanical properties and
the durability of MT-based geopolymer bricks. Adding 10% CKD to MT at 10 M NaOH can lead to
UCS higher than that at 15 M NaOH without CKD. The addition of CKD decreases the loss of
weight and UCS of specimens after immersion in water. The silica and alumina from the CKD
provide additional source of alumino - silicates and contribute to the formation of geopolymer gel.
Addition of CKD to MT elevates the alkalinity and improves the dissolution of silica and alumina
in MT for geopolymer formation. Ca from the added CKD can act as a charge balancing cation and
be integrated into the geopolymer network. Addition of CKD helps formation of CaCO3, which
coexists with the geopolymer gel. Due to its low solubility in water and alkaline solution, the
formation of CaCO3 contributes to the durability of MT - based Geopolymer bricks. CKD particles
are very fine and can act as filler in the pores and consequently result in a denser structure.
References
F, Pacheco-Torgal., J, Castro-Gomes., S, Jalali.(2008), Investigations of tungsten mine waste
geopolymeric binder: strength and microstructure, Construction and Building Materials. Vol 22,
pp. 2212-2219
Saeed Ahmari., Lianyang Zhang.(2012), Production of eco-friendly bricks from copper mine
tailings through Geopolymerization, Construction and Building Materials. Vol 29, pp. 323-331
Saeed Ahmari, Lianyang Zhang.(2013), Utilization of cement kiln dust (CKD) to enhance mine
tailings - based geopolymer bricks, Construction and Building Materials. Vol 40, pp.1002-1011
Page 191
Use of Industrial and Agricultural Wastes for making Bricks

Waste Create Bricks
Mala Pankaj1, Sangeetha S2
1. B. Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering, TIST
2. Asst. Prof., Department of Civil Engineering, TIST
Abstract:
Industrial and agricultural solid wastes are getting accumulated day by day. This has
resulted in an increased environmental concern. Recycling of such wastes as a sustainable
construction material appears to be viable solution not only to pollution problem but also an
economical option to design green buildings. In view of utilization of industrial and agricultural
waste material for developing sustainable construction materials, this paper reviews various
waste materials in different compositions that were added to the raw material at different levels
to develop waste-create bricks (WCB). Various physico-mechanical and thermal properties of
the bricks incorporating different waste materials are examined. Use of WCB can provide a
potential sustainable solution.
Key Words: Waste Create Bricks (WCB), sustainable construction materials
Introduction:
Brick is one of the oldest manufactured building materials in the world. It is one of the
most demanding masonry units. It has a wide range of products, with its unlimited assortment of
patterns, textures and colours. Bricks can be of the common burnt clay bricks or concrete bricks.
The increase in the popularity of using environmental friendly, low cost and lightweight
construction materials in building industry has lead to the need of investigating how this can be
achieved by benefiting to the environment as well as maintaining the material requirements
affirmed in the standards.
The volume of waste from daily activities, production and the industry continues to
increase rapidly to meet the demands of the growing population. Therefore, alternative methods
to manage and utilize these wastes have to be determined. Many researchers have tried to
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incorporate wastes into bricks to assist the production of normal and lightweight bricks. The
utilization of these wastes reduces the negative effects of their disposal. The common waste
materials used for this purpose include paper sludge, flyash, textile mill sludge, processed waste
tea, natural fibers, cotton waste, kraft pulp, petroleum effluent treatment plant sludge, welding
flux slag, etc. this paper reviews a few of these waste which can be used to develop waste create
bricks.
Development of Waste Create Bricks:
Using Paper Sludge and Palm Oil Fuel Ash in concrete bricks
Recycling paper and combustion of palm oil waste will produce wastes such as paper sludge
and palm oil fuel ash, which generally have no other places to go, except landfill. POFA is
obtained from burning of palm oil husk and shell. Investigations suggest that POFA has
pozzolanic properties. These ashes are grey in colour and contains high amount of silica thus
has high potentials to serve as cement replacement.
The obtained paper sludge was disintegrated using mortar mixer for 30 minutes and sieved
through 2.36 mm openings. POFA collected from palm oil mill, was dried in an oven at 105 5
C for 24 hrs, followed by grounding in a modified Los Angeles abrasion machine, so that the
percent passing 600 m openings is 50%.
Different mixes were prepared using varying proportions of cement, POFA and sludge. The
cement content was decreased from 90% to 50% at the same time both POFA and sludge were
increased by 5%. Cement and POFA are considered as cementitious materials. Cubes of
nominal size 70 mm were casted and cured.
Compression test and water absorption tests were done on the prepared samples. It was
found that compressive strength decreases as the percentage of sludge was increased. Even
though, highest compressive strength of 26.0 N/mm2 at 28 days was for M1 mix, M4 mix which
contains 20% sludge and POFA was observed to gain strength of up to 8.89 N/mm2. Thus, in
addition to fulfilling strength requirements, M4 mix provides an opportunity of utilizing high
amount of both paper sludge and POFA.
Water absorption capacity of the paper sludge-POFA bricks was found to be 39.6%.
This is relatively high when compared with normal concrete. This is mainly due to its high
cellulose content.
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There is about 26.1% decrease in the overall unit weight of the paper sludge - POFA
brick and this is relatively quite significant. This will be advantageous in masonry partition
works for high rise buildings where substantial amount of cost can be saved through weight
reduction.
Therefore, bricks fabricated by incorporating 20% paper sludge and 20% POFA into cement
provide adequate compressive strength, tolerable water absorption, thereby depicting significant
potentialities to serve as masonry unit elements.
Use of Textile Mill Sludge in Burnt Clay Bricks
Textile mill uses large amount of fresh water for wet operations such as bleaching, dyeing
etc. The wastewater generated from these processes is treated in Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP)
by adding chemicals such as Alum, Ferric chloride etc. to remove traces of cotton and dyes.
During this sludge gets accumulated in the primary and secondary clarifiers. Sludge generated
in ETPs is not only troublesome to that industry but also affects the environment adversely. The
usual disposal practice is Landfilling.
Initially bricks are prepared by using 40% red soil, 40% white soil and 20% black soil by
weight. Combination of these soils is called base material. Later, this base material is replaced
with textile mill sludge starting from (95% base material and 5% textile mill sludge) up to (65%
base material and 35% textile mill sludge). For casting of bricks, 70 mm x 70 mm x 70 mm
moulds are used. After casting, bricks are air dried in shade for two days and then dried in
sunlight for the next four days. Sun dried bricks are kept in muffle furnace for varying
temperatures (600 C, 700 C and 800 C) and varying baking periods (8 hrs. 16 hrs. and 24 hrs.).
Bricks are allowed to cool down completely and were then used for compressive strength
determinations as per IS 3495 (Part-I) 1992. Water absorption tests were also done on these
bricks.
Textile mill contains about 30% of organic material; this will get burnt at temperatures
greater than 550 C. Due to this there is weight loss and reduction in density as sludge
percentage in the bricks increases.
Compressive strength goes on reducing as percentage of sludge increases in bricks. As
per the IS code classification of the bricks, minimum compressive strength requirement is
3.5N/mm2.Without compromising the compressive strength of 3.5N/mm2, the maximum
percentage of sludge which can be added is 15% by weight. Firing temperature of 800 C and
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firing period of 24 hrs gives good results in terms of compressive strength with same percentage
of sludge.
Percent water absorption of bricks increases as sludge percentage increases. Increase in
firing temperatures and firing period also increases water absorption of bricks as more voids are
created. Water absorption should be less than 20%. This requirement is satisfied with maximum
sludge content of 15%. Maximum water absorption of 42% is observed is with sludge content of
35% at all temperatures and firing period combinations.
Therefore, use of 15% textile mill sludge in making burnt clay bricks is recommended
and it will increase the bulk usage of sludge in building bricks, thus eliminating the problem of
ultimate disposal i.e. landfilling.
Use of Petroleum Effluent Treatment Plant Sludge
Hazardous sludge containing a high amount of hydrocarbons and several traces of metals
are generated in petroleum oil effluent treatment plants. The sludge often contains 7 10%
hydrocarbon oil (very high in comparison to the permissible limit 3% for safe disposal by land
filling) and so land filling is not a safe option for disposal.
The partial replacement of raw materials of masonry bricks with this sludge was
investigated. The hydrocarbons in sludge burn and provide about 5% of the fuel requirement for
brick making. For making such bricks soil, sand, and sludge were mixed in the ratio of 1: 0.12:
0.46. Water present in the sludge was sufficient and no additional water is required. The mixture
was homogenized and rectangular bricks were made. The firing temperature ranges from 1,000
to 1,100C.
The compressive strength of these bricks was found to be about 16 N/mm 2 and water
absorption was around 10.4%. Thus bricks prepared by replacing about 30% of the raw
materials (clay, sand, and water) with the sludge were found to conform to the Indian Standard
Specification for common burnt clay building bricks. By doing so there is a reduction in the
requirement of process water and fuel.
Use of cotton waste and Lime Stone Powder Waste
The majority of cotton wastes (CW) and limestone powder wastes (LPW) are
abandoned, and they cause certain serious environmental problems and health hazards. Potential
use of CW and LPW combinations for producing a new low cost and lightweight composite as a
building material was investigated.
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Cotton wastes are residual or secondary wastes of lint in the cotton production. These
are generated from the mechanical processing of raw cotton in the spinning process. LPW is
produced during quarrying operations.
Bricks were made with various levels of CW, LPW, and small amount of cement as
binder and water. During the preparation process, in order to allow homogeneous mixing of CW
with LPW, a treatment process was undertaken that cleans the wastes from oil and causes CW
diffusing in the mixture. Since the cotton wastes are of higher volume content the replacement
ratios between CW and LPW are taken as volumetric. In the mixing process of samples, LPW,
CW and cement contents were placed in a concrete mixer and mixed for 1 min. It was observed
that CW has been uniformly scattered within the mixes. In order to obtain more homogeneous
mixes, the water was sprayed by air pump onto the mixes while the mixer is turning. Another 3
min of mixing was conducted. The fresh mixes were then fed into the steel moulds. The
prepared bricks were then tested for compressive strength and water adsorption.
The strength decreases with increase in the replacement level of CW. For 30% CW
replacement (LC-30 mix), compressive strength obtained is about 7 N/mm2. Therefore, the LC30 mix may be used for the structural applications such as masonry units whereas the LC-40
(40% replacement) mixes may be used for the non-structural applications. These bricks are
about 60% lighter than the conventional concrete bricks and they behave similar to widely used
autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC).
Results and discussion:
The utilization of these wastes in bricks usually has positive effects on the properties,
although the decrease in performance in certain aspects has also been observed. The positive
effects such as lightweight bricks with improved shrinkage, porosity, thermal properties and
strength can be obtained by incorporating the recycled wastes.
Graph 1 shows the compressive strength of bricks incorporating the four waste materials. It
has been found that highest compressive strength among the four is for the bricks developed
using petroleum effluent treatment plant sludge.
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18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Paper sludge Textile mill
and POFA
sludge
Cotton
Waste and
LPW
Petroleum
Effluent
Treatment
Plant Sludge
Waste material
Graph: 1
Water absorption of different WBC

Water Absorption (%)
Compressive strength ( N/mm2)
Compressive strength of different

WCB
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Paper sludge Textile mill
and POFA
sludge
Petroleum
Cotton
Effluent
Waste and
Treatment
LPW
Plant Sludge
Waste material
Graph: 2
Graph 2 shows water absorption of different bricks. Maximum water absorption is for bricks
developed using paper sludge and POFA.
Conclusion:
It has been found that use of these wastes has lead to development of light weighted bricks
with low thermal conductivity. Some of WCBs has advantage in manufacturing process such as
in saving fuel etc. These light weight bricks can be effectively used for non structural parts of
high rise building. Thus various WCB gives an economical option to design the green building.
Reference:
S.P. Raut , R.V. Ralegaonkar , S.A. Mandavgane; Development of sustainable construction
material using industrial and agricultural solid waste: A review of waste-create bricks,
Construction and Building Materials, vol 25 (2011) ,pp 40374042.
Mangesh V. Madurwar, Rahul V. Ralegaonkar , Sachin A. Mandavgane, Application of agrowaste for sustainable construction materials: A review, Construction and Building Materials,
vol. 38 (2013), pp 872878.
Page 197
Economic Dimensions Of Solid Waste Management
Cost And Economic Returns of Resource Recovery from

Municipal Solid Waste in Ernakulam
T.Dhanalakshmi,
Associate Professor, Matha College of Technology, N.Paravur, Ernakulam
E-mail: lakshmi.td@gmail.com
Abstract
Reduction, reuse and recycling of waste are very efficient way of waste management. These
techniques not only reduce the waste production, but also initiate reuse of the materials considered
waste. Waste reaching the landfills is also reduced by a great quantity by practicing salvaging of
resource from waste. The potential of recovery of waste material in Ernakulam is: paper -1001.55
tonnes, plastic-200.29 tonnes, metal-200.29 tonnes and glass-300.40 tonnes from households/3
months in all the municipalities and the Corporation. This results in an average earnings of
Rs.204.80 lakhs during the reference period. Waste bought and sold by the dealers generates a
profit margin of more than 20%. Similarly, on an average the rag pickers collect waste from streets
are plastic Rs.11/kg/day, paper Rs.5/kg/day, metals Rs. 18/kg/week and glass Rs.13/kg/week. The
waste collected is sold to retail and whole sales. The scrap merchants segregate all types of waste
and send it for recycling units to Edayar (Iron & Steel Recyling Units), Perumbavoor (Plastic
Recycling Units), Mettur, Salem (Iron & Steel Recycling Units), etc. The organic waste recovery
rate in Cochin Corporation is 39 per cent. Households in the Cochin Corporation segregate the
organic wastes which are collected and transported by the Corporation workers to Brahmapuram
processing plant. It shows that Ernakulam has the potential of producing 137.475 tonnes of compost
per day. It could earn revenue of Rs.6,87,375/- per day through organic waste recovery.
The disposal of plastic waste along with the municipal solid waste is the main problem for the
urban local bodies. Recycling of plastic waste can resolve the issue. The study shows that
Ernakulam generated 18.49 tonnes of plastic waste per day. It has the potential of producing
brick/tiles from plastic waste and can earn revenue of Rs.28,40,064/- per day. This recyclable
activities can minimize any harmful impact on environment especially to reduce the sand mining.
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Some of the households in Ernakulam district produce biogas from kitchen waste. The replacement
value of biogas for LPG is worked out to be Rs.3024/- per household per annum. Unfortunately, in
Ernakulam the municipalities are not involved in waste recycling activity. The resource recovery
practice is privately aided by community recycling units distributed within and outside the city.
These units have been able to generate a demand resulting in employment opportunity for many as
rag pickers. The waste is also recovered from the household level by the retail and whole sale units
within the city. These small chains of activities are good source of resources recovery in the city.
But the fact that large quantities of resources are lying unutilized in the landfills. The enhancement
of separation can not only serve economic and social goals but also allows more effective use of the
residual organic and inert wastes to achieve maximum recycling.
Key Word: Municipal solid waste, resource recovery, cost benefit.
Introduction
Nearly all human activities leave behind some kind of waste. The activities like residential,
commercial, institutional, industrial etc. generate waste of different types in different quantities. In
recent years, the quantity of waste generated by these activities has reached a significant proportion
and its disposal has become an increasingly difficult problem. In most of the Indian cities waste is
collected and transported to landfills for final disposal. An efficient management practice considers
not only environmental safe disposal of waste but also salvaging of those materials from waste that
could be used in one form or the other. The process of salvaging materials from waste is called
resource recovery from waste. Resource recovery from waste is an important method of waste
reduction process. Given the existence of well-established informal and private sector systems of
waste trading, it might seem that a city like Ernakulam is in no need of any intervention to support
waste reduction. It should be remembered, however, that Ernakulam, like so many of the thousands
of cities in the developing world, is under great pressures of modernization and change. It is a city
that is officially unaware of its traditions of waste recycling. Even though the municipalities have a
relatively small amount of waste to deal with daily, they are not able to handle that efficiently.
Against this background this paper aims to analysis the potential of resource recovery from
Municipal Solid Waste with cost benefit.
Objectives of Research paper
To study the potential of recovery of waste material in the study area (Ernakulam).
To analyze the profit margin generated by waste dealers.
To evaluate the organic waste recovery from municipal solid waste.
To assess the impact of biogas plant using organic kitchen waste as a feed material.
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Research Methodology
The secondary data were collected from Cochin Corporation and Kalamassery,
Aluva, Angamaly, Paravur, Thiruppunithura, Perumbavoor, Muvattupuzha and
Kothamangalam municipalities.
The primary data were collected from 25 units comprising of retail and whole sale
dealers from different parts of the city. This information is used to arrive at average
generation of recoverable waste from households in each municipality and the
Corporation. The average renewable waste generated per month is multiplied by the
household data for each municipality and the Corporation to get an estimated amount
of resource recovered from waste.
Resource recovery rate of organic waste and its cost benefits are calculated based on
the information collected from Cochin Corporation.
Data collected from 30 households who were using biogas plants with kitchen waste
as feeding materials relate to Kalamassery municipality.
Results and discussions

The potential of recovery of waste material in Ernakulam is: paper -1001.55 tonnes, plastic-200.29
tonnes, metal-200.29 tonnes and glass-300.40 tonnes from households/3 months in all the
municipalities and the Corporation. This results in an average earnings of Rs.206.17 lakhs during
the reference period.
Waste bought and sold by the dealers generates a profit margin of more than 20%. Similarly, on an
average the rag pickers collect waste from streets are plastic Rs.11/kg/day, paper Rs.5/kg/day,
metals Rs. 18/kg/week and glass Rs.13/kg/week. The waste collected is sold to retail and whole
sales.
Most of the metal items include containers, utensils and parts of machines which are usually sold
for reuse. Other than reuse these are transported to other states for recycling purpose. The scrap
merchants segregate all types of waste and send it for recycling units to Edayar (Iron & Steel
Recyling Units), Perumbavoor (Plastic Recycling Units), Mettur, Salem (Iron & Steel Recycling
Units), etc.
Since solid waste management involves the entire population, full cooperation from the public is to
be ensured. Public awareness is essential to accept their role in terms of following the rules
meticulously and payment of necessary taxes and service charges. Along with that public should
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initiate waste reduction at source. Though there are lot of activities in India in the field of source
reduction, an important such activities are production of compost and biogas.
The organic waste recovery rate in Cochin Corporation is 39 per cent. It produces compost with an
average of 45-50 tonnes per day. The compost will be marketed at the rate of Rs.5/kg. Thus the
organic waste recovery earns Rs.2,25,000 to Rs.2,50,000 per day. It shows that Ernakulam has the
potential of producing 137.475 tonnes of compost per day. It can earn revenue of Rs.6,87,375/- per
day through organic waste recovery.
The disposal of plastic waste along with the municipal solid waste is the main problem for the
urban local bodies. Recycling of plastic waste can resolve the issue. The study shows that
Ernakulam generated 18.49 tonnes of plastic waste per day. It has the potential of producing
brick/tiles from plastic waste and can earn revenue of Rs.28,40.064/- per day. It is experienced that
bricks made from plastic waste improves the life of building and particularly the requirement of
materials like sand, cement and aggregates is very much less when compared to other construction.
This recyclable activities can minimize any harmful impact on environment especially to reduce the
sand mining.
Some of the households in Ernakulam district produce biogas from kitchen waste. The replacement
value of biogas for LPG is worked out to be Rs.3024/- per household per annum. Biogas plants
provide several benefits. Organic waste is the most significant source of biofeed. By using kitchen
waste as feed materials for biogas, 56.67% of the respondents get biogas only up to 1 hour. The
study reveals that up to 50% savings in LPG is possible by using biogas. However, households did
not have any clear idea on this as no measurement has been done or observations on this aspect.
Cleanliness in the kitchen and environmental upgradation is an important benefit of biogas
production. The user households have a positive feeling of realization of these benefits. More than
63% have reported that the biogas has reduced fuel expenses and 20% of the respondents reported
that it reduced environmental pollution. Biogas is definitely an advantage as far as women are
concerned. Female sex is more sensitive in operating of biogas than males. Forty percent of the
biogas plant owners are very satisfied and 26.67%, satisfied. But 33.33% are dissatisfied about the
performance of biogas plants. The reasons for dissatisfaction are due to inadequate waste quantity
and thus reduce gas generation. This apart, society enjoys certain benefits in terms of
environmental upgradation i.e. cleanliness in the absence of littered solid waste here and there,
conservation of land, water and air to maintain ecological balance etc.
Suggestions and Conclusions
The problems related to solid waste can be reduced to a great extent if a proper management system
is practiced. An efficient management system not only takes into consideration environmentally
safe disposal, but also salvaging of resources from waste. The reduction, reuse and recycling of
waste are very efficient way of waste management. These techniques not only reduce the waste
production, but also initiate reuse of the materials considered waste. Waste reaching the landfills is
also reduced by a great quantity by practicing salvaging of resource from waste.
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Unfortunately, in Ernakulam the municipalities are not involved in waste recycling activity. The
resource recovery practice is privately aided by community recycling units distributed within and
outside the city. These units have been able to generate a demand resulting in employment
opportunity for many as rag pickers. The waste is also recovered from the household level by the
retail and whole sale units within the city. These small chains of activities are good source of
resources recovery in the city. But the fact that large quantities of resources are lying unutilized in
the landfills. Cochin Corporation took the initiative in separation of the organic waste and process
into manure. A few households in Ernakulam segregate the organic waste and process them into
manure and energy by using vermicompost and biogas technology.
The enhancement of separation can not only serve economic and social goals but also allows more
effective use of the residual organic and inert wastes to achieve maximum recycling.
References
1. UNEP, 2005, Solid Waste Management, Compiled by CalRecovery, Inc for United
Nations Environment Programme. (www.unep.or.jp), p.558
2. Tchobanoglous G., 2003, Solid Waste Management in Environmental Engineering,
(Ed. Salvato J.A., Nemerow N.L. and Agardy F.J), 5th Ed. John Wiley & Sons Inc,
New Jersey.
3. Furedy, C., 1990, Social Aspects of Solid Waste Recovery in Asian Cities,
Environmental Sanitation Review, No. 30. Bangkok: Environmental Sanitation
Information Centre.
4. World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987, Our Common
Future, Oxford University press, Oxford.
Page 202
Sustainable Urban Planning

Double Skin Facade System A Sustainable Strategy
for High Rise Buildings
Krishna Priya R1, Christy Paul2
1. B.Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering, TIST
2. Asst. Prof. . Department of Civil Engineering, TIST
Abstract:
Double Skin Facade systems are employed increasingly in high profile buildings, designed
by famous Architects, using acclaimed engineering consultants, and being touted as an exemplary
green building strategy. A Double Skin Facade is optimally one of the best options in managing
the interaction between the outdoors and the internal spaces. Demands for energy savings, thermal
and visual comfort and a high-tech image for new building envelops can be met with a Double Skin
Facade (DSF), which is widely encouraged, proposed and increasingly designed by architects.
DSF represents an additional skin on the outside wall of the building with the idea of
reducing building energy demand. This skin can be either opaque or transparent, and it depends on
the architectural concept of designed building .Recently, it has received much attention as opposed
to the more typically glazed curtain wall. The design of DSF involves decisions on geometric
parameters, glass selection, ventilation strategy, shading, day lighting, aesthetics, wind loads, and
maintenance and cleaning cost expectations. Implementation of DSF in both new and existing
buildings has seen broad application in recent years.
If properly designed, they create a buffer zone between the internal and external
environment, thus reducing the cooling and heating loads. There are several parameters that
influence the design and performance of a building. But the building location and climate should be
the most important considerations while designing a DSF. Applying ventilated DSF with controlled
shading device system would be an efficient and sustainable method for regulating the internal
atmosphere of buildings.
Keywords: Double Skin Facade, energy conservation, ventilation, stack effect.
Page 203
Introduction:
Modern movement in architecture has resulted in a large number of high rise buildings with
glazed facades which increases the energy load of the buildings. Demands for energy savings,
thermal and visual comfort and a high-tech image for new building envelops can be met with a
Double Skin Facade (DSF), which is widely encouraged, proposed and increasingly designed by
architects. A Double Skin Facade is optimally one of the best options in managing the interaction
between the outdoors and the internal spaces.
Regardless of the facade type, functional performance goals for any type of facade are
similar, primarily separating the indoor from the outdoor environments, blocking adverse external
environmental effects and maintaining internal comfort conditions with minimum energy
consumption. Double skin envelops are successful in controlling thermal building performance
since they create a buffer zone between the internal and external environment. Reduction in energy
consumption is directly related to improved thermal performance since lower heating and cooling
loads improve energy efficiency.
Objectives:
1. To discuss the concept and structure of Double Skin Facade System.
2. To discuss the energy efficiency of Double Skin Facade in summer and in winter.
3. To discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Double Skin Facade.
Concept of Double Skin Facade System:
According to the source book of the Belgium Building Research Institute [BBRI], (2002),
An active facade is a facade covering one or several storeys constructed with multiple glazed
skins. The skin can be air tightened or not. In this kind of facade, the air cavity situated between
the skins is naturally or mechanically ventilated. The air cavity ventilation may vary with time.
Devices and systems are generally integrated in order to improve the indoor climate with active
or passive techniques. Most of the time such systems are managed in semi automatic way via
control systems.
Structure of Double Skin Facade system:
The Belgium Building Research Institute describes the structure/layers of a Double Skin
Facade System as the following:
An exterior glazing which is usually a hardened single glazing. This exterior facade can be
fully glazed.
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An insulating interior double glazing unit. This could be clear, low-thermal emissive coating
(which makes a significant contribution to the thermal quality of insulating glass) or solar
control glazing. Generally, this layer is not completely glazed.
The air cavity between the two panes- The width of the cavity can be varying as a function
of the applied concept between 200mm to more than 2m. This width influences the way that
the facade is maintained.
The air cavity between the two panes can be totally natural, fan supported or mechanically
ventilated. The five common ventilation modes are outdoor air curtain, indoor curtain, air
supply, air exhaust and buffer zone.
Automatically controlled solar shading is integrated inside the cavity for protective reasons.
Section of a Double Skin Facade

Types of Double Skin Facades:
Based on the type or geometry of the cavity, DSF are classified into:
Box Window type: In this case horizontal and vertical partitioning divide the facade into
smaller and independent boxes.
Shaft Box type: In this case, a set of box window elements are placed in the facade. These
elements are connected via vertical shafts situated in the facade. These shafts ensure an
increased stack effect.
Corridor facade: Horizontal partitioning is realized for acoustical, fire security or ventilation
reasons.
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Multi storey double skin facade: In this case, no horizontal or vertical partitioning exists
between the two skins. The air cavity ventilation is realized via large openings near the floor
and the roof of the building.
Energy efficiency of Double Skin Facade system:

While several studies have been conducted to prove the energy efficiency of DSFs, nothing
conclusive has been stated. However, most believe that the DSF system can provide greater thermal
insulation due to the outer skin both in winter and in summer.
Stack ventilation is where air is driven through the building by vertical pressure differences
developed by thermal buoyancy. The warm air inside the building is less dense than cooler air
outside, and thus will try to escape from openings high up in the building envelope while cooler
denser air will enter openings lower down. The process will continue if the air entering the building
is continuously heated, typically by casual or solar gains.
During summer, the air in the cavity does away with the heat through stack effect keeping
the temperature of the inner skin lower. Thus, the conduction, convection, and radiation from the
inner pane to the occupied space reduces and less heat is transferred from the outside to the inside.
These results in less energy required to cool the space. Shading devices contained in the air cavity
such as horizontal blinds can also be used to control of solar heat gain. These devices can be fixed
or operable units that are controlled by the occupant or by sensors within the building. Venting is
critical to prevent overheating during summer periods. When the air is continuously flowing
through both inlets and outlets on the inner skin, the temperature can be reduced up to 5.5oC.
DSF in summer
DSF in winter
During the winter season, in a naturally ventilated DSF, the closed cavity functions as a
thermal buffer zone which reduces heat losses and enables passive thermal gain from solar
radiation. In a mechanically ventilated system, the air is preheated in the cavity and through the Air
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Handling Unit (AHU) supplied in the building. Thus, by using DSFs buildings can capitalize on
passive use of air currents over mechanical means of air-conditioning, thereby reducing the energy
consumption of the building.
Day lighting is another area where DSFs can minimize energy consumption. With its
increased glazing coverage, DSFs can improve the access to natural sunlight in the day which is far
better than artificial lighting. Solar shading devices can minimize excessive glare and heat during
peak heat periods. DSFs also assist in night time ventilation.
Advantages of DSF:
1. Lower construction cost compared to solutions that can be provided by the use of
electrochromic, thermochromic, or photochromic panes.
2. Acoustic Insulation: Reduced internal noise levels inside an office building can be
achieved by reducing both the transmission from room to room (internal noise pollution)
and the transmission from outdoor sources
3. Thermal Insulation: The DSF can provide greater thermal insulation due to the outer skin
both in winter and in summer.

4. Energy savings and reduced environmental impacts: By obviating a mechanical air
supply, electricity costs for air supply can be reduced. Providing low solar factor and low U
value minimises cooling load of adjacent spaces.
5. Reduction of the wind pressure effects: The DSFs around high rise building can serve to
reduce the effects of wind pressure.
6. Transparency Architectural design: Transparency in architecture has always been
desirable
7. Natural ventilation: One of the main advantages of the Double Skin Facade systems is that
they can allow natural (or fan supported) ventilation.
8. Fire Escape: The glazed space of a double skin facade may be used as a fire escape.
9. Low U-value and g-value: The two main advantages of the double skin facades are the low
thermal transmission (U-value) and the low solar heat gain coefficient (g-value).
Disadvantages of DSF:
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1. Higher Construction Costs: DSFs are significantly more expensive to install than a
conventional curtain wall systems. This is mainly due to the engineering costs (mechanical
and structural), the amount of special glass required, and the unfamiliarity of people with
these systems thus leading to higher installation costs.
2. Reduction of rentable office space: The width of the intermediate cavity of a DSF can
vary from 20 cm to several meters. This, results to the loss of useful space.
3. Additional maintenance and operational costs: Comparing the Double Skin and Single
Skin type of facade, the Double skin type has higher cost regarding construction, cleaning,
operating, inspection, servicing, and maintenance.
4. Overheating problems: If the DSF system is not properly designed, it is possible that the
temperature of the air inside the cavity is going to increase overheating the interior space.
5. Increased weight of the structure: As it is expected the additional skin increases the
weight of the construction which increases the cost.
6. Acoustic Insulation: it is possible that sound transmission problems (room to room or floor
to floor) can take place if the facade is not properly designed.
Conclusions:
1. DSF is one of the best options in managing the interaction between the outdoors and the
internal spaces of buildings.
2. It maintains internal comfort conditions with minimum energy consumption
3. DSFs are systems that highly depend on the outdoor conditions since they allow outside
conditions to influence the indoor climate.
4. Due to the additional skin, a thermal buffer zone is formed reduces heat losses in winter.
During summer, the warm air in the cavity is exhausted through the opening in the upper
part by stack effect which reduces solar radiation heat gains.
5. Double Skin Facade has to be designed for a certain building location and facade
orientation otherwise; the performance of the system will not be satisfactory.
Reference:
Alibaba, H.Z., Ozdeniz, M.B, (2011), Thermal Comfort of Multiple Skin Facades in warm climate
offices, Scientific Research and Essays, Vol. 6(19), pp.4065-4078.
Arons, D, Properties and Applications of Double Skin Building Facades, MSc Thesis in Building
Technology (MIT), USA, 2000.
Harrison ., Boake, (2003) ,Tectonics of the Environmental Skin, 2003.
Page 208
Understanding Acoustic Leak Detection Methods For

Water Distribution Systems
Amith Krishnan. M1, Asst. Prof. Rinu Mary Varghese2
1-
B.Tech Student, 2- Asst. Prof. Dept. of Civil Engineering TIST, Arakunnam

e-mail Id: amithkrish@gmail.com
Abstract:
The water industry worldwide is facing challenges of water and revenue losses. Leakage can
range from a drip to a major gusher from a burst pipe. Acoustic leak-detection techniques are
proven to be effective and have been widely used in water-distribution systems for several decades.
This paper discusses the different acoustic leak detection equipments used. These include listening
devices, leak noise correlators and tethered hydrophone system.
The working of different acoustic devices and the factors influencing the effectiveness of acoustic
methods have been briefly explained in this paper. Acoustic devices detect the sound of water
escaping the pipe or the vibrations induced by leaking water from the pipes. A general idea about
leak sounds and factors on which these leak sounds depend are also discussed in this study. Other
major topics that are presented includes pinpointing, difficulties with plastic pipes, in pipe
measurements. The study mainly emphasizes on the working and background of different acoustic
leak detection systems.
Key Words: Leak detection, Acoustic leak devices, water leak surveys.
Page 209
Introduction:
WATER distribution system is a network of pipelines that distribute water to the consumers.
These systems are designed to adequately satisfy the water requirements of domestic, commercial,
industrial and fire fighting purposes. A major portion of water is lost during the process of water
supply. Around 20 30 percentage of production is lost during supplying. Water losses are
mainly due to leakage, metering errors, public usage such as fire-fighting and pipe flushing.
Old or poorly constructed pipelines, inadequate corrosion protection, poorly maintained valves
and mechanical damage are some of the factors contributing to leakage. Leakage can also occur in
different parts of the distribution system such as the valves, joints, distribution pipes etc. In fact,
many leaks continue below the surface for long periods of time and remain undetected. When
water is lost after treatment, but before delivered for the intended use, then money and energy is
wasted. Leaks are also a threat to public health risk.
Thus leak detection in water distribution system is very necessary. There are various methods for
detecting water distribution system leaks. Acoustic equipments can be commonly used to detect
leaks. These devices detect the sound of water escaping the pipe or the vibrations induced by
leaking water from the pipes. Usually the acoustic devices includes pinpoint listening devices,
geophones and noise correlators etc. Without a leak detection program, leaks may only be found
when they become visible at the surface, or when major infrastructure collapses. Detecting leaks
is only the first step in eliminating leakage. Leak repair is the more costly step in the process. In
water leak detection, acoustic techniques have proven to be effective and are widely used in water
distribution systems.
1. To discuss the different acoustic leak detection devices.
2. To give an overview on method of acoustic leak detection and in pipe measurements.
3. To discuss the effectiveness of this method under different circumstances.
Page 210
This research paper is a work, based on published international journals and other theoretical
literature available in the library and on the websites.
Leak Detection Equipments:
Detection equipments usually includes listening rods, aquaphones and geophones (ground
microphones), which can be either of mechanical or electronic type. These devices use
mechanisms or sensitive materials such as piezoelectric elements to detect leak-induced sound or
vibration. Now a days, electronic devices have signal amplifiers and noise filters to make the
leak signal more clearer in order to exactly pinpoint the location of the leak.
Leak noise correlators are microprocessor-based devices that pinpoint leaks automatically based
on the cross-correlation method. These devices are portable. In this method of leak detection,
acoustic leak signals can be measured with vibration sensors or by keeping hydrophones at two
pipe contact points usually fire hydrants or valves that enclose the location of the suspected leak.
Leak signals will be transmitted from the sensors to the correlator wirelessly. There is a time lag
between the measured acoustic leak signals.
The location of the leak can be found out based on an algebraic relationship between the time
lag, distance between the sensors, and the velocity of propagation of sound waves in the
distribution pipe. The distance between sensors can be measured on site or can be read from
distribution system maps. Propagation velocities of sound waves vary for various pipe types and
sizes. These velocities can be measured easily on site using suitable devices.
Overview of Acoustic Leak Detection Technique
Acoustic leak detection equipment can detect the sound or vibration induced by water escaping
from pipes under pressure. When water leaks from a pressurized pipe, it will create a sound that
travels through the pipe wall, the water column, and even to the ground surface. Hydrophones
along with other surface listening devices amplifies the leak signal and utilize noise filters to
detect leak noises transmitted through the pipelines. The listening devices can be placed on the
ground surface, or can be used to penetrate the soil and get closer to the leak source buried
further underground. Hence, for a long length of pipeline, it would be necessary to have an idea
of the location of the leak. Inspecting the full length of pipe without having an idea of the
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location is not practically possible. Further, soil is not a good acoustic medium and in many
cases the acoustic activity associated with a leak does not propagate to the ground surface.
The acoustic leak signal will travel through both the pipe wall and the water column in the
pipeline. Accelerometers are sensors which can be mounted on the surface that measure the
vibration induced into the pressurized pipe wall by the leak noise. By measuring the vibration at
two or more locations, the source of vibration can be found out. Usually vibration sensors or
accelerometers are attached to fire hydrants, valves or other contact points with the pipe.
Small leak on cast iron water main.

In-pipe Measurements
Inside the pipeline, the intensity of sound waves reduce because of material intrinsic absorption.
The leak signals has low frequency contents and highly attenuates in plastic pipes. Attenuation
increases with diameter of the pipe. Thus the distance between the sensors and the quality of the
sensor are of great importance. Larger diameters and more flexible pipes tend to attenuate higher
frequencies.
The velocity of propagation of sound waves in water pipes depends on the pipe material or the
elasticity modulus and the ratio between diameter and wall thickness. Thus in larger diameters
and more flexible pipes will attenuate at higher frequencies. Accordingly, low-frequency signals
will be more dominant. This effect makes leak signals susceptible to interference from low
frequency vibrations, e.g., from pumps and road traffic.
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Effectiveness of Acoustic Methods

The effectiveness of acoustic leak-detection methods will depend on several factors including
pipe size, type, and depth, soil type and water table level, leak type and size, system pressure,
sensitivity, frequency range of the equipment and interfering noise from the surroundings.
The pipe material and diameter affects the predominant frequencies of leak signals the larger
the diameter and the less rigid the pipe material, the lower the predominant frequencies. This
effect makes leak signals susceptible to interference from low-frequency vibrations, e.g., from
pumps and road traffic. The pipe material and diameter significantly effects in the pipe
measurements. For example, leak signal travel farthest in metal pipes and are attenuated greatly
in plastic ones. The larger the diameter of the pipe the greater the attenuation, and makes it
difficult to find the location of the leak. The strength of leak signals at the ground surface is
influenced significantly by the soil type and the water table level. Leak sounds are more audible
on sandy soils than on clayey ones, and on an asphalt or concrete surface than on grass. Leak
signals are muffled or covered if the pipe is below the water table level.
The loudness of a leak heard depends upon the size of the leak, water pressure, and depth of the
pipe. Hard, dry materials like asphalt, concrete, rock, and compacted soil transmit sounds better
than wet clay, sand, or loose soil. The sounds travel further on iron and steel pipes than on PVC
pipes or Poly pipes.
Water Leak Pinpointing.
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Conclusions:
1. The leaks in water pipelines can be acoustically detected through measurements taken
inside the pipes using a hydrophone, aquaphone, geophones, or a leak noise correlator.
2. This technique of leak detection in water pipelines is difficult in plastic pipes when compared
to that of metal pipes mainly due to the difference in acoustic characters between the pipes.
3. The pipe material and diameter significantly effects the pipe measurements and the
effectiveness of this method of leak detection.
4. When the length of the water distribution pipelines are large, it is not practically possible to
use the listening sticks or ground microphones. In such cases leak noise correlators can be
used efficiently.
References:
Khulief Y. A. ; Khalifa A. ; Mansour Ben R. ; and M. A. Habib , (2012), Acoustic Detection of
Leaks in Water Pipelines Using Measurements inside Pipe, Journal of Pipeline Systems
Engineering and Practice ,Vol 3; Pg : 47-54.
AWWA, Water audits and leak detection, Manual of Water Supply Practices No. M36, 1990.
Hunaidi, O. Detecting Leaks in Water-Distribution Pipes, Concrete Technology update No 40,
Canada, 2000.
Mutikanga Harrison E. , Sharma Saroj K. , and Vairavamoorthy Kalanithy.,(2013) Methods and
Tools for Managing Losses in Water Distribution Systems , Journal of Water Resources
Planning and Management , Vol 139; Pg: 166-174.
Page 214
Green Walls
Annu Anna Alex
Asst. Prof. Rinu Mary Varghese
Toc H Institute of Science and Technology, Kerala
e-mail Id: annuannaalex@gmail.com
Abstract
Urban development posses multiple problems, including environmental pollution,
reduction in biodiversity, and the disappearance of the natural environment. Man-made
environments and structures consume a large amount of natural resources through their extensive
use of energy and materials. With growing concern about the various environmental issues and the
need for a greener environment, there is an increasing interest in using green walls as a part of a
sustainable strategy for the urban environment.
Green wall also known as living walls refers to vegetation that grows directly onto a
buildings faade or to vegetation that is grown on a separate structural system that can be
freestanding and adjacent or attached to the wall. This emerging technology can contribute
significant environmental, economical and social benefits to our built environment. Green walls
offer benefits including aesthetics improvements, improved air quality, increasing the thermal
performance of the building, reduction of noise pollution, increasing urban biodiversity and urban
food production and improvement of health and well-being.
This paper introduces the technology and discusses the benefits that the green wall can
offer to a built environment. It also describes the current methods of implementing green walls and
points out some elements that should be considered for their successful implementation.
Keywords: Green wall, living wall, vertical gardens.
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Introduction
Man-made actions have a great impact on the ecosystem. It has caused disruptive and damaging
effects, through the creation of artificial landscapes, the generation of energy, the construction of buildings
and excavations. Today, the magnitude of the disruption of ecosystems and our pressure on natural
environments is greater than ever.
From the environmental viewpoint, buildings account for nearly half of all energy consumption and
raw material use around the globe. Sustainable architecture is an architecture that seeks to minimize the
negative environmental impact of buildings by efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy and
development space. Sustainable architecture uses a conscious approach to conserve energy and ecology in
the design of built environment. With the growing concern about destruction and declination of ecosystem
due to buildings, there has been increasing interest in using green walls as part of a sustainable strategy for
the urban environment. A green or living wall is an emerging technology that integrates vegetation into the
built environment. Green wall is an important addition to any building, home or office, and acts as a natural
air filter, reduces noise and greatly improves the aesthetics of the building. It can also manage storm water
runoff as well as insulates the building throughout the year.
Objectives of Paper:
1. To introduce green wall and it evolution from earlier concepts.
2. To discuss the methods of implementing green wall and the elements that should be
considered for its successful implementation.
3. To discuss the benefits of a green wall.
Methodology:
The present study is largely a library work, based on published official secondary data
and theoretical literature available in the library and on the websites.
History of Green Walls

The concept of green walls is an ancient one. One of the best examples in architectural
history is the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the seven ancient wonders of the world.
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Techniques similar in style and effect to green walls that were extensively used before include
espalier, turf houses and earth shelters.
Espalier, the system of training plants to twine into a latticework, is nearly as old as human
civilization. The latticework the plant is adhered to reduces the strain and encourages an upright
habit thats necessary where space is limited.
Earth shelters and turf houses are defined by their use of existing or built-up masses of earth
as protective insulation around a building. These houses are commonly built into existing hillsides
with at least a 15-18 layer of soil and plants encasing one or more of the walls and roof.
Fig. 1: Espalier
Fig. 2: Turf Houses
(Source : http://2rent2let.com.cy/our_works/the-family-house/3387-turf-houses-2/)
Green Walls
Green walls are sometimes called living green walls, green faades, bio walls or vertical
vegetation. The term refers to vegetation that grows directly onto a buildings faade or to
vegetation that is grown on a separate structural system that can be freestanding and adjacent or
attached to the wall.
The idea for living green walls was first patented by Stanley Hart White in 1938, however it
is Patrick Blancs name that resounds through the industry. After creating one of the most famous
green walls at the Musee du Quai Branly in Paris, he was designated the godfather of the vegetal
wall, sparking a revolution in sustainable architecture.
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Types of Green Walls
1. Climbing Facades
The easiest way to introduce a green wall is to use simple climbing (or trailing) plants.
Plants are established in the ground or in suitable troughs at the base of the wall to be covered.
A framework is then attached to the wall for the plants to climb-up to provide the wall with its
green covering. To aid the climbing process on buildings a number of systems exist such as
wire mesh frames, trellises and steel cables. Ivy plants grow easily and can attach themselves to
walls and the side of building with minimal additional intervention.
Another easy way to introduce a living green wall is to plant on the top and allow
growth to trail down. This is particularly effective in small enclosed areas and even on internal
walls.
Fig. 3: Climbing Facades

(Source: http://id2775dejean2010.wordpress.com/2010/02/25/green-screen/)
2. Modular Living Walls
Though the systems used for modular living walls are usually more sophisticated than
climbing faades, aesthetics and functionality offered by the modular living walls is much more
than that offered by the climbing facades. There are two main techniques (though hybrid
solutions do exist).
a. Hydroponic System (Soil less)]
This technique takes advantage of the fact that plants do not require soil to grow. Soil
simply provides mechanic root support for the plant and it is only water (along with the
minerals stored in the soil) that is required (in addition to light and carbon dioxide from the
air). Hydroponic systems are generally grown on pre-constructed panels prior to vertical
installation using a specialist growing medium as root support. When ready the panels are
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transported to site and attached to a framework on the side of the wall/structure to be

covered. Once installed plants will continue to grow and further cover the structure.
b. Substrate/ Soil Based System
In this system moulded troughs or containers are built on or attached to existing
walls. Planting is supported by soil-based substrates; utilizing a lightweight combination of
recycled materials containing the right balance of nutrients with a free-draining medium.
Fig. 4: Modular Living Walls

(Source : http://www.ambius.com/blog/photo-gallery-longwood-gardens-green-wall/)
Elements of a Green Wall
1. Orientation
Plants grown at the top of a wall will have different light, air movement and moisture
conditions than those located near the bottom or lower parts of the wall. It is important to
understand the orientation, the microclimatic conditions as well as the amount of light required
for plant survival, especially in indoor conditions which may require supplementary light.
2. Plant Selection
Plant selection will depend on a number of related factors. A key factor will be the
location of the green wall with regard to temperature, light levels and exposure to the elements.
The function of the wall will also determine the type of plants required. Walls designed to
improve air quality shall have species that absorb dust and toxins. It is also beneficial to select
plants that require similar levels of irrigation to reduce the complexity of the irrigation system
required.
3. Irrigation
A reliable irrigation system is essential for a successful long-term installation. The
irrigation systems used will vary from basic timer controlled dripper lines to computer
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controlled systems with automatic moisture monitoring, leakage detection and pressure
regulation. Location and the plant species used will determine level of irrigation required and
any additional nutrient supply.
4. Maintenance
The maintenance of a green wall is a key factor in its success. The level of maintenance
will include need for plant pruning, feeding and replacement. Some systems will also need
monitoring to ensure structural elements remain secure and do not deteriorate, e.g. correct
tension in wire-rope systems.
Benefits of a Green Wall
1. Aesthetic Improvements
Green walls improve the aesthetics of the building. They can also serve to create privacy
and a sense of enclosure while limiting the negative psychological effects associated with
property demarcation.
2. Reduction of the Urban Heat Island Effect
The lack of vegetation in dense urban environments coupled with the heat reflected off
hard surfaces of both high rise buildings and streets and paving contributes to higher
temperatures within cities. In warmer temperatures, when a building envelope is covered with
vegetation, the surrounding air temperature can be decreased, which not only leads to energy
savings for cooling building interiors, but also lowers UHI.
3. Improved Air Quality
Many interior living walls are built to improve indoor air quality. Through bio-filtration,
carbon dioxide (CO2) and harmful toxins such as Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are
absorbed through both the plants and planting medium as indoor air is drawn through the living
wall.
Fig 5: Biofilteration by Living walls(Source : http://sustainablearc.blogspot.in/2013/05/Greenwall1.html)
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4. Improved Energy Efficiency

Green walls can reduce the temperature fluctuations at a wall's surface from a range of
10-60C (50-140F) to range of 5-30C (41-86F), in turn limiting the movement of heat
between building walls. They also help to lower the air temperature around intake valves, which
means HVAC units will require less energy to cool air before being circulated around a
building.
5. Protection of Building
Temperature fluctuations over a building's lifetime can be damaging to organic
construction materials in building faades. Green walls provide an additional layer of exterior
insulation and thereby limit thermal fluctuations.
Green walls protect exterior finishes and masonry from UV radiation and rain. They can
also increase the seal or air tightness of doors, windows, and cladding by decreasing the effect
of wind pressure.
6. Noise Reduction
The vegetated surface provided by strategic urban greenery such as green walls and
roofs will block high frequency sounds, and when constructed with a substrate or growing
medium support can also block low-frequency noises.
7. Property Value
The installation of living green walls, either inside or outside, secures LEED
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) points for low water usage and efficient
irrigation, which can help companies show their dedication to sustainable and eco-friendly
solutions. This in turn helps to increase a propertys value by giving a positive perception of a
modern building.
8. Increased Biodiversity and Urban Food Production
Green walls can help mitigate loss of biodiversity due to the effects of urbanization.
They help sustain a variety of plants, pollinators and invertebrates, and provide habitat and
nesting places for various bird species.
Green walls offer the opportunity for urban agriculture, such as vertical gardens of small
fruits, vegetables, and herbs.
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9. Improved Health and Well-Being

Buildings that feature and promote access to vegetation have been documented as
having a greater positive human health impact than those without. Urban environments have a
profound impact on our physical and mental wellness. Greenery softens this hard environment,
acting as a tonic to ease stress and fatigue.
10. Onsite Wastewater Treatment
Several water-recycling systems can be applied to green walls. These systems pump
grey water through a green wall, which then passes through filters, gravel, and marine plants.
Treated water is then sent to a grey water holding tank for household or irrigation use or
released into the public water treatment system.
Conclusion
Green walls are a key component of living architecture and they will become increasingly
important fixtures in our cities in the years to come. Green wall technologies provide a wide range
of options for designers who are interested in using the building envelope to accomplish multiple
objectives and to provide new free standing design features on the interior and exterior of buildings.
Due to the many positive benefits of living walls, they are gaining interest from designers as
a new building technology that can help improve our urban environment as well as lower
greenhouse gas emissions. Living walls are a new green way to address climate change and an
emerging technology that offers a new way to green the built environment.
References
1. Jacklyn Johnston & John Newton, Building Green, A guide to using plants on roofs, walls
and pavements, 2004.
2. Hart Farrell Hedberg, Vertiscaping, A Comprehensive Guide to Living Walls, Green
Screens and Related Technologies, 2008.
3. Green Over Grey Living Walls, http://greenovergrey.com/index.php.
4. Green Wall, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_wall.
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Sustainable Planning in Urban Transport for

the Developing Cities in India
Basil Basheerudeen1, Chinnu Gopakumar2, Hashifa Razak 3
1
Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay; mail ID:bazeeb4@gmail.com

Post Graduate, TocH Institute of Science and Technology; mail ID: appoos2006@gmail.com
3
Post Graduate, Gnamani College of Engineering, Namakkal; mail
ID:hashinamol@gmail.com
Abstract:
The pace of urbanization continues to be rapidly in India, one of the emerging urban economies in
the world. Rapid urbanization has generated corresponding increase in the demand for travel as seen
in the sharp rise in ownership of private vehicles. As a result, the problem of congestion and its
consequences in the form of travel delays, loss of productivity, deterioration in the quality of air,
noise pollution and mounting number of road fatalities are the debilitating downsides of life in the
urban areas. Although circumstances differ across cities in India, certain basic trends which
determine transport demand such as substantial increase in urban population, household incomes,
and industrial and commercial activities are the same. These changes have exacerbated the demand
for transport a demand that most Indian cities have been unable to meet. The main reason for this
is the prevailing imbalance in modal split besides inadequate transport infrastructure and its
suboptimal use. However, transport infrastructure development has not kept pace with the increase
in travel demand. On the other hand, the share of public transport vehicles has declined in the same
period. Economic efficiency of cities and well-being of urban inhabitants are directly influenced by
mobility or the lack of it. It seeks to reduce travel demand by encouraging better integration of land
use and transport planning. The study focuses on the need to move people not vehicles and
ensure safe, affordable, quick, comfortable, reliable and sustainable access for the growing number
of city residents. The emphasis is on encouraging greater use of public transport, establishing
effective regulatory, institutional and enforcement mechanisms.
Keywords: Sustainable Transport, Urbanization, Pollution
Page 223
Introduction
The burgeoning urban population of India is engaging in a variety of economic activities in rapidly
expanding the cities, which are encountering fast escalations in the urban travel demand. Between
1951 and 2011, the urban population has quadrupled, from 62.4 million to 377.1 million, and its
proportion has increased from 17.3% to 31.16%The number of million-plus cities in India has
increased more than four times over the last three decades from 12 in 1981 to 53 in 2011 (Table 1).
Million-plus cities together have a population of 160.7 million and account for 43% of total urban
population of the country. Transport sector accounts for a share of 6.4% in Indias Gross Domestic
Product (GDP).
Travel Demand
The level of urban travel demand in India is increasing substantially over the years. The increased
travel demand has resulted in rapid growth in the number of motor vehicles in the cities. In the six
major metropolises of India, growth in motor vehicles has outpaced population growth. The
contributing factors increase in population, mobility rate, that is, the average number of trips per
person per day and increase in trip length due to an increase in the physical expansion of the city.
1. Vehicular Growth and Road Length
A majority of motor vehicles in India are concentrated in urban centres and it is alarming to note that
32% of these vehicles are plying in metropolitan cities alone, which constitute just around 11% of
the total population (Fig.1). Between 1951 and 2004, motor vehicle population grew at a compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) of close to 11% compared to CAGR of 3.6% in the total road length,
with National Highway segment increasing by a mere 2.3%. The growth of vehicular traffic on roads
has been far greater than the growth in road network; as a result the main arteries face capacity
saturation as shown in Table.1.
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Percentage Growth
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Growth Rate of Population &

13.94
Vehicles in Tier I cities
10.48
9.1
7.75
6.78
1.96
2.81
1.5
1.44
2.24
2.19
3.36
1.99 1.89
Population
Vehicle
Tier I Cities
Fig.1.Growth Rate of Population and Vehicles
Table.2.Decadal Growth of Population and Vehicles
in Metropolitan Cities
2. Trip Rate and Trip length
An increase in per capita trip making and trip lengths are characterised by increase in population,
motor vehicle growth, increased income, industrial and commercial activities. The trip rate in urban
India is continuously increasing over the years (Table.2.). For example, in Delhi, the average
number of trips per person per day has increased from 0.49 during 1969 to 1.10 during 2001.
Average daily trip lengths for metro cities are over 8 km. All other developing cities are at 6 kms or
less (Fig.2). There is also a change in the pattern of trip distribution; more and more trips are being
made in urban areas for work, followed by education.
15
10
5
0
Ahmeda
Bangalore
Bhopal
Chennai
Delhi
Indore
Jaipur
Mumbai
Mysore
Pune
Rajkot
Surat
Trip Length in Kms
Trip Length (Kms)
Tier I and Tier II Cities
Modal Split
The largest share of the vehicular fleet in the metropolises comprises of two-wheelers, driving the
unprecedented growth of motor vehicle population in the developing cities of India (Fig.4). Cities
with better public transport systems, especially those with rail based mass transit systemsKolkata
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and Mumbaishow a relatively lower share of two-wheelers and total registered vehicles (Fig.5.).
The increase in two wheeler population can be attributed by increased income level prompt the trip
makers to privatise the cheapest available mode of transport. It provides flexibility in travel time,
reduced delays, less space for parking etc.
Fig.4. Share of Two wheelers with respect to total Fig.5. Modal share with respect to size of cities
vehicle population in Metropolis
Public Transport and Non-Motorised Transport
It has been noticed that the reliance on public transport vehicles is declining, with a corresponding
rise in the dependence on personal motor vehicles. For example, in Delhi, while the number of
personal vehicles per 1000 population has expanded about 3 times (between 1981 and 2001), the
number of buses per 1000 population has increased only 2.3 times. In actual practice the number of
buses on the roads is far less as buses more than eight years old are not allowed to ply on the city
roads. Further, the share of public transport vehicles in the total vehicle fleet in India has been
declining whereas the share of buses in the total motor vehicle fleet was 11 per cent in 1951; it
came down to only 1.1 per cent in 2001(Table.4).
Non-motorized transport seems to have lost its earlier importance in the larger metropolises.
Statistics show that the share of bicycle trips out of the total trips in Delhi has declined from 17 per
cent in 1981 to 7 per cent in 1994. This is perhaps due to increasing trip lengths and the increasing
affordability of motorized personal vehicles. Another factor is that non-motorized modes are
exposed to greater risk of accidents as they share a common right of way with motorized vehicles.
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Table.4. Share of Public Transport Buses in Total Vehicle Population
Environmental Pollution
The total registered vehicle fleet in India is 112 million in 2010. Of the passenger transport Two
wheelers are major in number due to their cost,ease of use, fuel efficiency etc. (Fig.6).Air pollution
from motor vehicle in cities especially in developing countries has been a major source of urban air
pollution. A drastic increase in the number of vehicles has resulted in a significant increase in the
emission load of various pollutants. Vehicles in major metropolitan cities are estimated to account
for 70% of CO, 50% of HC, 30-40% of NOx, 30%of SPM and 10% of SO2 of the total pollution
load of these cities, of which two-thirds is contributed by two wheelers alone (Fig.7).
Fig.6. Vehicle Emissions in India, 2010
Fig.7. Mode share of vehicles in India, 2010
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Sustainable Transport
Sustainable mobility can bring out ecological, economic and social development. The need for
focusing on the practice of increasing the efficiency with which transportation system use
resources such as energy, water and materials while reducing impact on human health and
environment through better design, construction, operation and maintenance is of utmost
importance for increasing transportation sustainability (Fig.8). Strategies for increasing
transportation sustainability include demand management, operations management, pricing
policies, vehicle technology improvements, clean fuels, and integrated land use and
transportation planning.
Fig.8. Ridership in pphpd based on Mode of transport on a single lane traffic corridor
The ultimate aim of sustainable transport is to bring forth integration of transport systems aided by
urban infrastructure in order to achieve reduced carbon emission urban environment. The key
measures for achieving sustainability in urban transportation can be as follows:
Actions
Avoid
Shift
Improve
Plan
Need of the travel
Environmentally friendly
modes
Strategies
Integrated Land Use Planning
Smart Logistics
Mode shift to Non-Motorized and Public Transport
Public Transport Integration
Transport Demand management
Energy efficiency of
Shift to alternative fuels
transport modes
Speed Limits, Eco-Driving
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Conclusions
The studies proves that for every extra one million people in a developing city an extra 3.5 to 4
million public transport trips per day are generated. Considering the population growth in most
Indian cities, the urban transport infrastructure thus needs to be increased manifold in the decade or
so, if the gap in the demand and supply has to be eliminated. Public transport systems have not been
able to keep pace with the rapid and substantial increases in demand over the past few decades. The
city cannot afford to cater only to the private cars and two-wheelers and that without public
transport cities would be even less viable. Sustainable strategies are those that simultaneously help
reduce traffic congestion, pollution, accidents and consumer costs, increase mobility options for
non-drivers, and encourage more efficient utilization of land use patterns.
References
i. Dr. Sudarsanam Padam, Urbanization and Urban Transport in India: The Sketch for a Policy
Central Institute of Road Transport, Pune, India (2006).
ii. Dr. Purnima Parida, Environmental Concerns of Urban Transport and NMT as Sustainable
Transport Initiative in India, Central Institute of Road Transport, New Delhi, India (2010).
iii. Mary Tahir,Tahir Hussain and Mushir Ali; Transport Sector and Air Quality in Metro Cities:
A Case Study of Delhi; International Journal of Geology, Earth & Environmental Sciences
(2012).
iv. Road Transport Year Book (2005-2009), Ministry of Shipping,Road Transport & Highways
(MoRT&H), Government of India.
Page 229
Decentralised Membrane Filtration System

Aravind Suresh
B.Tech. student
Division of civil Engineering, TKM college of Engineering, Kollam, Kerala,
India, Pin 691009
e-mail Id: aravindsuresh143@gmail.com
Abstract:
Decentralized drinking-water systems are an important element in the process of reaching

the Millennium Development Goals, as centralized systems are often deficient or nonexistent in
developing and transition countries. Most water-quality problems are due to hygiene factors and
pathogens. A range of decentralized systems is available to counter these problems, including
thermal or UV methods, physical removal and chemical treatment.
Membrane systems are attractive since they provide an absolute barrier for pathogens and
remove turbidity, thus increasing the palatability of the water. The costs of membrane have
decreased rapidly during the last decades and therefore membrane systems have alsobecome within
reach for application in low-cost applications. Some membrane systems rely on gravity as a driving
force, thereby avoiding the use of pumps and electricity. On the basis of the present literature data,
no small-scale systems could be identified which meet all the requirements for successful
implementation. Furthermore, in the available literature the performance of highly fouling water
types has not been reported.
Introduction:
Global assessments by the WHO and UNICEF show that a large proportion of the worlds
population does not have access to adequate or microbiologically safe sources of water for drinking
and other essential purposes at the beginning of 2000, one-sixth of the worlds population (1.1
billion people) were without access to adequate water supplies. Target 10, described in the Seventh
Millennium Development Goal states that by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable
access to safe drinking water and sanitation should be halved compared to 1990. Considerable
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progress has been achieved in reaching these goals. According to the most recent sources, the
percentage of people using drinking water from adequate sources increased from 71% in 1990 to
80% in 2004.
However, a large effort is still necessary to reach this goal by 2015. Centralized water
treatment and distribution may be feasible for densely populated settlements of
Developing
Countries given their economies of scale, and already exists in most cities and towns. In rural areas
of Developing Countries, investments for centralized systems are often unaffordable given the
remote locations and lack of financial resources. In the rare cases where centralized systems are
installed, the system often fails due to unprofessional maintenance and management. Tap water
from a supply network and a central water treatment facility is therefore generally unavailable in
rural areas. Typically, water is accessed individually from surface water, groundwater or rainwater,
with no source protection or water disinfection before consumption.
Decentralized approaches to supplying water are already applied in many parts of
developing and transition countries. These decentralized solutions cover both quality and quantity
problems and include the direct use of alternative water sources (ground- or rainwater), household
water treatment systems, dual tap water treatment and distribution as well as delivery and sales of
treated water. Despite their popularity in some cases, these installations often have an informal
character and are rarely accepted or supported by local governments. Regional differences occur in
their implementation due to the local socio-cultural, economic and political situation. However,
some general situations can be identified in which these technologies are being or may be applied.
The major Decentralized methods of water Treatment are:
1. Pond Systems
2. Constructed Wetlands
3. Phyto remediation methods
4. Sand filtration techniques
5. Membrane processes
Membrane processes is the best water quality rendering method among these due to its
compatibility with the ecosystem and efficiency.
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MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY
In general, membrane processes are characterized by the use of a semi-permeable film
(membrane) and a driving force. The driving force can be a difference in pressure, concentration,
temperature or electric potential. Most membrane processes are pressure-driven and are commonly
referred to as membrane filtration processes. In water treatment, however, electrically driven
(electro dialysis) and thermally driven processes (e.g. membrane distillation) are also used. As
regards to the production of drinking water, it is important to assess membrane technologies in
relation to water-borne contaminants. The pore size of ultra filtration membranes is small enough to
ensure high log-removal of all kinds of microbiological hazards such as Cryptosporidia, Giardia and
total bacterial counts. Microfiltration is also claimed to have these properties, but some doubts have
recently arisen with respect to bacterial retention by these membranes. Substantial virus removal
can be attained with UF membranes since the size of viruses is in the range of 30300nm.
Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis can be used to remove inorganic contaminants from
water. Most NF membranes are effective in removing bivalent ions , but RO membranes are
required for monovalentions. For example, desalination of seawater or brackish water is currently
performed with RO membranes. In comparison to conventional water treatment, the water can be
treated in one stage without chemicals or utilities, while the treatment footprint is relatively small.
The developments in the membrane technology field during the last decades resulted in a significant
decrease of membrane costs and energy requirements. In addition, membrane systems are built in a
modular form which enables easy adaptation of process scale.
Fig. Particle separation for different membrane processes
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DECENTRALIZED MEMBRANE SYSTEMS AVAILABLE
The same industrial-grade membranes used in large-scale water treatment plants around the
globe. They were developed for residential and small commercial/industrial applications. These
systems are being increasingly used in Countries to improve the quality of available tap or
groundwater. Many of the Countries produce import or provide services involving membrane-based
systems. Small-scale systems also employ similar membrane processes as for large-scale
applications. Many of these systems were initially developed for emergency water supply, but
systems are also available that are specifically designed for remote areas in many Countries. The
literature presents systematic data on these kinds of systems.
REVERSE OSMOSIS-BASED SYSTEMS
Most commercially available membrane systems use reverse osmosis membranes as a key
element of water treatment. In general, RO-based water treatment is a multi-stage process that
includes pre-treatment and post-treatment.
Typical pre-treatment stages include sediment filters or micro filters and activated carbon.
Post-treatment stages used in the system also include activated carbon filters. Such systems are
normally installed to purify tap water from a centralized supply and can be placed under a sink.
They work without an electricity supply, the necessary pressure being provided by the feed tap
water in the system.
The maintenance of the system in most cases requires the replacement of pre- and postfilters once in 618 months, while membrane lifetime is 23 years. The price of the system varies
according to the flow rate in the range from US$ 200 to 700 Their annual operation costs are
approx. US$ 85135.Being designed to treat tap water, most systems also have limitations with
respect to the allowable feed water quality.
In general, these kinds of multiple-stage RO systems are complex and relatively expensive
installations that require service and replacement of parts and a defined source water quality. So
their application in many countries is not realistic even if they are widely used and accepted.
However, these systems can be increasingly found on the market in for secondary treatment of tap
water.
Page 233
UF-BASED SYSTEMS
As pointed out above most water-quality problems are due to pathogens, which are
completely retained by ultra filtration membranes . Moreover, these membranes require
significantly lower pressures than RO membranes, due to the latters higher resistance and because
RO generates an osmotic pressure which counteracts the water transport through the membrane.
Nevertheless, systems based on ultra filtration technology are not used widely for treating
household drinking water. Some technologies are available on the market, and some of them also
have a pre-treatment stage and hollow-fiber membrane modules.
MF-BASED SYSTEMS
Ceramic microfiltration is among the few membrane technologies applied and

recommended by the WHO. Most ceramic MF membranes are available in the form of monoliths or
hollow cylindrical tubes and have a nominal pore size of around 0.2 mm. Due to its pore size, such
filters provide complete protection from bacteria, but only partial protection from viruses (size
range of 30300 nm). Filters produced and distributed are normally in the form of pots (e.g. clay
pots) and their pore size is larger, normally reaching 0.63.0 mm. As filterable bacteria range well
below 0.6 mm size exclusion alone in principle cannot provide a complete disinfection with this
kind of filter
SUMMARY
A huge effort is required in order to reach the drinking water objectives set out in the
Millennium Development Goals, and so far a centralized treatment approach has not been very
successful in this respect. In rural areas, problems occur because the entire population is not
connected to a water supply system. Moreover, available central systems are often not maintained
properly and fall into disrepair. Urban areas face high population growth rates in many areas,
especially in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. In many cases, informal settlements appear which are
not or only partially provided with safe drinking water. Even in urban areas where a water supply is
available, the quality of the tap water is often unreliable, and decentralized systems are being
installed by those who can afford it.
Page 234
In order to cope with insufficient water quantity, groundwater wells are installed by the
population or rainwater is harvested. In both cases, the water quality is very dependent on the local
conditions, so that the water is not safe to drink in all cases. A range of decentralized systems is
available to cope with water quality problems.
REFERENCES
Abbaszadegan, M., Hasan, M.N., Gerba, C.P., Roessler, P.F., Wilson, B.R., Kuennen, R.,
Van Dellen, E., 1997. The disinfection efficacy of a point-of-use water treatment system against
bacterial, viral and protozoan waterborne pathogens. Water Research 31 (3), 574582.
Meenakshi, Maheshwari, R.C., 2006. Fluoride in drinking water and its removal. Journal of
Hazardous Materials 137 (1),456463.
Gadgil, A., 1998. Drinking water in developing countries. Annual Review of Energy and the
Environment 23, 253286.
Page 235
Energy Demand of Urban Transport Sector in the

Developed Cities of India
Basil Basheerudeen1, Remjish R S2, Arun Venugopalan3
1
Assistant Professor, TocH Institute of Science and Technology; mail ID:remjishrs@gmail.com

3
Assistant Engineer, Local Self Government Department; mail ID: arunvgkp@gmail.com
Abstract:
As India begins to urbanise more rapidly, it will need to act soon since the historical development
of transport systems tends to hardwire cities for decades. Economic development is closely linked
to urbanisation, the future trajectory of energy use will be closely linked to the types of urban
centres we build Urban form clearly has a large impact on the trajectory and the embedded DNA
of the city can be an important factor affecting future energy use. The transport sector is the
worlds most important consumer of petroleum products, where majority of fuel consumption
comes from road transport. The total transport demand for the developing cities is determined by
population count, urban form, availability of infrastructure, and existing regulatory framework
through governance. Scenarios that look at vehicle/energy use and emissions worldwide find that
the sudden growth in vehicle use has resulted in traffic congestion, fuel use and CO2 emissions,
and in deteriorating air quality. However the energy demand (consumed) by the transport sector
in a city is determined by the following factors such as mode of transport, number of trips made
per day, average length of the trip and speed of travel. The studies shows that the urban form and
transport systems can have a large impact on the trajectory of energy use especially true for
sprawled metropolitan cities like Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai etc.
Keywords: Mobility, Energy Demand, Modal Split
Page 236
Introduction:
In developing countries, urban centres are the major users of natural resources ranging from water
and energy to land and food. Transport is the fastest growing energy sub sector as it is the second
largest consumer of commercial energy (Fig.1) and ranks first in the consumptionof petroleum
energy, 98% of the petroleum product in theform of petrol and diesel. Usage of petroleum energy in
transport grew at 1.3 % during 1971-1981; it has grown at 6-7% annually during 1991-1999, and
the transport energydemand has grown at 1.2 times the GDP growth rate. The usage ishigh due to
the alarming increase in travel demand and growth of vehicles.Road transport is the backbone of
economic development of India and meets about 75 percentof transport demand.The International
Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that the transport sector produced emissions of 6.5 gigatonnes (Gt)
CO2, or 23 percent of world energy-related CO2 (Fig.2).
Fig.1.Global CO2 emissions from Fuel

Combustion by sector
Fig.2.Green House Ga Emissions by Transport

Sector Mode wise in 2005
Urbanisation and Motor Vehicle Growth

The country is growing rapidly with 32% population residing in urban areas and this is expected to
increase to 40% by 2030 (Fig.3).As the proportion of the population living in urban areas increases,
the demand for motor vehicles also rises in proportions.Motorisation in urban India is growing
faster than the population; automobile ownership growth rates are of the order of 1520% per
Page 237
annum in most cities (Fig.4)During the 25 year period ended in 2005, the vehicle population in
India has increased by about 15 times, from 5.36 to 81.5 million vehicles, whereas the population
has increased just by 1.7 times.Although higher vehicle ownership is a consequence of increasing
affluence it is also driven by urban structure and the need for private motorised mobility in the
absence of good-quality public transport infrastructure.The increased use of private means of
Population Growth (19812005)

20
Vehicle Population Growth

Vehicle Population in
millions
Population in Millions
transportation is a major factor directly linked to energy use and environmental quality.
10
Tier I CITIES
1981
1991
1981
Fig.3. Growth of Urban Population
Tier I Cities
1991
2001
2005
Fig.4. Growth of Motor Vehicle Population
Mobility and Modal Split

Road-based passenger mobility in India has increased tremendously over the years. From 1950-51
to 2000-01, passenger mobility increased from 36 billion passenger-kilometres (BPKm) to 3079
BPKm due to more than 30-fold increase in annual distance travelled by the people and a 2.84-fold
rise in population(Fig.3).
Modal Split of Passenger Vehicles
80
60
40
Chennai
20
Mumbai
1981
2001
Year
Private
Public
Private
Public
Private
2005
Fig.3. Passenger Kms for Public & Private Modes
Tier I Cities
Bangalore
Public
Passenger Kms in Billions
Mobility through Public and Private
Chennai
Kolkata
Delhi
Mumbai
0%
TW
Cars
50%
3W
Jeep
100%
Taxi
Bus
Fig.4. Modal Split of Passenger Vehicles
Page 238
It is interesting to know that between 1980-81 and 2000-01, in light of a 50% population growth,
motorized mobility by road in India has risen by 425% (from 585 to 3079 BPKm). Analysis of per
capita mobility (i.e., passenger-kilometres per capita; PKm/cap) data shows that the average annual
distance travelled by the people quadruples in every two decades. Although large proportion of
mobility need is still catered by the buses, there is a rapid increase in reliance on automobiles
particularly during recent years (Fig.4). For example, during 1990s, per capita mobility by twowheelers, auto-rickshaws and cars increased by 124%, 130% and 97% respectively against the
corresponding increase of 60% for buses. Due to this, mobility share of private- and para-transit
modes increased from 19.4% in 1990-91 to 24.3% in 2000-01.
Environmental Pollution
1. Vehicular Emissions
As the number of vehicles continues to grow and the consequent congestion increases, vehicles are
now becoming the main source of air pollution in urban India. A drastic increase in the number of
vehicles has resulted in a significant increase in the emission load of various pollutants (Fig.5).
Vehicles in major metropolitan cities are estimated to account for 70% of CO, 50% of HC, 30-40%
of NOx, 30%of SPM and 10% of SO2 of the total pollution load of these cities, of which two-thirds
is contributed by two wheelers alone (Fig.6).
Share of Polluntants in %
Pollution Load in MT/day, 2002

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Tier I Cities
CO
Fig.5. Fuel Consumption per day in Cities
NOx
HC
PM
Fig.6. Vehicle Emission loads in MT /day
Page 239
2. Green House Gas (GHG) Emissions:

Road transport accounts for about three-fourths of the CO2 emissions in the sector. Road transportrelated CO2 emissions in the 23 million-plus cities have increased from 4,568 MT in 1981 to 15,288
MT in 2005, an increase of 4.2% per annum. The increase in emissions is due to increases in road
travel and also consumer choices in vehiclesin terms of heavier, higher specification vehicles
(which tend to emit higher carbon emissions)(Fig.7).
Fig.7.Passenger Km travelled with respect to each mode for 1 ton of CO2 emission
The per capita CO2 emissions in Bangalore have increased significantly due to increase in road
traffic volume (vehicle-km) which was nearly four times. The data reveal that performance of cities
like Kolkata and Mumbai is better in comparison to others. The CO2 performance (carbon intensity
of mobility) of Bangalore and Hyderabad in terms of PKm is decreasing rapidly over years.
Mumbai is showing continuous decrease in carbon intensity since 1981, however, the rate of
decrease has reduced significantly between 2001 and 2005 as shown in Table.1.There is a declining
trend for all the cities (except Delhi) mainly due to the shift to improving technologies.
Table.1.Carbon Emissions and Intensities from Urban Transport
Cities
Carbon Emissions (tCO2/year)
Carbon Intensities (kgCO2/capita/year)
1981
1991
2001
2005
1981
1991
2001
2005
Mumbai
914
1042
1103
1245
110.9
82.7
67.4
66.3
Delhi
1273
2029
3071
3525
222.1
241
240
234.7
Kolkata
430
395
635
749
46.8
35.8
48
52.7
Chennai
260
477
706
927
60.7
87.9
109.9
133.2
Bangalore
429
555
1172
1326
146.8
134.4
206.1
204.0
Page 240
Energy Demand
Generally, energy demand for passenger transport increases with increasing urbanization. This is
due to growing population, increased incomes and the availability of better infrastructure resulting
in increased demand for motorized transport. Another factor that influences is the lack or
inadequacy of mass transit. This, in turn, increases energy demand because of the dominant use of
personalized transport which has a higher energy consumption norm on a per person basis.
1. Energy Intensity
In the transportation sector, energy intensity (MJ/PKM) or (MJ/person/year) measures the travel
intensity of a mode or an individual. Among various modes of transport, cars are the most energy
intensive, consuming 1.27 MJ (petrol vehicle) or 2.2 times more energy than a two wheeler, to
move one passenger for one km. Energy intensity of a bus is about 0.3 MJ/PKM. Mass transit
(electric trains) is the least energy intensive of all modes (0.02 MJ/PKM) (Table 2).
Table.2. Energy Intensity of Transport Modes
Occup
-ancy
(PPV)
Petrol
2W (2 stroke)
1.5
0.55
2W (2 stroke)
1.5
0.45
Auto(2 stroke)
1.75
0.98
Auto(2 stroke)
1.75
0.78
Car
2.5
1.27
Bus
50
Mode
Fuel Type (MJ/PKM)

Diesel
CNG
0.2
0.3
Table.3. Energy Intensity of Transport Type
Cities in India have varied public transport modes such as urban metro or mass transit systems;
buses on fixed routes and also from point-to-point routes (Omni); taxis; and three-wheeler vehicles.
Public transportation consumes significantly lower energy than private transport. Energy use per
PKM varies between 0.26 and 0.38 MJ/PKM for public transportation. energy consumed for
Page 241
personal travel increased by 8 percent per annum during 19812005 with two wheelers and cars
mostly accounting for it. The total energy used by two wheelers grew the most of any passenger
mode during the study period (about 9%). The combined use of energy consumption by these three
modes of transport was 89 PJ in 2005 (Table.3).
Table.5 and Table 6. shows energy intensity of mobility as well as transport energy intensity across
major developed metropolitan cities. Mobility energy intensity is the amount of energy associated
with movement of people from one point and another point. On the other hand, transport energy
intensity is given by per capita annual energy consumption by passenger transport. In the addition,
the table provides information on individual citys share, mega city-wise, in total energy
consumption as well as India as a whole.
Table.5. Transport Energy Share for Metropolis
Cities
Energy Share in million plus cities (%)
Energy Share in India Total (%)
1981
1991
2001
2005
1981
1991
2001
2005
Mumbai
13.9
13.5
8.5
8.1
7.8
3.7
1.9
Delhi
16.5
26
23.7
23
9.2
7.7
5.6
5.3
Kolkata
5.8
4.9
4.5
4.9
3.2
1.3
1.2
1.1
Chennai
3.8
4.8
5.5
6.1
2.1
1.3
1.3
1.4
7.7
9.1
8.7
3.3
2.1
2.1
Bangalore
Table.6. Transport Energy Indicators for Metropolis
Cities
Transport Energy Intensity
Mobility Energy Intensity (MJ/KM)
(GJ/capita/year)
1981
1991
2001
2005
1981
1991
2001
2005
Mumbai
0.54
0.53
0.47
0.45
0.73
1.11
0.92
0.9
Delhi
0.39
0.39
0.42
0.44
0.92
3.2
3.27
3.2
Kolkata
0.51
0.38
0.38
0.41
0.26
0.47
0.65
0.72
Chennai
0.49
0.46
0.42
0.41
0.34
0.92
1.5
1.81
Bangalore
0.39
0.38
0.40
0.39
0.66
1.94
2.8
2.78
Page 242
As per the estimates, Delhi consumed about 23% of the total energy consumed by all the mega
cities and Bangalore came distant second at about 8.7% share. The mobility energy intensity in
urban India has been remarkably stable and in some cases decreasing which indicates that mobility
intensity is not becoming less energy-intensive across cities.
2. Estimation of Energy Demand
A study report by the McKinsey Global Institute (Energy Productivity Opportunities, May 2007)
derives the demand for fuel based on the vehicle kilometres travelled and on the average fuel
economy. Similarly, a World Bank report (Bose, 2007) uses a comprehensive analytical framework
to assess energy used by the transportation network based on the activity, modal share and the
energy intensity.
The model estimates total energy consumption based on the varying transport modes in use within a
city that for mass transit and non-mass transit.
The total energy consumption of a city is thus:

TE x = PDE
TE x equals the total energy consumption for a city x
P is the total number of persons using a transport
mode
D is the average annual distance travelled per capita
E is per capita energy consumption by transport mode
Page 243
Conclusions
Rapid increase in travel demand and increasing reliance on road transport has serious implications
for environment. Transport sector is the major cause of air pollution in urban areas and contributes
significantly to major environmental challenges both at local as well as global levels. Scenarios that
look at vehicle/energy use and emissions find that the sudden growth in vehicle use has resulted in
traffic congestion, fuel use and CO2 emissions, and in deteriorating air quality. The forecasts show
that if current trends continue, motor vehicles will double, fuel use and CO2 emissions will triple,
and pollution will rise exponentially by the year 2020.To bring up an efficiency gain measure, it
would be suggested to assure a public transport system that enables the reduction of use of private
vehicles for daily commutes only if reliability, access, and comfort improve The combination of
public transport, cycling and walking and their integration into a single, overall transport system
makes a city more livable than one that relies almost exclusively on private automobiles.
References:
i.
Sanjay Kumar Singh; The demand for road-based passenger mobility in India:1950-2030
and relevance for developing and developed countries; EJTIR (2006)
ii.
Pranav Raghav Sood; Air Pollution Through Vehicular Emissions in Urban India and
Preventive Measures; International Conference on Environment, Energy and
Biotechnology; Singapore (2012)
iii.
International Energy Agency (IEA); The Energy and Research Institute (TERI)
Page 244
Pollution & Health Issues.

Life Cycle Assessment of Rubber Industries in Kerala
Mary Dhanya
Assistant Professor,
Department of Civil Engineering, TIST,
e-mail Id: mary_dhanya2000@yahoo.co.in
Abstract:
India is one among the top ten rubber producing countries. Kerala is one of the leading rubber
plantation state in India . Raw material products from natural rubber processing sector provide
huge benefits to human beings as they are exploited to manufacture many kinds of important
rubber goods. Rubber has a wide variety of commercial applications in the civil industry such as
flooring for pavements, athletic fields and industrial facilities, acoustic barriers, rail crossings etc.
Despite the numerous benefits that are rendered to the modernization of this world by natural
rubber, the consequence of natural rubber processing has yet provide a serious problem due to its
highly polluted effluents. The environmental damages generated from this sector could become
big issues. Natural rubber processing sector consumes large volumes of water and energy and
uses large amount of chemicals as well as other utilities. It also discharges massive amounts of
wastes and effluents. The most common environmental issues are wastewater containing
chemicals and smell, hazardous waste, noise, thermal emission etc. In order to reduce the damage
in the environment, waste abatement and management, in natural rubber processing sector should
be handled properly. In this paper, Life cycle of four forms of rubber, namely, crumb rubber,
crepe rubber, latex concentrate and sheet rubber were assessed .Since the production of these
rubber forms is an energy intensive process, and contributes to several environmental problems ,
the opportunities to reduce energy, material inputs and environmental impacts at each stage of the
cycle is also evaluated .
Key Words: LCA, Crumb rubber, Crepe rubber, Latex Concentrate
Page 245
Introduction:
Rubber (NR) is made from the substance known as latex, a milk-like fluid that is obtained from
the sap of the rubber tree, officially called Hevea Brasiliensis. The bark of this tree is incised,
allowing the latex to drip into a small cup fixed to the tree trunk. At plantation, the preferred
method of recovering the latex is by acid coagulation. Natural rubber has very good mechanical
properties , i.e. tensile strength and elongation, elasticity and resilience etc .Rubber has a wide
variety of commercial applications in the civil industry. .India is one among the top ten rubber
producing countries. Kerala state is a leading rubber plantation state in India.. Raw material
products from natural rubber processing sector provide huge benefits to human beings as they are
exploited to manufacture many kinds of important rubber goods. However, environmental
damages generated from this sector could become big issues. Natural rubber processing sector
consumes large volumes of water and energy and uses large amount of chemicals as well as other
utilities. It also discharges massive amounts of wastes and effluents. The most common
environmental issues are wastewater containing chemicals and smell, hazardous waste, noise and
thermal emissions. The environmental issues caused due to processing of various forms of natural
rubber and due to discharge of effluents are not given the importance that it requires. This is
mainly due to the lack of awareness and concern about the extent of impacts it has on our
environment.
1. To analyze the potential environmental impacts associated with the production of crumb
crepe rubber ,latex concentrate and sheet rubber by life cycle assessment
2. To evaluate the opportunities to reduce energy, material input and environmental impacts
associated with the production of rubber forms.
Life Cycle Assessment of various rubber industries was done analytically, based on survey, the
data collected from rubber industries ,the laboratory test of rubber effluent and by the technique
of analysis (EIA matrix method).
Page 246

Life Cycle Assessment in General:
Life Cycle Assessment is a supports decision making tool by supplying information on the
environmental impacts of products and services and helps to identifies and measure both direct
and indirect environmental , energy and resource impacts associated with a product or process.
The four main phases of Life Cycle Assessment(LCA) are:1.Goal and scope -the functional unit, which defines what precisely is being studied and
quantifies the service delivered by the product system, providing a reference to which the inputs
and outputs can, the system boundaries etc.
2.Life Cycle Inventory(LCI)-LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs in the
form of elementary flow to and from the environment from all the unit processes involved in the
study.
3.Life Cycle Impact Assessment- This phase of LCA is aimed at evaluating the significance of
potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow results.
4.Life Cycle Interpretation- Life Cycle Interpretation is a systematic technique to identify,
quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results of the life cycle inventory and/or the life
cycle impact assessment.
LCA of Rubber Forms
(i)Life Cycle Inventory Various rubber industries (Crumb Rubber ,Crepe rubber, sheet rubber
and Latex Concentrate )was visited and data and effluent(waste water)were collected and the
process of various rubber forms were studied.
Analysis of data:
a. Crumb rubber Industries
Table 1: Input & Output data for one tone of Crumb rubber
Page 247
INPUT
QUANTITY
UNITS
1000
Kg
Electricity
130
units
27000
Labour &
staffs
Formic
acid
QUANTITY
Block
Cup lump
Water
OUTPUT
UNITS
800
kg
BOD
390
mg/l
litres
COD
500
mg/l
25
person
TSS
1115
mg/l
10
kg
TDS
670
mg/l
TS
1780
mg/l
mg/l
rubber
Oil
&
Grease
a. Creep rubber Industries

Table 2: Input & Output data for one tone of Creep rubber and latex concentrate
INPUT
QUANTITY
UNITS
OUTPUT
QUANTITY
UNITS
Field latex
2970
litres
DRC(60%)
1000
kg
DRC (36.9%)
995
kg
Skim
48
kg
Water
890
Litres
pH
Ammonia
17
Litres
BOD
5550
mg/l
DAHP
41.4
Kg
COD
9450
mg/l
Lauric acid
0.3
Kg
TSS
1006
mg/l
Page 248
Ammonia gas 7.59
Kg
TDS
7250
mg/l
Ammonium
0.28
Kg
TS
8256
mg/l
Conc.H2SO4
1.0
Kg
Sulphides
92
mg/l
Electricity
460
units
Oil &
29
mg/l
Laurate
Grease
(ii)Life Cycle Impact Assessment

From the effluent analysis carried out, it was found that the various parameters tested are way
above the standard limits of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). Wastewater discharged
from rubber processing contains high level of BOD & COD, high concentration of ammonia, high
level of sulphate, intensive odour, solids etc. The figure below shows the comparison of effluents
from various rubber industries with CPCB Standards.
25
35
21
30.335
30
30
20
25
25
13.35
15
10
10
5
0
7777
5.25 4.7
4.8
3.9
2.5 3.1
0.3
20
1010
10
6.7
3.35
4.5
3.4
1
1
ALWATE RUBBEX RUBBER O DYNAT

pH
COD (x BOD (x TDS (x TSS (x O & G
PALLAPPILS
10^2) 10^2) CPCB
10^2)STANDARDS
10^2)
15
12
9.8
10
5
7
21
0.25
12.335
9.1
6
0.03
10
5.67
2.1 2.335
0.1
0
pH
COD (x BOD (x TDS (x TSS (x O & G
NJAVALIL
CPCB STANDARDS
10^3) PERIYAR
10^3) 10^3)
10^3)
Fig:1 Comparison of effluent from crumb rubber Fig:2 Comparison of effluent from latex &
Industries with CPCB Standards
Crepe rubber industries with CPCB Stds.
Page 249
30
26
23
25
20
23.38
1615.5
15.48
15
10
5 5
12.8
10
8.4
7
4.78
5
0.25
0.03
2.1
1.2
0.1
0
pH
COD (x
ARAKKUNAM
10^3)
BOD (x
TDS (x
TSS (x
O&G
PIRAVOM
CPCB STANDARDS
10^3)
10^3)
10^3)
Fig:3 Comparison of effluent from sheet rubber industries with CPCB Standards
As per the survey conducted & data collected ,the Environmentally and Socially Responsible
Product Assessment rating for crumb, creep ,latex concentrate & sheet rubber forms were done
considering the nine elements of environment & social concern such as raw materials, energy
consumption, water consumption, solid waste, waste water, air emissions, social concern ,health
problem and employment.
Table 3: Environmentally and Socially Responsible Product Assessments rating for crumb,creep,
and sheet rubber(Based on EIA matrix method)
Life cycle
Total
Life cycle
Total
Sheet
Total
stages-crumb
rating
stages-Creep
rating
rubber
rating
22/36
Collection
22/36
Collection
17/36
Collection
&Screening
Coagulation
10/36
Coagulation
10/26
Coagulation
12/36
Milling
19/36
Milling
19/36
Rolling
23/36
Drying
32/36
Drying
30/36
Drying
26/36
Pressing
32/36
Pressing
32/36
Pakaging
31/36
Pakaging
32/36
Packaging
32/36
Disposal
21/36
Disposal
24/36
Disposal
25/36
TOTAL
167/252
TOTAL
169/252
TOTAL
135/216
Page 250
Table 4: Environmentally and Socially Responsible Product Assessments for latex concentrate
Life cycle stages-
Total rating
Latex Conc.
Collection
25/36
Screening
25/36
Coagulation
18/36
Processing
22/36
&Storing
Disposal
28/36
TOTAL
118/180
(iii)Life Cycle Interpretation

The process of rubber forms is an energy intensive process. In addition to the raw material,
various chemicals, large quantity of energy such as water, electricity etc. were used . Based on
EIA Matrix method, the Environmentally and Socially Responsible Product Assessments rating
for crumb, creep, sheet rubber and latex concentrate shows the emissions of various poisonous
gas, the discharge of effluent which contains high level of BOD, COD, solids.etc.
MEASURES TO REDUCE INPUT LOSS AND ENERGY:
1. Check the field latex collecting step to minimize leaking of field latex.
2. Repair or replace centrifuge machine to improve centrifugation efficiency and electrical energy
can be reduced to 10-20%.
3. In the crepe and crumb units, in which field coagulum is processed, if the raw scrap rubber is
properly soaked and primary dirt removal is done by scrap-washer, the quantity of water
consumed in milling can be reduced to 5-10%.
4. In the crumb units, wastewater from final milling can be collected separately from the effluent
of the other milling section and can be used either for soaking the scrap rubber ,which is clean
and the amount of reduction can be upto 25% of the total water consumption.
5. In centrifuge machine bowl, washing is done at the interval of 3-4 hours to remove the sludge.
About 0.5% rubber is lost during this washing step. To reduce loss, washing step can be done at
Page 251
two stages. The first washing which is more concentrated may be segregated and collected in a
separate tank and coagulated for recovery of the rubber lost during washing. This will result in
reduction of pollution load in the effluent.
6.The quantity of acid used for coagulation of the latex, especially skim latex kit after
centrifugation stage is generally found to be higher than the actual requirement. Hence, it is
suggested that proper acid concentration applied and sufficient coagulation time should be
provided to obtain more or less clear liquid after complete coagulation.
7. The skim latex, if de-ammoniated before coagulation, acid requirement can be reduced 10%
and the ammonia concentration in effluent may also be reduced.
8. The transportation of the field latex by mild steel bowlers adds rust to latex. A coating of epoxy
is very effective to eliminate rust contamination of latex.
9. A simple partitioning of the coagulation tank using wooden planks will be very effective
instead of cutting the coagulum to size by a knife as in tradition. This saves labour involved and
the blocks are of uniform size, which produces uniform edged laces at milling.
10. In centrifugation unit the scrum water contains about 1% rubber which is usually coagulated
using sulphuric acid. The addition of ammonia in the field as well as in the factory prior to
centrifugation results in high usage of acid for skimming and causes many problems in final
treatment of effluent. To get the most effective latex formulation and chemical dosing at field,
before skim coagulation, the de-ammonisation of effluent helps to reduce usage of sulphuric acid.
11. In all latex concentrate factories the scrum water from latex, centrifuge wash water and
bowler wash is discharged as one stream. The segregation of these streams can help to reduce
final treatment cost and possibility of recycling of the wash water with a little treatment for
selected uses. Energy consumption can also be done by using the uniform edged laces which
reduces the milling needs. In the dryer tower the internal partitioning and systematic passing of
hot air from chamber to chamber improved the drying efficiency.
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Conclusions:
The rubber industry is an economically and socially significant industry in India and presently India
is the third largest rubber producer in the world. Environmental situation in rubber production
varies according to the nature of each industry. The rubber industry consumes large volumes of
water, uses chemicals and other utilities and produces enormous amounts of wastes and effluent.
Discharge of untreated rubber effluent to waterways is a serious concern as they contain highly
toxic substances which if not treated properly can cause havoc to not only environment but also to
humans. With a new global trend towards a sustainable development, the rubber industry needs to a
evaluate the opportunities to reduce energy, material inputs and environmental impacts at each
stage and also has to focus on cleaner production technology, waste minimization, utilization of
waste, resource recovery and recycling of water .
References:
Birdie G.S and Birdie J.S, Water supply and sanitary Engineering, Dhanput Rai & Sons, New
Delhi,1998.
Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCIA), Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCIA), Birla Institute of
Technology and Science (BITS)
S.K.Garg, Environmental engineering (Vol.II) Sewage Disposal and Air Pollution
Engineering,22nd edition, Khanna Publication, New Delhi,2001.
S.C. Rangwala, K.S. Rangwala and P.S.Rangwala, Water supply and sanitary Engineering,
Charotar publishing house, Anand, 2005.
Waste Abatement and Management in Natural Rubber Processing Sector, Asian Institute of
Technology, School of Environment, Resources and Development, April 2007
IS 3025 : 1993
Guinee J. B. . 2002. Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operation Guide to the ISO standard.
Kluwer Academic Publishers
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Soil Pollution & Treatment

Bioremediation
A Green solution for Soil Pollution
1
Riya Elsa Abraham and 2Annie Joy

1
M.Tech Student,2Assistant Professor

Toc H Institute of Science and Technology
Email id:1riya.elsa1990@gmail.com ,2annjoy87@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The quality of life on Earth is linked inextricably to the overall quality of the environment. It is
very difficult to define soil quality, as soil composition can vary from place to place. The major
functions of a soil are generally recognized to include the ability to protect water and air quality,
the ability to sustain plant and animal productivity, and the ability to promote human health. The
release of contaminants into the environment by human activities has increased enormously over
the past several decades. Soil pollution has recently been attracting considerable public attention
since the magnitude of the problem in our soils calls for immediate action. In the last few years,
disquiet among ordinary people has grown and the public is now strongly demanding clean-up
measures to be urgently introduced. In this context, governmental recognition of the accumulating
hazards has resulted in legislative restrictions on uncontrolled discharges of wastes and actions
mandating environmental restoration of hazardous waste sites. This recent environmental
awareness has highlighted the need for new technologies for the treatment of these wastes.
Bioremediation is a general concept that includes all those processes and actions that take place in
order to biotransform an environment, already altered by contaminants, to its original status.
Bioremediation uses primarily microorganisms or microbial processes to degrade and transform
environmental contaminants into harmless or less toxic forms. It is being considered as a green
technology for the remediation of polluted sites.
Key Words: Bioremediation, environment, soil
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Introduction:
Population expansion, ever increasing sophistication of industries and intensified agriculture has
over-whelmed the self cleaning capacity of environment which resulted in the release of complex
toxic effluents into the environment. This has also brought about a growing pressure on our natural
resources i.e. air, water and land resources. Wide spread pollution has caused vast areas of land to
become non-arable and hazardous for wildlife and human population. A continuous search for new
biological forms to manage the associated problems has thrown light to the process of
bioremediation. Bioremediation is an attractive and successful cleaning technique to recover
contaminated soil and thus to rehabilitate areas damaged through ecosystem mismanagement. The
potential of soils for bioremediation of contaminants is based on the large number of
microorganisms present in the terrestrial habitat and the wide range of mechanisms shown by
them. It can be successful by integrating proper utilization of natural or modified microbial
capabilities with appropriate engineering designs.
1. To discuss the mechanism of bioremediation
2. To discuss the different bioremediation techniques and the agents used
3. To discuss the points in favour of and against bioremediation
The study is largely a library work, based on published official secondary data and
theoretical literature available in the library and on the websites.
Bioremediation mechanism:
Bioremediation is a microorganism (fungi, yeast, bacteria and their enzymes) mediated
transformation or degradation of contaminants into non hazardous or less-hazardous substances. It
operates through microbial activity to sequester, extract or degrade hazardous waste present in the
soil.(i) Degradation means that microorganisms decompose the pollutants to harmless natural
products such as CO2 and H2O or other non toxic naturally occurring compounds.(ii)
Sequestration means that the pollutant is trapped or changed in a way that makes it non toxic or
unavailable to biological systems.(iii) Removal means that while pollutant is not necessarily
degraded, microbes physically remove it from the soil, so it can be collected and disposed.
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While transforming the contaminants microbes gain energy and raw materials for their
multiplication and maintenance. Based on the mechanism by which they gain energy they are
categorized into three:
Reductant electron donor
End products
Oxidant electron
acceptor
Aerobic respiration
Organic substrates (benzene,
O2
CO2, H2O
NH4
O2
NO2,NO3, H2O
Fe2+
O2
Fe3+
S2
O2
SO4

toluene,
phenol, trichloroethylene)
NO3
N2, CO2, H2O, Cl-
SO42-
S2-, CO2, H2O, Cl-
H2
SO42-
S2-, H2O
H2
CO2
H2O, CH4
Organic compounds
Organic compounds CH4, CO2
toluene, phenol)
Anaerobic respiration
trichloroethylene)
Fermentation
Organic substrates
Table 1:Metabolism modes.

Agents of bioremediation:
Commonly used microrganisms or bioremediators to destroy the pollutants present in the
contaminated site falls in the following categories.
a. Aerobic bacteria: Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Sphingomonas degrade pesticides
and hydrocarbons.
b. Anaerobic bacteria: Dehalococcoides bacteria degrade ethylene and ethane
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c. Ligninolytic fungi: White rot fungus Phanaerochaete chrysosporium degrade

diverse range of toxic environmental pollutants
d. Methylotrophs: The initial enzyme in the pathway for aerobic degradation, methane
monooxygenase is active against chlorinated aliphatic trichloroethylene and 1,2dichloroethane.
e. Yeasts: Microbial biomass derived from Candida utilis has the ability to
accumulate metal ions and radionuclides from the environment.
f. Genetically modified organisms: Deincoccus radiodurans is a radioactive resistant
bacteria which has been used to digest toluene and ionic mercury from radioactive
nuclear wastes.
Bioremediation technologies:
On the basis of removal and transportation of wastes for treatment there are basically two
methods:
(i) In situ Bioremediation: It involves the treatment of contaminated material at the same site
through the supply of oxygen and nutrients by circulating aqueous solutions to stimulate the
naturally occurring bacteria to degrade organic contaminants. Types of In situ Bioremediation are:
a. Intrinsic bioremediation: It relies on the natural processes to degrade contaminants without
altering the current conditions or adding amendants.
b. Engineered in situ bioremediation: This approach introduces certain microorganisms to the site
of contamination to accelerate the contamination process by enhancing the physico-chemical
conditions to encourage the growth of microorganisms.
(ii)Ex situ bioremediation involves the complete removal of contaminated material from one site
and its transfer to another site where it is treated using biological agents. Depending upon the state
of the contaminant to be removed, ex situ bioremediation can be classified as:
a. Solid phase system: It includes organic wastes such as leaves, animal manures, agricultural
wastes and domestic and industrial wastes, sewage sludge and municipal solid wastes.
1. Land farming: Tilling and soil amendment techniques are used to encourage the growth of
beneficial microorganisms in contaminated area.
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2. Composting: The technique involves combining contaminated soil with nonhazardous organic
amendants such as manure or agricultural wastes. Organic materials supports the development of a
rich microbial population
3. Biopiles: Here excavated soils are mixed with soil amendments and placed on a treatment area
that includes leachate collection systems and some form of aeration.
b.Slurry-phase Bioremediation: Contaminated soil is combined with water and other additives in a
bioreactor and mixed to keep the microorganism in contact with the contaminants in the soil.
Nutrients and oxygen are added and conditions in the bioreactor are controlled to create optimum
environment for the microorganisms to degrade the contaminants.
1. Bioventing: It is the process of supplying optimum amount of oxygen and nutrients through
wells to the contaminated soil to stimulate the indigenous bacteria. It generally focus on the
vadose or unsaturated zone of soil.
2. Biosparging: It forces compressed air below the water table to increase ground water
concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation.
3. Bioslurping: Bioslurping combines elements of bioventing and vacuum-enhanced pumping of
free-product to recover free-product from the groundwater and soil, and to bioremediate soils.
4. Bioaugmentation: Bioaugmentation is the practice of adding actively growing, specialized
microbial strains into a microbial community to promote the ability of the microbial community to
respond to process fluctuations or to degrade certain compounds, resulting in improved treatment.
5. Bioreactors: A bioreactor may refer to any manufactured or engineered device or system that
supports a biologically active environment.
Advantages of bioremediation:
It relies on the microbes that occur naturally in the soil and pose no threat to environment
and people living in that area.
The process can be carried out on site without causing disruption of normal activities and
threats to human and environment during transportation.
The method can be employed in areas which cannot be easily reached without excavation.
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Bioremediation can prove to be less expensive than other technologies that are used for
clean-up of hazardous waste.
The technique eliminates the need to transport quantities of waste off site and potential
threats to human health and environment that can arise during transportation.
The complete destruction of target pollutants is possible instead of transferring contaminants

from one environmental medium to another. This eliminates the chance of future liability
associated with treatment and disposal of contaminated material.
The residues for the treatment are harmless products like carbon dioxide, water and cell
biomass.
The process has greater public acceptance and it can be coupled with other physical or
chemical treatment methods.
Limitations of bioremediation:
While additives are added to enhance the functioning of one particular bacterium, fungi
or any other microorganisms it may be disruptive to other organisms inhabiting the same
environment when done in situ.
If genetically modified organisms are released into the environment, after a certain point
of time it becomes difficult to remove them.
The process is labor intensive and can take several months for the remediation to
achieve acceptable levels.
It is also capable of causing far more damage than the actual pollution itself.
Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are biodegradable. Not all

compounds are susceptible to rapid and complete degradation.
Biological processes are highly specific. Important site factors required for success
include the presence of metabolically capable microbial population, suitable
environmental growth conditions and appropriate levels of nutrients and contaminanats.
Research is needed to develop and engineer bioremediation technologies that are

appropriate for sites with complex mixtures of contaminants that are not evenly
dispersed in the environment.
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Conclusion:
Bioremediation is not a panacea but rather a natural process that offers a greener and
economical clean-up technique than conventional methods. It is indeed in the process of
paving a way to greener pastures. It addresses multiphasic, heterogeneous environments and
so successful bioremediation is dependent on an interdisciplinary approach involving
disciplines such as microbiology, engineering, ecology, geology and chemistry. The
complexity encountered in the type and extent of contamination and the social and legal
issues relevant to contaminated sites necessitate an inter disciplinary approach. Despite its
limitations, the future of bioremediation appears bright as the advances in the diverse
disciples are accelerating.
Reference:
Sonal Bhatnagar and Reeta Kumari, (2013), Bioremediation: A Sustainable Tool for
Environmental Management- A Review, Annual Review and Research in Biology, 3(4),
974-993.
Chandrakant S.Karigar and Shwetha S.Rao, (2011), Role of Microbial Enzymes in the
Bioremediation of Pollutant: A Review, SAGE-Hindawi Access to Research Enzyme
Research
Kumar.A, Bisht.B.S,Joshi.V.D, Dhewa.T, (2011), Review on Bioremediation of

Polluted Environment: A Management Tool, International Journal of Environmental
Sciences, 1(6),1079-1090
C.Garbisu and I.Alkorta,(2003), Basic concepts on heavy metal soil bioremediation,

The European Journal of Mineral Processing and Environmental Protection, 3(1),58-66.
H.Cortez, J.Pingarron, J.A.Munoz, A.Ballester, M.L.Blazquez, F.Gonzalez, C.Garcia

and O. Coto, (2010), Bioremediation of soils contaminated with metalliferous mining
wastes, 283-299
Page 260
Treatment of Polluted Soils: Translating Science into Practice

Rebecca George, UG Student, Karunya University, ammugeorge1234@gmail.com
Varsha Joy, UG Student, Karunya University, varshajoy@yahoo.com
Aiswarya S, Assistant Professor, Karunya University, aiswarya@karunya.edu
ABSTRACT:
With the rise of concrete buildings and roads, one part of the Earth that we rarely see is the soil.
The plants that feed us grow in soil and keeping it healthy is essential for maintaining a
beautiful planet. However, like all other forms of nature, soil also suffers from pollution. The
pollution of soil is a common thing these days, and it happens due to the presence of man made
elements.
The main reason why the soil becomes contaminated is due to the presence of man made waste.
The waste produced from nature itself such as dead plants, carcasses of animals and rotten fruits
and vegetables only adds to the fertility of the soil. However, our waste products are full of
chemicals that are not originally found in nature and lead to soil pollution. This paper focuses
on the various types of soil pollutions that occur commonly. A detailed discussion is made in
this paper about the various treatment methods used for the polluted soil. These treatments
include thermal treatment, phytoremediation, soil vapor extraction, biosparging and electric
resistance heating works. Case studies where these treatment methods are used are also
discussed in this paper.
KEYWORDS:
Soil Pollution, Soil Treatment, Phytoremediation, Biosparging.
Introduction:
Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made)
chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial
activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste. The most common chemicals
involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and
Page 261
benzo(a)pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated
with the degree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.
The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with the
contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from secondary contamination of water
supplies within and underlying the soil. Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting
cleanup
are
time
consuming
and
of geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer
expensive
tasks,
requiring
extensive
modeling skills,
and GIS
in
amounts
Environmental
Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.

Soil pollution can be caused by:
Application of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers
Mining
Oil and fuel dumping
Disposal of coal ash
Leaching from landfills
Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil
Discharging urine and feces in the open
Electronic waste
The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and
other heavy metals.
Coal ash - Historical deposition of coal ash used for residential, commercial, and industrial heating,
as well as for industrial processes such as ore smelting, were a common source of contamination in
areas that were industrialized before about 1960. Coal naturally concentrates lead and zinc during
its formation, as well as other heavy metals to a lesser degree. When the coal is burned, most of
these metals become concentrated in the ash (the principal exception being mercury). Coal ash
and slag may contain sufficient lead to qualify as a "characteristic hazardous waste", defined in the
USA as containing more than 5 mg/L of extractable lead using the TCLP procedure. In addition to
lead, coal ash typically contains variable but significant concentrations of polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs; e.g., benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene,
benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(cd)pyrene, phenanthrene, anthracene, and others). These PAHs are known
human carcinogens and the acceptable concentrations of them in soil are typically around 1 mg/kg.
Coal ash and slag can be recognized by the presence of off-white grains in soil, gray heterogeneous
soil, or (coal slag) bubbly, vesicular pebble-sized grains.jk
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Sewage - Treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a
fertilizer to the land. As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains more
contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy metals than other soil.
Pesticides and herbicides - A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. A
pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial,
disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include insects, plant pathogens, weeds,
mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans
for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are
benefits to the use of pesticides, there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans and
other organisms.
Herbicides are used to kill weeds, especially on pavements and railways. They are similar to auxins
and most are biodegradable by soil bacteria. However, one group derived from trinitrotoluene(2:4 D
and 2:4:5 T) have the impurity dioxin, which is very toxic and causes fatality even in low
concentrations. Another herbicide is Paraquat. It is highly toxic but it rapidly degrades in soil due to
the action of bacteria and does not kill soil fauna.
Insecticides are used to rid farms of pests which damage crops. The insects damage not only
standing crops but also stored ones and in the tropics it is reckoned that one third of the total
production is lost during food storage. As with fungicides, the first insecticides used in the
nineteenth century were inorganic e.g.Paris Green and other compounds of arsenic. Nicotine has
also been used since the late eighteenth century.
Types of soil pollution:
a) Agricultural soil pollution - Usage of Pesticides and Fertilizers
Many farming activities engage in the application of fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides for
higher crop yield. This is good because we get more food, but can you think of what happens to the
chemicals that end up on the crops and soils? Sometimes, insects and small animals are killed and
bigger animals that eat tiny animals (as in food chains) are also harmed. Finally, the chemicals may
be washed down as it rains and over time, they end up in the water table below .Above all these,the
major amount of pesticides and fertilizers added go to the underground soil thus polluting it to a
great extent.
b) Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid wastes
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Chemical and nuclear power plants produce waste materials that have to be stored somewhere.
Pharmaceuticals manufacturers also produce lots of solid and liquid waste. In many cases they are
stored in an environmentally safe way, but there are some that find their way into landfills and other
less safe storage facilities. Sometimes they also find their way into leaking pipes and gutters. They
end up polluting soils and making crops harmful to our health.
c) Pollution due to urban activities
Humans depend on trees for many things including life. Trees absorb carbon dioxide (a green house
gas) from the air and enrich the air with Oxygen, which is needed for life. Trees provide wood for
humans and a habitat to many land animals, insects and birds. Trees also, help replenish soils and
help retain nutrients being washed away. Unfortunately, we have cut down millions of acres of tree
for wood, construction, farming and mining purposes, and never planted new trees back. This is a
type of land pollution.
Treatment Methods:
Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is a process that uses plants to stabilize or destroy soil contaminants. A number of
different mechanisms exist for this process, including phyto-stabilization and phyto-accumulation.
In the former, chemical compounds produced by plants are used to immobilize contaminants. The
latter process uses plant shoots and leaves to store contaminants that usually contain metals. The
plants are specifically chosen for their abilities to absorb large quantities of lead. Many plants such
as mustard plants, alpine pennycress, hemp, and pigweedhave proven to be successful at
hyperaccumulating contaminants at toxic waste sites.
Poplar trees are among the most widely chosen plants for phytoremediation and require a large
surface area of land. In addition to metals, phytoremediation may also be used against pesticides,
explosives, fuels and volatile or semi-volatile organic compounds.
Over the past 20 years, this technology has become increasingly popular and has been employed at
sites with soils contaminated with lead, uranium, and arsenic. While it has the advantage that
environmental concerns may be treated in situ; one major disadvantage of phytoremediation is that
it requires a long-term commitment, as the process is dependent on a plant's ability to grow and
thrive in an environment that is not ideal for normal plant growth. Phytoremediation may be applied
wherever the soil or static water environment has become polluted or is suffering ongoing
chronic pollution. Examples where phytoremediation has been used successfully include the
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restoration of abandoned metal-mine workings, reducing the impact of sites wherepolychlorinated

biphenyls have been dumped during manufacture and mitigation of on-going coal mine discharges.
Soil vapor extraction
Soil vapor extraction (SVE) is an in situ remediation technology that leaves the soil as-is, without
moving or digging. The technique uses a vacuum to emit a controlled flow of air through the soil.
Volatile and some semi-volatile contaminants are then removed. Ground water pumps may be used
during the procedure to mitigate water upwelling caused by the vacuums. After contaminants are
removed, other remediation measures may be necessary if soil cleaning objectives have not been
met. SVE projects typically require one to three years for completion, and field pilot studies are
necessary prior to the procedure for determining feasibility and system configuration.
SVE Effectiveness
The effectiveness of SVE, that is, the rate and degree of mass removal, depends on a number of
factors that influence the transfer of contaminant mass into the gas phase. The effectiveness of SVE
is a function of the contaminant properties (e.g., Henrys Law constant, vapor pressure, boiling
point, adsorption coefficient), temperature in the subsurface, vadose zone soil properties (e.g., soil
grain size, soil moisture content, permeability, carbon content), subsurface heterogeneity, and the
air flow driving force (applied pressure gradient). SVE effectiveness issues include tailing and
rebound, which result from contaminated zones with lower air flow (i.e., low permeability zones or
zones of high moisture content) and/or lower volatility (or higher adsorption). Recent work at U.S.
Department of Energy sites has investigated layering and low permeability zones in the subsurface
and how they affect SVE operations.Enhancements for improving the effectiveness of SVE can
include directional drilling, pneumatic and hydraulic fracturing, and thermal enhancement (e.g., hot
air or steam injection) .Directional drilling and fracturing enhancements are generally intended to
improve the gas flow through the subsurface, especially in lower permeability zones. Thermal
enhancements such as hot air or steam injection increase the subsurface soil temperature, thereby
improving the volatility of the contamination. In addition, injection of hot (dry) air can remove soil
moisture and thus improve the gas permeability of the soil.
Biosparging
Biosparging is a treatment technique using natural microorganisms, like yeast or fungi, to

decompose hazardous soil substances. Some microorganisms can ingest dangerous chemicals
Page 265
without harm. In turn, those pollutants are rendered into less toxic or nontoxic substances, usually
in the form of carbon dioxide and water. To be successful, biosparging requires active and healthy
microorganisms. This is encouraged via increased bacterial growth in the soil, which creates
optimal living conditions. After the contaminants are regulated, the microorganisms reduce in
number because their food source is gone. Biosparging can occur under aerobic and anaerobic
conditions.
It is an efficient process that is typically more economical than SVE or conventional air sparging.
Since flow rates are low, blowers and associated operating costs are less, and there is no need to
treat collected contaminant-laden soil gas that has been stripped (like in air sparging).
Injection of oxygen or ozone at low flow rates is also commonly used for chemical oxidation, and
even propane has been injected to provide a carbon source for biological treatment. All of these
treatment methods work by treating the contaminants in situ, rather than stripping them out for
removal and ex situtreatment.This methodology is rapidly gaining favor for sites where risk-based
assessments have determined that there is little threat of exposure via normal pathways, but that
some remediation is needed. It is also useful to create a barrier against migration of contaminants
off-sitea horizontal well installed across a migrating contaminant plume effectively treats all of
the water that crosses it, eliminating the need for expensive and ineffective pump-and-treat systems.
Electric Resistance Heating
Electric resistance heating works by sending an electrical current into soil through multiple
electrodes. Those electrodes are strategically placed to ensure an entire area is reached. As the
electrical current passes through the subsurface, it encounters resistance that heats the soil. The soil
turns gradually hotter until contaminant compounds reach boiling temperatures. They then
evaporate, and vapor extraction techniques are used to remove fumes. Once the vapors are removed,
treatment can begin at the soil's surface level. Benefits of this technique include low levels of
disruption, and cleanup that typically occurs within six to 10 months.
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Electrode spacing and operating time can be adjusted to balance the overall remediation cost with
the desired cleanup time. A typical remediation may consist of electrodes spaced 15 to 20 feet apart
with operating times usually less than a year. The design and cost of an ERH remediation system
depends on a number of factors, primarily the volume of soil/groundwater to be treated, the type of
contamination, and the treatment goals. The physical and chemical properties of the target
compounds are governed by laws that make heated remediations advantageous over most
conventional methods. The electrical energy usage required for heating the subsurface and
volatilizing the contaminants can account for 5 to 40% of the overall remediation cost.There are
several laws that govern an ERH remediation. Daltons law governs the boiling point of a relatively
insoluble contaminant. Raoults law governs the boiling point of mutually soluble co-contaminants
and Henrys law governs the ratio of the contaminant in the vapor phase to the contaminant in the
liquid phase.
Thermal Treatment
Thermal treatment is a solution for treating nonrecyclable and nonreusable waste in an

environmental and economical friendly way. Thermal treatment reduces the volume and mass of the
waste and inerts the hazardous components, while at the same time generating thermal and/or
electrical energy and minimizing pollutant emissions to air and water.
Thermal treatment methods generally heat and destroy pollutants through soil. The heat can also
destroy or evaporate some chemicals. In turn, evaporated pollutants move more easily than those in
solid form. Once treatment begins, pollutants are steered into and contained within underground
wells before getting pumped to the surface. Above-ground treatment techniques can then purify the
contaminants. Thermal treatment, which has proven particularly successful with non-aqueous phase
liquids (NAPLs), often keeps soil in place and is thus called in situ. Examples of thermal treatment
techniques include steam injection, hot water injection and radio frequency heating, waste
incineration, pyrolysis and gasification .In modern European waste management waste incineration
plays the absolute dominant role. The processes result in residual products from the waste as well as
products resulting from flue gas cleaning additives, which afterwards have to be deposited at a
controlled site such as a landfill or a mine. After thermal treatment ferrous and non-ferrous metals
can be recovered and recycled. Also the grate ash or slag can be recovered for building purposes.
Nutrients and organic matter are destroyed and cannot be recovered after thermal treatment.
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Conclusions:
The following conclusions are made from the discussions made in this paper.
1. Soil pollution is caused by the presence of human-made chemicals or other alteration in the
natural soil environment.
2. Various treatment methods have evolved in order to treat these polluted soils.
3. Phytoremediation is an in situ process that uses plants to stabilize or destroy soil
contaminants and is employed at sites with soils contaminated with lead, uranium, and
arsenic.
4. Soil vapour extraction is an in situ process which uses a vacuum to emit a controlled flow of
air through the soil.
5. Biosparging is a treatment technique using natural microorganisms, like yeast or fungi, to
decompose hazardous soil substances and is an efficient process that is typically more
economical than SVE or conventional air sparging.
6. Electric resistance heating is a technique that has low levels of disruption, and cleanup.
7. Thermal treatment is an in situ solution for treating nonrecyclable and nonreusable waste in
an environmental and economical friendly way. This treatment reduces the volume and
mass of the waste and inerts the hazardous components.
8. There is a great need to realize the importance of soil treatment, so that we save our
environment for our future generations.
References:
1. Panagos, P., Van Liedekerke, M., Yigini, Y., Montanarella, L , Contaminated Sites in Europe:
Review of the Current Situation Based on Data Collected through a European Network. Journal of
Environmental and Public Health.
2. Snyder C, "The dirty work of promoting "recycling" of America's sewage sludge". Int J Occup
Environ Health 11 (4): 41527.
3. Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Human Health Evaluation Manual, Office of Emergency
and Remedial Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington D.C. 20450
4. Michael Hogan, Leda Patmore, Gary Latshaw and Harry Seidman, Computer modelng of pesticide
transport in soil for five instrumented watersheds, prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Southeast Water laboratory, Athens, Ga. by ESL Inc., Sunnyvale, California.
5. S.K. Gupta, C.T. Kincaid, P.R. Mayer, C.A. Newbill and C.R. Cole, "A multidimensional finite
element code for the analysis of coupled fluid, energy and solute transport", Battelle Pacific
Northwest Laboratory.
Page 268
Impact Of Industrialization On The Environment
Study on Urban Environment Quality in Visakhapatnam

V R Sankar Cheela1, Basil Basheerudeen2, Resma Vijay3
Asst. Professor, MVGR College of Engg., Vizianagaram; mail ID: vrsankarcheela@gmail.com
2
Post Graduate, Gnamani College of Engineering, Namakkal; mail ID: resmavijay89@gmail.com
Abstract
Increasing sprawl of urban areas due to development activities adversely affects the environment as
human footprint spreads over a larger area resulting in increased movement from one point to
another. Urban growth both spatially and population wise puts heavy pressure on infrastructure,
particularly water supply, sewerage, solid waste, sanitation, road network, traffic and transportation
etc., unless infrastructure in improved, quality of life suffers. Most importantly, it impacts economic
development of the city and investment climateA big segment of environment, quality of air has
been deteriorating due to enhancement of emission from the transport sector particularly in large
metro cities, has been a big challenge for scientists, politicians, planners and even for common men.
The lack of proper planning may lead to unsustainable development which is extremely undesirable
for the budding generations. The air pollution caused by the uncontrolled and above threshold
industrial emissions, municipal waste incineration, and vehicular traffic etc cause drastic
degradation of quality and instability of environmental parameters. These parameters have to be
stabilised and improved by proper protection measures. Major environmental variables
characteristic of the city which are responsible for the degradation of the quality of the
environment in the city area are considered for describing the environmental scenario of
Visakhapatnam - the point and non-point sources of pollution of air, noise, water, land, soil,
regimes s well as coastal and marine sectors have been taken into consideration.
Keywords: Air Pollution, Temperature, Wind Rose
Page 269
Introduction
The environmental quality varies from region to region within the city area depending upon the
assimilative capacity of a region, population density and the quantity of pollutants causing social
damage, the level of valuation and appreciation of the surrounding environment by people in a
region etc. All these factors together accord different values regarding the environmental quality to
different region within the city.
The City of Visakhapatnam is one of the largest Municipal Corporations in India and delivers
services to about 1.5 million residents spread across a huge geographical area of 515 Sq.km. There
has been a significant migration into the city owing to continuing rapid industrialization and
urbanization.
Location of Study
Topographically, Visakhapatnam is located north east corner of Andhra Pradesh between 173142
- 175529 Northern Latitude to 8325 - 832517 Eastern latitude at an average elevation of 3
meters above sea level surrounded by Kailasa Hills on North, Yarada hills on South, Narva hills on
west and Bay of Bengal on East. The city gets moderate rainfall of 1202 mm largely between June
to October. On account of its elevation, Visakhapatnam is bestowed with hot and humid climate
comparable to those of temperature regions.Merging of the surrounding villages and municipalities
is a significant contributing factor for the rapid increase in percentage of population. Greater
Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) has been divided into six zones totally consisting
of 72 wards.
Meteorology & Climate
The meteorological data were obtained from the regional meteorological center (RMC), which is
located at Beach Road, Visakhapatnam. The meteorological parameters include, wind speed, wind
directions and other information, viz. humidity, rainfall, temperature.
The study area is low lying and surrounded by hills and is subjected to a wet weather. The area
experiences a lot of rainfall every year. The pre-monsoon months, March-April, have winds from
North East. During monsoons, the predominant wind corridors are North East, North, and also
south. The post monsoon period, from October-November is a period mixed with calm conditions
and winds mainly from North. The winter months, November to February, experience frequent
Page 270
calm conditions. The maximum number of calm periods observed is in the month of December and
January.
The annual average temperature observed of maximum mean daily is 29.5 C and that of minimum
mean daily temperature is 19.7 C. August is the hottest and January is the coldest month of the
year. The annual average mean relative humidity is 82% in the morning and 70% in the evening.
The climatic condition in the area is thus humid and tropical. The average rainfall during May to
September is about 81% of the total contribution. The highest rainfall occurs in the month of July
followed by June. The average annual rainfall in the city of Visakhapatnam is 166cm.
During the study period, the inversion levels (up to 150 to 200m) were observed to be very low, and
the prevailing wind direction is observed to be from North-East and East. Based on the data
collected the wind rose diagrams are presented for all the seasons of the year 2005 and for the
month of February 2006 as in Fig.2 and Fig.3. The wind speed recorded mostly remained within
3kmph.
Fig.1. Wind rose diagram for plot period 2005 to 2013
Page 271
Fig.3: Wind rose diagram for 2012-2013

Air Environment
Air pollution can cause significant effects on the environment, and subsequently on humans,
animals, vegetation and materials. It primarily affects the respiratory (e.g. by fine dust), circulatory
(e.g. by carbon monoxide) and olfactory (e.g. by odors) systems in humans. In most of the cases, air
pollution aggravates pre-existing diseases or degrades health status, making people more
susceptible to other infections or the development of chronic respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases. Environmental impacts from air pollution can include acidic deposition and reduction in
visibility.
Following the reconnaissance survey of the study area and taking into account the predominant
environmental factors such as winds, topography and details of existing industrial activities in the
region, Ambient air quality was monitored at six stations . Selection of Air quality monitoring
station was done as per MoEF guidelines for conducting EIA study. One station was set up at the
project site (core Zone) and two are in upwind direction and three are in down wind direction of the
project site. All the stations were not obstructed by hills or any such structures. High volume
samplers were used to collect/measure the air pollutant concentration data at 24 hours averaging
periods for a period starting from February to March 2007 at all the stations. The frequency of
sampling was two consecutive days a week for a month
Page 272
Concentration in g/m^3
250
200
150
SPM10
100
NAAQS
50
0
0
Days
Fig.4. SPM variation
Concentration in g/m^3
140
120
100
80
SOx
60
NOx
40
NAAQS
20
0
0
Days
Fig.5. Gaseous pollutant variation

Traffic and Transport
The baseline traffic count studies are required for assessing the future traffic flow due to proposed
activity i.e. landfill and compost facility. The traffic survey is therefore carried out at the NH-5 and
the access road junction. However, traffic counting was done for all vehicles passing both ways on
NH-5 and passing towards the either side of NH-5(Fig.6).
It was carried out during morning and evening including peak hours of the working day and the
non-working (weekend) day, at 0900 to 1300 hrs and 1600 to 1900 hrs. The traffic counting
Page 273
includes 3 major compositions, viz. 2-wheelers, scooters, mopeds, and motorcycles; light vehicles
comprising petrol and diesel driven car, taxi, van, auto; and heavy vehicles comprising mainly
diesel driven, buses and trucks.
350
Vehicular population in numbers
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Time in Hours
Non- Motorised Traffic
Motorise d Traffic
Fig.6. Traffic volume data

The major composition of light vehicles and 2 wheelers is observed during day time and heavy
vehicles i.e. trucks are observed during night time. The traffic volume is mainly composed of
commercial and private vehicles, and seen throughout the day. The curbside air quality is
deteriorated due to the dust pollution, re-suspended and generated when big vehicles such as buses
and trucks carrying stones from the quarries use the access road and the NH-5.
Conclusions
The following table 5 describes the base line status of the project area
Table.5: Base line studies
Attribute
Baseline status
The meteorological data were obtained from the regional meteorological center
located at Beach Road, Visakhapatnam. The meteorological parameters include,
Meteorology
wind speed, wind directions and other information, viz. humidity, rainfall,
temperature. The annual average temperature observed of maximum mean daily is
29.5 C and that of minimum mean daily temperature is 19.7 C. During the study
period, the inversion levels (up to 150 to 200m) were observed to be very low,
Page 274
and the prevailing wind direction is observed to be from North-East and East.
Ambient air quality was monitored at six stations. Selection of air quality
monitoring station was done as per MoEF guidelines for conducting EIA study.
One station was set up at the project site (core Zone) and two are in upwind
Ambient Air
direction and three are in down wind direction of the project site. The pollutant
Quality
concentration levels of NOx, SO2, and RPM (PM10 & SPM were measured. It
was observed that while the concentration levels of NOx and SO2 were well
within the prescribed limits at all locations, the SPM & PM concentrations
exceeded the limits at two locations
Noise monitoring was carried out at different locations at and around the site. The
Noise Levels
noise levels at day & evening time noise levels recorded at the junction of NH-5
and the access road were found to exceed the noise standards due to heavy traffic.
The assessment of water quality in the study area was done and compared with the
drinking water standards prescribed by CPCB. After studying the drainage pattern
of the study area and proximity to the site, 2 samples of surface waters were
collected, one is, from C.C Tanks (passing through the proposed site) and the
Water Quality
second is, from the water body(GhambeeramGedda) near the project site. The
physico-chemical parameters are well within the prescribed limits for the drinking
water standards. The water quality with respect to almost all was observed to be
of good and acceptable quality except for the concentration of iron which was
found to be very high.
Ground water
Availability
The aquifer in the area is composed of brownish soil mixed with loose sand.
The average depth to groundwater is about 7 to 15m. Groundwater flow is
generally west
To assess the baseline soil quality in the study region, four soil samples were
Soil Quality
collected and analyzed at three locations. The surface soil at the proposed site is
silty brown, mixed with fine grained sand. The soil being mostly loose sandy for a
significant depth has more water contaminant filtering capacity. The share of
oxygen and silica content in the soil is more compared to others, however, other
Page 275
macronutrients, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium have been found in very

insignificant amount. The depth of rock in the area is over about 100m. The soil is
observed to be having high cation exchange capacity and low soluble ions. The
soil is slightly acidic with low nitrogen and phosphate.
The study area is scarcely populated and because of wetland and forested (hills)
steep slopes, there are no proper roads and other amenities of life. Around the site,
few numbers of small villages like MajjiValasa, BodamettaPalem, KapulaUppada,
Socio-
MajjiPeta, ChepalaUppada, Bheemiliand Lakshmipuram are situated. The land
economy
adjoining the site for integrated waste management facility is acquired by for
SEZ. In the study area maximum number of people is found to be engaged as
other workers in economic activity like Government/Private service, teachers,
factory workers, commerce etc. negligible population is involved in agricultural
activities.
The studies conducted reveals that air quality within the Visakhapatnam urban development area is
getting deteriorated day by day. Even though the pollutant concentrations are within the limits as of
now, in the horizon years the environment demands sustainable measures to curb the alarming
increase of pollutant concentration. Noise hazards are one of the most prominent and influential
factors affecting the quality of life of city residents and urban environmental quality. Sustainable
measures are to adopted in aim to decrease the air and noise pollution by keeping in control the
privatized traffic proportions and putting in use of alternate fuels for vehicles such as low carbon
emission vehicles, use of non-motorized transport, public transport integration etc. The public
participation and involvement should be encouraged planning and decisions making for the
improvement in better urban environmental quality.
References
i.
Pastakia CMR, Jensen A. The rapid impact assessment matrix (RIAM) for EIA.
Environmental Impact Assessment Review 1998; 18:46182.
ii.
Brkovi Matija, Sretovi Vinja; Urban Sensing Smart Solutions for Monitoring
Environmental Quality: Case Studies from Serbia; 48th ISOCARP Congress (2012)
iii.
City Development Plan-Greater Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation, Government of

Andhra Pradesh.
Page 276
Impact of Industrial Activities on Heavy Metal Concentrations in

Marine Environment of Mangalore
Dr. Raj Mohan B
Jaya Mary Jacob
Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Karnataka
E- mail: rajmohanbala@gmail.com
Research Scholar
E- mail: jacob.jaya@gmail.com
Akshay Gowda K M
Student
Abstract:
Industrialization in the current century has pioneered extensive research in the field of
environmental impact concerned with heavy metals and metalloids. Of particular interest is the
upsurge in research on the contribution of petrochemicals and refineries on the alarming hike in
the heavy metal concentration in the marine environment in proximity to these industries. Heavy
metals contamination in coastal and marine environments is becoming an increasingly serious
threat to both the naturally stressed marine ecosystems and humans that rely on marine resources
for food, industry and recreation. Heavy metals are introduced to coastal and marine
environments through a variety of sources and activities including sewage and industrial effluents,
brine discharges, coastal modifications and oil pollution. Mangalore, a major coastal industrial
hub of India being populated by numerous small scale and large scale industries and the
associated anthropogenic activities direct the attention of environmentalists and researchers to
evaluate and analyze the heavy metal concentrations in the beaches and other marine hot spots to
initiate remediation and precautionary measures to effectively manage the situation. As per
preliminary reports, the concentrations of certain heavy metals like Lead and Selenium in sea
water samples from beaches in proximity to petro-chemical industries are reportedly higher than
the tolerable limits.
The present review highlights the major industrial activities that result in elevated
metal/metalloid concentrations and suggests measures for environmental management of
heavy metal pollution in the coastal niche of Mangalore.
Key Words: Heavy Metal, Industry, Coast, Mangalore.
Page 277
Introduction:
Heavy metals are considered a major anthropogenic contaminant in coastal and marine
environments worldwide. They pose a serious threat to human health, living organisms and
natural ecosystems because of their toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation characteristics.
Many heavy metal ions are known to be toxic or carcinogenic to humans. Heavy metals can
contribute to degradation of marine ecosystems by reducing species diversity and abundance and
through accumulation of metals in living organisms and food chains. Anthropogenically, heavy
metals can be introduced to coastal and marine environments through a variety of sources,
including industries, wastewaters and domestic effluent.
Heavy metals contamination in coastal and marine environments of the Mangalore is
becoming an increasingly serious threat to both the naturally stressed marine ecosystems and
humans that rely on marine resources for food, industry and recreation. The West Coast of
Mangalore is the chief port city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It is located about 350 kilometres
(220 mi) west of the state capital, Bangalore. Mangalore lies between the Mangalore Sea and the
Western Ghat mountain ranges, and is the administrative headquarters of the Dakshina Kannada
(formerly South Canara) district in south western Karnataka. The city is characterized by marked
fluctuations in sea temperatures and high salinities. It is relatively a shallow basin with an average
area of 1,91,791 km2 , a coastline of 258.15 km. Flora and fauna species in the area inhabit one of
the harshest marine environments due to natural stressors represented by higher levels of salinity
and temperature, and reduced levels of pH. The West Coast is fed with rapid, short and swift
flowing rivers having hardly any delta formations. The tidal range here is comparatively low. The
West Coast has a wider continental shelf compared to the East Coast. These characteristics added
with the wave and current pattern makes the West Coast rich in biotic wealth compared to the
East Coast.
In the past few decades, Mangalore has witnessed major economic, social and industrial
developments. The coastline has been extensively developed and modified. Dredging and
reclamation, industrial and sewage effluents, water discharges from petrochemicals, and oil
pollution are examples of anthropogenic stresses that contribute to environmental degradation in
the area, which is classified among the highest anthropogenically impacted regions in the country.
These anthropogenic activities are mobilizing and discharging elevated levels of heavy metals
Page 278
into the marine environment. Metal pollution in the area could be intensified in recent years due
to elevated industrialization and mobility in the ports. Therefore, pollutants such as heavy metals
are likely to reside in the marine environment for considerable time. Marine environments of
Mangalore are contributing substantially to the sectors of industry, trade, shipping, tourism,
electricity production, and other activities. Consequently, additional anthropogenic inputs of
heavy metals in sea water might be critical not only to vulnerable and fragile ecosystems, but also
to human health and well-being.
To analyze the major heavy metal contaminants in the sea water in coastal and marine
environments of Mangalore.
To identify major anthropogenic impacts contributing to heavy metal loads.
To suggest measures contributing to environmental management of heavy metal

pollution in Mangalore.
The present study is largely a library work, based on published official secondary data
and theoretical literature available in the library and on the websites.
The Heavy Metal contaminants in the marine niche of Mangalore
It may be assumed, perhaps, that due to the discharge of large volume of contaminants,
concentrations of heavy metals in the marine biota around India will be fairly high. It can be
seen that concentrations of almost all of the metals, particularly the toxic metals Pb, Cd, and Hg,
are within the permissible limits for human consumption the concentrations, as is highlighted by
the research of heavy metals in zooplankton and in muscles of fishes of commercial importance,
that constitute the marine fauna in Mangalore seas. As per research in the year 2011, sea
sediments in Mangalore reported Pb, Cd and Hg concentrations of 28.78 6.96g/g, 0.12
0.01g/g and 0.04 0.01g/g respectively. These metal concentrations may be attributed to an
increased anthropogenic input of these metals into the region. Researchers pointed out that the
industrial discharge at the riverine end, domestic sewage discharge and movement of ships,
barges, fishing and passenger boat with in the estuary may be responsible for this increase.
Studies reveal that the concentration of heavy metals was in the order of Fe>Cu>Cr>Ni>Pb at
the Panambur beach in particular benthic fish species. Such organisms represent the most
reliable tool to monitor heavy metal contaminations. Further, the concentrations of heavy metals
Page 279
were found to be higher during the south west monsoon. This condition might be also due to the
increased inputs of land derived metals due to rainfall. Another typical study in the region
reveals seasonal distribution showing higher concentration of Cu, Cr and Zn during the post
monsoon and Cd in pre monsoon season.
Major Anthropogenic Impacts Contributing To Heavy Metal Loads
1. Reclamation and dredging
The coasts along Mangalore especially in the port area are undergoing rapid construction
activities that are often associated with intensive dredging and reclamation. Coastal and
marine environments in the region are the prime target for most of the major recreational and
economic developments. Dredging and reclamation processes are typically associated with
short and long term biological, physical and chemical impacts. These activities may result in
physically smothering the coastal and sub tidal habitats and deoxygenating the underlining
sediments. Physical and chemical alternations due to dredging and reclamation may reduce
biodiversity, richness, abundance and biomass of marine organisms. Additionally, elevated
levels of heavy metals are mobilized during dredging and reclamation activities. These
contaminants may enter important food web components including fish and shellfish, and
ultimately pose threats to human health.
2. Sewage discharges
Sewage discharges are major sources of coastal pollution in Mangalore. Despite high
standards of sewage treatment followed, large quantities of domestic effluents are discharged
to coastal and marine environments. These effluents are characterized by high-suspended
solid and high load of nutrients such as ammonia, nitrate and phosphate. Sewage effluents
are generally accompanied by biological and chemical pollutants, including heavy metals
that may cause degradation in the receiving coastal and marine environments, and
subsequently affect the quality of human food and health.
3. Industrial effluents
Mangalore has witnessed a rapid industrial growth, mainly in the sectors of oil refining,
petrochemical industries. Due to rapid urbanization and industrialization, the coastal waters
off Mangalore are receiving not only increased load of domestic wastes but also effluents
Page 280
from industries such as Iron ore processing plant (KIOCL), Petroleum refinery (MRPL) and
Dyes and dispersions plant (BASF) containing hydrocarbons, increased levels of BOD,
COD, suspended solids basically from the sludge and other various compounds including
heavy metals. These major industries are also discharging wastewater containing a variety of
chemicals, including heavy metals, hydrocarbon compounds, and nutrients. Petroleum
refinery wastewaters are composed of different chemicals, which include oil and greases,
phenols, sulphides, ammonia, suspended solids, and heavy metals like chromium, iron,
nickel, copper, molybdenum, selenium, vanadium and zinc. Coastal and marine
environments receiving intensive industrial effluents along the coastline of the area are
recognized as hotspots for high concentrations of heavy metals.
Fig.1. Major Industries in Mangalore
Management of Heavy Metal Pollution

Prevention and control of heavy metal is a global concern. For a densely populated city
like Mangalore that is developing as a future industrial and residential hub of India, the
management of heavy metal pollution in the city is critically required. Heavy metal
Page 281
management strategies in Mangalore can be classified into immediate and long-term

measures. The immediate actions may include formulating quality guidelines and standards,
enforcing existing national and regional environmental regulations and laws, and
conducting holistic environmental monitoring programs. Long-term measures may include
applying Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on existing and proposed projects or
activities that may contribute to heavy metal pollution, building capacity for advancing
scientific research, and using latest technological approaches and techniques in prevention
and remediation of heavy metal pollution. Bio monitoring using microbial agents like algae
hold great potential for a faster, easier and eco-friendly monitoring of metal concentrations
in marine sources.
1. The sea water and sediment analysis from the marine niche of Mangalore indicate
elevated levels of heavy metals like Lead, Mercury, Cadmium etc.
2. Anthropogenic activities dominated by the industrial sector could be attributed to the
increasing metal concentrations in the region.
3. Al though the industries comply with the environment regulatory aspects regarding effluent
discharge, latest technological advancements need to be incorporated to improve the
management strategy.
References:
Yambem Tenjing Singh, Machina Krishnamoorthy and Seetharamaiah Thippeswamy, Status of heavy
metals in tissues of wedge clam, Donax faba (Bivalvia: Donacidae) collected from the Panambur beach
near industrial areas, Recent Research in Science and Technology 2012, 4(5): 30-35.
B Mohana Kumar, R J Katti, K S Venkatesha Moorthy and Ronald K D Souza, Selected heavy metals in the
sediment and macro benthos of the coastal waters of Mangalore, Indian Journal of Fisheries 2003, 50(2),
263-268.
Al-Sayed H, Mahasneh A, Al-Saad J, Variation of trace metal concentrations in seawater and pearl oyster
Pinctada radiata from Bahrain (Arabian Gulf). Marine Pollution Bulletin 1994, 28 (6), 370374.
Fu F, Wang Q, Removal of heavy metal ions from wastewaters: a review. Journal of Environmental
Management 2011, 92, 407418.
Halpern B, Walbridge S, Selkoe K, Kappel C, Micheli F et al, A global map of human impact on marine
ecosystems, Science 2008, 319, 948952.
Zhou Q, Zhang J, Fu J, Shi J, Jiang G, Biomonitoring: an appealing tool for assessment of metal pollution in
the aquatic ecosystem, Analytica Chimica Acta 2008, 606, 135150.
Page 282
Impact of Urbanization in Kerala: Case study of

Cochin Corporation
Basil Basheerudeen1, Aparna Baiju2
1
2

Post Graduate, TocH Institute of Science and Technology; mail ID: appoos2006@gmail.com
Abstract:
Most Indian cities are experiencing rapid urbanization and a majority of the countrys population is
expected to live in cities within a span of next two decades. India has been meeting the urbanization
challenge by increasing urban spaces and converting and classifying rural areas as urban. Increasing
the urban spaces created new issues in large cities, such as lack of physical and social infrastructure,
high transportation demand, high pollution levels, development of slums and squatters, reduction in
agricultural land, destruction of bio-diversity and ecosystem and loss of community life. Generally,
the increase in urban population growth rate is the result of over concentration in the existing cities
especially metropolitans. But in Kerala, the main reason for urban population growth is the increase
in the number of urban areas and also urbanization of the peripheral areas of the existing major
urban centres which is evident from the study of the density pattern. But the density pattern in
major cities and towns shows that, the increase in density is due to the overall population increase
over the entire spread of Kerala, which is occasionally accentuated in the urban areas with nominal
variations. The dispersed settlement pattern, a result of historical trends, a liking for homestead type
development, comparatively developed infrastructure in urban and rural areas, geographical reasons
etc. can be considered as both a prospect and a problem.
Keywords: Demography, Density, Land Use
Page 283
Introduction:
India is urbanizing rapidly and about 377 million people live in 7935 towns or cities across the
country which constitutes about 31.2 % of the total population. Population growth has resulted in
the evolution of villages into towns and cities, either by way of organic growth or being part of a
larger agglomeration.
The process of urbanisation can be discerned from the distribution of urban population. Kerala state
recorded an urban population of 1,59,32,171 as per 2011 census, which accounts for 47.2% of the
total population of 3,33,87,677 and is far higher than the national urban average. The urban sector
in Kerala comprises of five Municipal Corporations and 53 Municipalities. The huge growth in
urban population during the past decade 2001-2011 (92.72 %) could be attributed squarely to the
manifold increase in number of towns in the State between 2001 & 2011 from 159 to 520 as shown
in Fig.1. The districts such as Ernakulam, Thrissur, Calicut, Malappuram, Trivandrum and Kannur
are the major contributors of urban population in the state with a joint contribution of 73 percent
(Fig.2.) Ernakulam is the most urbanised district (68.07%) and Wayanad (3.87%) is the least
urbanised district of the State.
-10
-30
Decades
-25.96
Kerala
Fig.1. Decadal Growth of Population in Rural &
Urban Areas in Kerala From 1901-11 to 2001-11
Kollam
Idukki
Kottayam
10
1981
Thrissur
30
24.61
29.78
22.4
19.19
15.44 20.64
15.67
14.522.8224.7626.29
7.64
11.47 21.85
19.243.5610.07
7.52
16.04
14.324.86
11.75
9.43
9.16
Malappuram
50
70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Kasargod
70
District wise Level of Urban

Population in Kerala
Wayanad
% of Population
90
Decadal Growth of Population

in Rural And 52.72
Urban Areas in
35.72
39.89 to 200160.97
Kerala From
34.58 1901-11
37.64 92.72
30.4711
% of Urban Population
110
1991
2001
2011
District in Kerala
Fig.2. District wise Level of Urban Population

in Kerala
The density pattern in major cities and towns shows that, the increase in density is due to the overall
population increase over the entire spread of Kerala. However, unlike the other parts of the country
Page 284
the urbanization in Kerala is not limited to the designated cities and towns instead the entire state
depicts the picture of an urban rural continuum.
Kochi Corporation:
Kochi, the commercial capital of Kerala, is one of the fastest growing two-tier metropolitan cities in
India and is situated in Ernakulam District, is located between 9 52' and 10 1' North Latitude and
between 76 14' and 76 21' East Longitude. The city has an area of 94.88 km2 with a population of
6,12,343 curtailed with the Municipal Corporation boundary limits. Urban expansion during the
past few decades outgrew the limits to form the largest urban agglomerate in the state.
1. Genesis of Kochi Corporation
Kochi has witnessed unprecedented trends of urbanization during the past four decades due to
industrialisation. Kochi Corporation was formed in 1967, incorporating the three Municipalities (Fort
Kochi, Mattanchery and Ernakulam), Wellington Island and few surrounding areas in the suburbs. The
growth pattern of Kochi is shown in Fig.3.
Fig.3. Growth of settlements in Kochi

Demography
Kerala state accounts for 1.18% of the total area of the country, but houses 4.2% of the countrys
population. Kochi, the largest urban agglomeration in Kerala, consists of the Municipal Corporation
of Kochi, adjoining Municipalities (Statutory towns) and Grama Panchayaths (Census town) have a
population of 21,17,990. The average decadal growth in Kochi Corporation is 7.8% whereas the
nearby municipal areas registered decadal average of 18.65%, and the adjoining Panchayaths had an
average decadal growth of 12.1% as shown in Fig 4. Semi urban areas around the city is showing
Page 285
high rate of population growth and also fast developing trends. Table.1 shows the growth of towns
from 2001 to 2011.
Type
Area (Km2)
2001
2011
Decadal Population in Kochi Urban

Agglomerate
2000000
Population in
persons
Table.1 shows the growth of towns from

2001 to 2011 in Kochi Metropolitan Area
No .of Towns
Total
1500000
Kochi
Corporation
1000000
500000
Statutory
45.69
Census
189.45
15
45
0
1981 1991
2001 2011
Fig.4. Decadal Population in Kochi Metropolitan Area
The contributing factors of population growth in the area are mainly the natural increase and the in
migration from nearby villages for trade and employment and are projected as given in Table 2.
Table.2.Estimated migration component as % to Total population
Kochi City
Municipal Areas
Census Towns
2011
11.46
26.04
14.16
2021
18.98
38.61
20.83
2026
24.74
46.27
28.28
1. Population Density
As per 2011 census, Kochi Municipal Corporation has a population density of 6340 persons per
sq.km compared to 6449 persons per sq.km for the peripheral areas around the city. The population
density variations across the district and within the metropolitan area are given in Fig.5 and Fig.6.
Page 286
Fig.5. Popoulation Density Pattern in Ernakulam Fig.6. Population Density variation in the Kochi
District and Adjacent areas
City region
Land Use
The characteristic feature of the land utilization pattern in the Kochi City is the predominance of
water bodies and wetland. The land utilization pattern shows that the land under water and
paddy/fish farm is getting converted to developed land as shown in Fig.7 and Fig.8.
Percent level of Land

Utilisation
Percent Level of Land Use

Pattern
22.7
48.4
17.0
3.3 3.9 3.2

0.2
% of Total Area
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
1.2
80.0
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
Public & Semi

Public
Type ofKochi
Land Use
City regionMunicipal Area + Panchayaths
Fig.7.Land Use Pattern, 2001Census
Fig.8. % Land Utilisation of Kochi Metropolitan
The analysis of the land utilization pattern shows that the areas on the north eastern and western
part of this region vary significantly, as the western part comprises of islands surrounded by water
bodies and fragmented by canals and backwaters.
Page 287
Transport and Urban Infrastructure

Kochi city region has developed in a disintegrated urban form spreading along major traffic
corridors. The number of vehicles in Ernakulam district has increased during 1989-90 to2006-07
showing an average annual growth rate between 10 to 20 % and was followed with a declining
trend for the next two decades. Vehicle Population increased enormously during 2010-11 with
increase in agglomerate population (Fig.9). Two wheelers constituted the major shares of vehicle
Motor Vehicle
1500000
Population in
Ernakulam
1000000
3%
Modal Split in8%

Ernakulam 2%
District 18%
Goods
Vehicl
e
500000
2011
2009
2007
2005
2003
0
2001
Motor Vehicle
Population in Nos.
population in the district with more than 62 percent (Fig.10).
7%
62%
Year
Fig.9. Decadal Motor Vehicle Population

in Ernakulam
Fig.10. Decadal Motor Vehicle

Population in Ernakulam
Urban economic activities are dependent upon urban infrastructure like roads, water supply, power,
telecommunication, mass transportation and other civic infrastructure like sanitation and solid waste
management. Kochi Metropolitan area produces about 670 tons of solid waste per day. The
generation of solid waste varies from 0.30 kg to 0.58 kg per head per day in the Kochi City Region.
The region does not have a scientific management system for solid waste pushing along with only a
collector efficiency of around 40%. The environmental quality of an area depends up on the
ambient air quality and water quality which influence the quality of life of the inhabitants. Kochi
agglomerate characterised by more amount of industrial and commercial activities resulted in more
vehicular emissions, noise pollution, highly contaminated surface water and higher amount of
sewerage disposal.
Page 288
Conclusions
Although natural increase continues to contribute largely in urban growth of India, however with
acceleration in demographic transition, rural to urban migration is likely to play more prominent
role in the economic development of the country. Kochi Urban agglomeration is experiencing
population growth higher than the state average. The population growth rate is showing a declining
trend in the Corporation area during the past three decades whereas the suburban area around the
city shows considerably high population growth. Growth in population and denser patterns induces
traffic demand from the peripheral areas results in the higher usage of privatised vehicles on the
road. This leads to congestion, pollution, accidents thereby, degrading the urban environment.
Disorganised expansion of urban area at a rapid rate results in scarce availability of basic
infrastructure services, facilities etc. to the rapidly growing population at the fullest extent. Keeping
in view the above, the strategy for rejuvenating the cities must focus on provision of basic urban
infrastructural services, provision of water supply, sewerage and solid waste management, storm
water drainage, transport and e-Governance.
References
i.
Comprehensive Development Plan for Kochi City Region (2031), Dept. of Town & Country
Planning, Govt. of Kerala.
ii.
Comprehensive Study for Transport System for Greater Kochi Area, Rites Ltd, 2001.
iii.
Census of India, 2011; Kerala State Planning Board: Economic Review 2007-12.
Page 289
Ground Water Issues.
Arsenic Contamination In Ground Water

Mithra.P 1, Annie Joy 2 , Dr. A.K. Vasudevan 3
M Tech student1, Assistant Professor2
TIST, Cochin University, Kerala
Professor3
NSS College of Engineering, Palakkad,
Kerala
e-mail Id: mithraprasadv@gmail.com1
Abstract:
Arsenic is a metalloid element ,which is brittle in nature ,and grey white in colour . Arsenic is a
chemical that is widely distributed in nature and principally occurs in the form of inorganic or
organic compounds .Inorganic compounds consists of Arsenite, the most toxic forms and Arsenate,
the less toxic forms.
High concentration of Arsenic (As) in ground water in northeastern states of India has become a
major cause of concern in recent years. The ground water in the past was considered to be safe for
drinking purpose but now it came to be known that many shallow tube wells contain arsenic at
concentrations higher than the safe limit set for drinking purpose by WHO 1993. Arsenic has
detrimental effects on health .These effects range from skin ailments to serious diseases such as
Cancer and to death.
Key Words: Arsenic (As), WHO.
Page 290
Introduction:
Arsenic(As) is an ubiquitous metalloid element that ranks 20th in crustal abundance. It enters into
the groundwater and food chain due to its association with rocks, sediments and soils as well as its
discharge from industrial sources and the use of pesticides. It is a toxic substance with exceedingly
diverse forms of poisoning. Different species of arsenic have different degrees of toxicity, of these
As (III) causes the most damage. High concentrations of arsenic have been found in the
northeastern states of India and Bangladesh.
The ground water in the past was considered to be safe for drinking purpose but now it came to be
known that many shallow tube wells contain arsenic at concentrations higher than the safe limit set
for drinking purpose by WHO 1993.Arsenic has detrimental effects on health. These effects range
from skin ailments to serious diseases such as Cancer and to death.
1. To discuss the level of arsenic contamination in different parts of the world.
2. To discuss the different sources of arsenic in ground water.
3. To discuss the different methods for testing arsenic content.
4. To discuss the different methods for management and removal of arsenic.
5. To discuss the effects of arsenic contamination.
The study is largely a library work, based on published official secondary data and
Level of arsenic contamination in different parts of world:
Figure1. Distribution of arsenic in different parts of the world.
Page 291
Arsenic contamination of ground water has been reported from many countries including
Bangladesh, Vietnam, Argentina, China, parts of USA and now in India. The provisional limit of
As in drinking water as recommended by WHO is 0.01mg/l. Figure 1 shows the distribution of
arsenic in different parts of the world.
In India As in ground water has been detected in some parts of Assam, Tripura, Manipur, Nagaland
and Arunachal Pradesh. Many areas within the Northeastern states with As concentration greater
than 0.05 mg/l, implying that millions of people are at serious risk of As poisoning.
Testing for arsenic content:
Arsenic contamination of drinking water is a worldwide problem due to its detrimental effects on
health. The major issue of arsenic contaminated water is to find out the level of contamination of
arsenic and it is not so easy because of no colour, no odour and no taste even in the highly
contaminated water.
Field methods:
The most important characteristic of field testing method is that the testing can be carried out in
field where sample is taken. In this method relatively very simple testing field-kits are used. When
any metal arsenic reacts with strong acids, arsine gas is formed. Most arsenic test kits rely on the
reduction of inorganic arsenic to arsine gas. Using zinc metal and hydrochloric acid. This gas is
allowed to pass through the mercury bromide indicator paper and the intensity of color indicates the
concentration of As.
Field Kits for the Detection of Inorganic Arsenic in Water
Arsenic detection field kits are being used worldwide to screen wells for arsenic and also to monitor
the performance of arsenic removal technologies.
Figure 2. The colour chart of arsenic concentration as provided by the NIPSOM,GPL and Merck
kits.
Page 292
Figure 3. NEERI field kit for arsenic detection.

Management and removal of arsenic:
Arsenic removal using wood charcoal and sand
A simple As-removal system has been developed in Bangladesh ,based on a traditional sandfiltration water-purification system.
Arsenic removal using sedimentation method
Passive sedimentation received considerable attention because of the rural peoples habit of
drinking stored water from pitchers. As level in the water was tested at five different layers of water
in the tank. Each layer was assumed to be 20 cm thick and the sixth layer at the bottom acted as
sedimentation trap (Figure 5). Table 1 shows the concentration of As in storage water.
Figure 5. Removal of arsenic using natural inorganic gradient.

Table 1. Reduction of arsenic level in water by sedimentation method.
Amount of arsenic (mg/l)
Duration (h)
Ist layer
2nd layer
3rd layer
4th layer
5th layer
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.45
72
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.3
0.3
144
0.05
0.10
0.20
0.20
0.3
6th layer
Sedimentation
trap
Page 293
Arsenic removal by coagulation process
Coagulation and filtration is the most common As-removal technology. By adding a coagulant such
as alum, ferric chloride or ferric sulphate to contaminated water, much of the As can be removed.
Table 2 shows the performance of alum and PAC in arsenic removal. Table 3 shows the arsenic
removal from ground water.
Table 2.Performance of alum and PAC in arsenic removal
Alum dose (mg/l)
Residual
arsenic(g/l
)
Residual
arsenic(g/l
)
Residual
arsenic(g/l
)
PAC dose (mg/l)
30
40
50
60
70
10
15
20
25
30
105
77
70
59
30
BDL
105
80
63
23
15
BDL
(-)
(26.7
)
(33.3
)
(43.8
)
(71.4
)
(>99
)
(-)
(23.8
)
(40.0
0
(78.1)
(85.7)
(>99
)
100
150
200
210
220
100
110
120
130
519
186
82
37
20
BDL
519
12
BDL
BDL
(-)
(64.2
)
(84.2
)
(92.9
)
(96.1
)
(>99
)
(-)
(97.7
)
(99.6)
(>99.6
)
(>99.6
)
100
150
200
210
220
100
125
150
118
9
465
245
106
53
BDL
118
9
36
BDL
(-)
(60.9
)
(79.4
)
(91.2
)
(95.5
)
(>99
)
(-)
(97.0
)
(99.4)
(>99.4
)
Figures in parentheses indicate percentage of arsenic corresponding to the dose.

BDL. Below Detectable Limit(<2mg/l)
Table 3. Arsenic removal from ground water

Total arsenic in test water(g/l)
Dose required to obtain residual arsenic concentration (10g/l)

Alum (mg/l)
PAC (mg/l)
105
70
30
519
220
110
1189
250
125
Page 294
Arsenic removal using lime-softening
Lime-softening is a similar process to coagulation with metal salts. Table 4 shows that adding 0.1 %
(by weight) of lime to As contaminated water.
Table 4. Treatment of arsenic contaminated water with calcium oxide
Amount
of water
(ml)
Amount
of CaO
(mg)
Initial
arsenic
content
(mg/l)
5000
0.5
5000
Arsenic concentration (mg/l)
Per cent removal
After
After
1h
10h
16h
1h
10h
16h
0.45
0.45
0.400
0.40
0.0
11
11
1.0
0.45
0.45
0.350
0.30
0.0
22
38
5000
2.0
0.45
0.40
0.250
0.15
0.0
44
67
5000
2.5
0.45
0.40
0.090
0.06
0.0
80
87
5000
3.0
0.45
0.35
0.070
0.05
22
84
89
5000
3.5
0.45
0.30
0.070
0.05
33
84
89
5000
4.0
0.45
0.30
0.050
0.03
33
88
93
5000
4.5
0.45
0.30
0.050
0.03
33
88
43
5000
5.0
0.45
0.25
0.035
Nil
44
92
100
5000
5.5
0.45
0.25
0.030
Nil
44
93
100
5000
6.0
0.45
0.25
0.020
Nil
44
96
100
5000
6.5
0.45
0.20
0.150
Nil
56
97
100
5000
7.0
0.45
0.20
0.010
Nil
56
98
100
5000
7.5
0.45
0.15
0.010
Nil
67
98
100
5000
8.0
0.45
0.10
0.010
Nil
78
98
100
5000
8.5
0.45
0.10
Nil
Nil
78
100
100
Page 295
Household arsenic filter
Figure 6. Kanchan arsenic filter developed under Nepal Water Project (MIT and ENPHO).
The US- based Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), in collaboration with a Nepal based
non-governmental Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO) has developed the
KanchanTM arsenic filter.
Effects of arsenic contamination:
The United States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) and International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) have specified arsenic as known human carcinogen.
Effects on Human Health
Figure 7. Person affected by melanosis- showing black pigmentation in skin
Figure 8. Palm and soles become rough and tough due to Keratosis.
Melanosis (93.5 %), and keratosis are the most common presentations among the affected
people.
Page 296
Conclusion:
There are 20 countries in the world in which groundwater arsenic contamination episodes have
been cited, but the worst suffering people have been observed in Bangladesh and West Bengal.
Groundwater in these regions are contaminated with As which occurs naturally in alluvial and
deltaic sediments. Due to high concentration of As in well water, the people of these regions are
continuously being exposed to As toxicity causing serious health hazards. Therefore, the first
priority to remediate the crisis should be early identification of the affected sources, and the
next hurdle is to provide arsenic-safe water to the affected masses.
References:
Roy,T.K.,Mukhopadhyay,A.R.,Ghosh,S.K.,Majumdar,G.,(2010). Arsenic Enrichment in

Groundwater
in
the
Middle
Gangetic
Plain
of
Ghazipur
District
in
UttarPradesh,India.Indian Journal of Environmental Protection,30,653-658.
M.D.,AbulFazal,Toshihiko Kawachi.,(2011).Extent and severity of Groundwater Arsenic

Contamination in Bangladesh.Water International,26,370-379.
A.K.,Singh.,(2007).Approaches for Removal of Arsenic from Groundwater of Northeastern

India,Current Science,92,1506-1515.
NurunNahar,Faisal Hossain,M.,Delawer Hossain.,(2008).Health and Socioeconomic

Effects of Groundwater Arsenic Contamination in Rural Bangladesh:New Evidence from
Field Surveys,Journal of Environmental Health,70,42-47.
Page 297
Groundwater Wakeup
Asika Johney, Avinash Satheesh, K.Akhil *, Lekshmi M. S.**
*B.Tech Students,**Asso. Professor,
Toc H Institute of Science & Techonology, Arakkunnam
e-mail id: asika.johney@gmail.com
Abstract:
Demand for clean drinking water increases continually. Drinking water is drawn mainly from
groundwater in most of the places because it is naturally protected, of high quality and is reliable.
Groundwater depletion is a key issue associated with groundwater use. Groundwater depletion and
the lowering of the water table is very serious for several reasons. The most effective method of
controlling depletion is groundwater recharging.
Toc H Institute of Science and Technology is situated in a locality where there is scarcity of water.
This paper discusses about the water crisis in the locality of Arakkunnam and different ground
water recharge techniques for those wells that get dried up during the year. Different artificial
recharge techniques by which excess surface water is directed into the ground either by spreading
on the surface, by using recharge wells, or by altering natural conditions to increase infiltration,
have been briefly explained in this paper. This paper also discusses about the results obtained from
various groundwater quality tests conducted on the sample.
Key Words: Groundwater depletion, groundwater recharge techniques, Ground water quality
Page 298
Introduction:
Groundwater is the water located beneath the earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures
of rock formations. Groundwater makes up about twenty percent of the world's fresh water supply,
which is about 0.61% of the entire world's water, including oceans and permanent ice. Groundwater
is the largest source of usable, fresh water in the world. In many parts of the world, especially
where surface water supplies are not available, domestic, agricultural, and industrial water needs
can only be met by using the water beneath the ground. Groundwater depletion is a term often
defined as long term water-level declines caused by sustained groundwater pumping. It is a key
issue associated with groundwater use. Groundwater depletion is to be controlled at its earliest to
prevent all these negative effects which can be fatal to the environment as well as to the public. The
most effective method of controlling depletion is groundwater recharging.
The quality of groundwater also plays a major role. Groundwater contamination occurs when manmade products such as gasoline, oil, road salts and chemicals get into the groundwater and cause it
to become unsafe and unfit for human use. Materials from the land's surface can move through the
soil and end up in the groundwater. For example, pesticides and fertilizers can find their way into
groundwater supplies over time. Road salt, toxic substances from mining sites, and used motor oil
also may seep into groundwater. In addition, it is possible for untreated waste from septic tanks and
toxic chemicals from underground storage tanks and leaky landfills to contaminate groundwater.
Drinking contaminated groundwater can have serious health effects. Diseases such as hepatitis and
dysentery may be caused by contamination from septic tank waste. Poisoning may be caused by
toxins that have leached into well water supplies. Wildlife can also be harmed by contaminated
groundwater. Other long term effects such as certain types of cancer may also result from exposure
to polluted water.
Toc H Institute of Science and Technology is situated in a locality where there is a depletion of
groundwater. Studies were carried out in and around TIST ,Arakkunnam ,to assess the quality as
well as quantity of groundwater at present during the years 2012- 2013 .
1. To discuss about the results obtained from groundwater quantity mapping.
Page 299
2. To discuss about various groundwater recharge techniques that can be implemented in

the study area.
3. To discuss about the results obtained from groundwater quality mapping.
The present study is largely a work, based on the data collected during the course of the
project on Groundwater Mapping around TIST Arakkunnam 2012-2013and Investigations on
recharging of groundwater around TIST Arakkunnam 2013-2014
Study Area:
The study area was selected within a radius of 0.25 km of the TIST campus. It falls in
Mulanthuruthy block of Ernakulam district in Kerala. It consists of 20 open wells which were used
as the observation wells throughout the course of the project. The 20 wells were distributed in
three directions with 5 wells to the north, 6 wells to the north west and 9 wells to the south east
of TIST gate.
Field Results:
An auto level survey was conducted in the field for determining the reduced levels of the selected
wells. The reduced levels of the wells were determined keeping the TIST gate as the bench mark
(assuming an R.L of 100m for the gate).
Page 300
Water depth measurements of the wells in the field under study were taken from the month of
August 2012 till the month of October 2013.
The water levels showed a generally decreasing trend during the period of August January. This
can be mainly attributed to the receding monsoons, which showed a sharp decline compared to
that of the previous years. It was also found that a particular area that is to the north west
direction of TIST gate has almost dried up by the end of January.
Reasoning for groundwater level fluctuations:
Out of the six wells, two wells extensively dried during the dry seasons of the year.
The depth of these wells were comparatively less than the other wells. This may be one
among the reasons for the depletion of groundwater.
Transpiration effects: Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and
its evaporation from aerial parts. Magnitudes of transpiration fluctuations depend on the
type of vegetation, season, and weather. The area under study is situated parallel to a rubber
plantation.
Groundwater recharge may be reduced due to paved surface area. The site under study is
having a bituminous road.
The wells are situated close to each other, the supply of water will be greatly affected, due
to interference, when both the wells are pumped simultaneously.
Implementation Of Artificial Recharge Techniques On Study Area:

From the water level readings it was understood that the area under study was affected by water
shortage during the dry seasons. This situation can be improved by artificial recharging of
groundwater.
Groundwater recharge with vetiver system can be suitably adopted to the study area. Vetiver
grass has roots of 2 to 3 metres length that can penetrate very hard soil layers. Much of this
water will penetrate into the ground because the water can flow along the Vetiver roots.
The method of recharge shafts can be adopted to the study area. Recharge shafts are
constructed to augment recharge into phreatic aquifers where water levels are much deeper
Page 301
and the aquifer zones are overlain by strata having low permeability .They are much smaller
in cross section .
Aquifer modification techniques such as bore blasting or hydrofracturing can be adopted to

increase the groundwater yield.
Groundwater Quality Test:

Groundwater is required for domestic, irrigation, and industrial uses. A large part of drinking water
supply is fulfilled by groundwater, thereby increasing its vital importance. In many of the areas
groundwater is only source of drinking water, thus a large population is exposed to the risk of
consuming contaminated water .
Water samples were collected from the selected wells and the following water quality tests were
conducted:
I. Turbidity test
II. Test to detect the presence of iron
III. Test to detect the presence of manganese
IV. Test to detect the presence of nitrate.
Turbidity test:
As per WHO standards, the permissible limit for turbidity of drinking water is 5 NTU. It was seen
that the sample from a single well has a turbidity value of 16.2 NTU. Hence the sample should be
used only after proper treatment.
Determination of iron:
Iron is harmless, though sometimes annoying. High concentrations of dissolved iron can result in
poor tasting, unattractive water that stains both plumbing fixtures and clothing. As per IS:10500,
permissible limit for iron in drinking water is 0.3ppm. The values of iron content in the samples
from five wells were more than 0.3ppm. Hence the water in these wells should be treated before
domestic use.
Determination of Manganese:
Water rich in manganese can increase bacterial growth in water. Excessive manganese intake can
cause hypertension in patients older than 40. Significant rises in manganese concentrations have
Page 302
been found in patients with severe hepatitis, in dialysis patients and in patients suffering heart
attacks.
As per IS 10500, the permissible limit of manganese in drinking water is 0.1ppm. The samples from
two wells had contain manganese values greater than 0.1ppm.So the water in these wells have to be
treated before domestic use.
Determination of Nitrate:
Nitrate intrusion into groundwater happens mainly from fertilizers used in agriculture and also from
plants nearby. High nitrite content in water can cause methamoglobinemia or blue baby syndrome.
As per I.S 10500, the permissible limit of nitrite in drinking water is 45 ppm, as none of the well
samples exceeded this limit, it can be safely used for domestic purpose.
Conclusions:
Drinking water is drawn mainly from groundwater in most of the places because it is naturally
protected, of high quality and reliable. It is clear that the relative importance of groundwater
resources will increase considerably and that careful and sustainable exploitation must be
regarded as means of overcoming the looming water crisis in the locality of Arakkunnam.
The motivation of this paper was to meet the water crisis in the locality of Arakkunnam by
suggesting different groundwater recharge techniques and also infer the results obtained from
the quality test of the water samples.
References:
Manual on Artificial Recharge on Groundwater,September 2007, Ministry of water

Resources, Central Groundwater Board ,Government of India,.
Nikitha Narayanan, Shifas I., Umalakhmi K.,S.,Project report on Groundwater Mapping in
Arakkunnam.
H.M Raghunath, Groundwater, Third edition, New AgeInternational Publishers Ltd, (2007).
David Keith Todd, Groundwater Hydrology,Second edition, published by John Wiley &
Sons Pte. Ltd
Renewable & Non-Renewable Energies

Solar Roadways
Page 303
Parvathi.S; Asst Prof Life John

Toch Institute Of Science and Technology, Kerala
email Id:parvathi_gaap@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Sustainability is critical in current engineering techniques, particularly in the field of
pavement engineering. It is based on using minimum resources while optimizing design for
maximum efficiency. One such project is the proposal to build roads that have been integrated with
photovoltaic cells in order to provide a high performance driving surface while generating
renewable electricity. The electricity thus generated can then be used in local infrastructure,
adjacent buildings, or it can be sold to the electrical grid. The solar roadway is an intelligent road
that provides clean renewable energy and safer driving conditions, along with data and power
delivery.
The principle objective of this paper is to introduce the concept of Solar Roadways A road
that pays for itself. The various layers of solar roadways and the materials used for its component
parts are also discussed in this paper along with its applications.
K e y words: Sustainability, Renewable, Solar Road
Introduction:
Sustainable solutions are a requirement for modern design problems due to societys
overreliance on natural resources. Thus innovative ideas which focus on sustainability must be
considered as a key priority for design and optimization. One of the primary solutions for this
problem is the increase in use of renewable energy resources. Different types of renewable energy
resources are solar, wind, ocean and geothermal energy. Among these, solar energy is the only
Page 304
resource which is abundantly available and evenly distributed worldwide. Hence developing
technologies to capture this solar energy is the need of the hour.
One such project is the proposal to build roads that have been integrated with photovoltaic
cells in order to provide a high performance driving surface while generating renewable
electricity. The Solar Roadway is a series of structurally-engineered solar panels that are driven
upon. It would utilize the use of roads that would be covered by photovoltaic panels. The idea is to
replace the current asphalt roads, parking spaces, and driveways with Solar Road Panels that collect
energy to be used by our homes and businesses. The ultimate goal is to store excess energy in or
along-side the Solar Roadways. The Solaroad technology from TNO/Solaroad Technology Group
LLC in the Netherlands and Solar Roadways, a non-profit organization in the United States, both
use the same approach, though with different patented systems. Wherein The Solaroad Technology
Group in the Netherlands is proposing a solar bike path capable of generating 50kWh electricity for each
square meter of solar path each year.

1. To introduce the concept of Solar Roadways.
2. To discuss the various layers of solar roadways and the materials used for its
component parts.
3. To discuss its various applications.
Research Methodology :
This p a p e r is largely a library work, based on published official secondary data and
Typical Solar Roadway:
The solar roadway is an intelligent road that provides clean renewable energy and safer driving
conditions, along with power and data delivery. The three major layers of the solar roadway are:
Road surface layer - translucent and high-strength, textured glass, that is rough enough to
provide sufficient traction, but still passes sunlight through to the solar collector cells embedded
within, along with the LEDs and the heating element. This layer needs to be capable of
withstanding today's heaviest loads under the worst conditions and to be weatherproof, to protect
the electronics layer which lies beneath it.
Page 305
Electronics layer/Optical layer - It transmits the load around the solar cells. Contains a
microprocessor board with support circuitry for sensing loads on the surface and controlling a
heating element with a view to reducing or eliminating snow and ice removal as well as school and
business closings due to inclement weather. The microprocessor controls lighting, monitoring,
communications, etc. With a communications device at frequent intervals, a solar roadway can be
an intelligent highway system.
Base plate layer - While the electronics layer collects energy from the sun, the base plate layer
distributes that power as well as data signals (phone, TV, internet, etc.) down the line to all
buildings and businesses connected to the solar roadway. It has to transmit the load to a pavement,
sub grade, or base structure. It needs to be weatherproof to protect the electronics layer above it.
Fig 1: layers of solar roadway
http://www.tac-atc.ca
When we interconnect multiple Solar Road Panels, the intelligent Solar Roadway is formed.
These panels can replace the current driveways, parking lots, and all road systems-interstate
highways, state routes, residential streets, downtown streets, or even plain dirt or gravel country
roads. Besides these panels can be used in amusement parks, raceways, bike paths, remote military
locations, etc. Any home or business connected to the Solar Roadway (via a Solar Road Panel
driveway or parking lot) receives the power and data signals that the Solar Roadway provides. The
Solar Roadway becomes a self-healing, intelligent, decentralized (secure) power grid.
Material properties:
One of the main problems in implementing the solar roadways system is in the material
selection for the top cover of the solar panel. It is quite obvious that the material selected for the top
cover must possess sufficient structural strength to take on the vehicle load moving over it while
possessing surface properties similar to those of roads, so that the vehicles moving over it will have
sufficient traction to move and stop safely in slippery conditions like rain and snow.Currently for
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analysis and testing purpose float glass and polycarbonate is being used by the Solar Roadways in
U.S.A. The glass is a tempered treated glass that withstands cracking and chipping. At an advanced
loading facility, a giant truck tire with weights on top of it was used to simulate a truck driving
across the panels. The hardness of the glass falls between steel and stainless steel and truck tires
wear out well before the surface of glass, says Scott(2009).The studies conducted by The
Department of Civil and Environmental engineering, University of Waterloo, Canada used tempered
glass as the top transparent layer. For further analysis fiberglass panels were also used. In the studies
conducted by The University of Western Ontario, London used acrylic plastic as the transparent
layer. Whereas hardened glass was used by The Solaroad Technology Group in the Netherlands.
Traction refers to the maximum frictional force that can be produced between surfaces
without slipping. Rubber on glass has a very high static friction coefficient (s) of 1-2, meaning that
it takes more force to start rubber sliding on glass than the normal force of gravity.In order to obtain
sufficient traction, research is going on at, how to make a prism pattern work (similar to Fresnel
lenses) so that when light comes in it will bend it down and make it more efficient. Brusaw(2009) is
planning to use thousands of tiny prisms built into the surface, which will maximize the run-off of
water and the tire-roadway contact in wet conditions and also direct sunlight into the photovoltaic
cells when the sun is low.
Glass was chosen as the material for optical layer. Due to the requirements of the prototype
design, fiberglass was chosen as the ideal material by The Department of Civil and Environmental
engineering, University of Waterloo, Canada. The optical layer consists of photovoltaic cells of
monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous silicon cells. Besides these, it also contains a
microprocessor which sends communication to the neighboring panels. This layer also incorporates
LEDs and heating element, to keep snow and ice off the road
According to The Department of Civil and Environmental engineering, University of
Waterloo, Canada, the base structure is straight forward while using multiply fiberglass as the bulk
of the structure is simply layers of fiberglass adhered together. Whereas the Solar Roadway project
at Idaho in USA, proposes to use concrete with glass aggregate as the base layer. The current
conceptual design for Solaroad cycle path by TNO in proposes to use concrete elements measuring
1.5 by 2.5 m as its base layer
Design Of Solar Cycle Path:
In The University of Western Ontario, the design of the panel was done by COMSOL
Multiphysics,an engineering
simulation software. The model created in the COMSOL
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Multiphysics for the analysis purpose consists of a vertically hollow square base layer with sides 4
meters in length, 0.5 meter in height and 0.1 meter in thickness..The base layer is considered to be
made up of concrete, and covered with a transparent cover of size 4 m and thickness 0.01 m made
up of acrylic plastic, whose material properties are given in Table 1. The acrylic sheets have a
working temperature range of -40C up to 93C, and the elastic properties are assumed to remain
constant in this temperature range. The specifications of the vehicles are given in table 2.According
to standard specifications and code of practice for road bridges (IRC: 6-2000), the car and the
motorbike belongs to Class A loading and bicycle belongs to Class B loading.
Table 1: Material properties for Acrylic plastic and Concrete
Material properties
Density
Youngs modulus
Poisson ratio
Acrylic plastic
1190(kg/m3)
50.8x109(Pa)
0.37
Concrete
2400(kg/m3)
25x109(Pa)
0.33
Table 2: Specifications of car, motorbike and bicycle used in the analysis
Curb weight
Length
Wheel Base
Weight distribution
Car
616.9kg
3.05m
2.04m
60/40
Motorbike
213.2kg
2.1m
1.5m
51/49
Bicycle
13.6kg
1.006m
40/60
The size of selected base layer was 1.5 m x 0.2 m x 0.1 m, covered by a transparent top
cover of size 1.5 meters and with a thickness of 10 mm. It was found that the total weight of the
bicycle, 90.7kg (including weight of the bicycle and person travelling on it) caused a stress of
20.67MPa, which is quite low when compared to the ultimate tensile strength of 69MPa. The
maximum surface displacement was 2.05mm, which is well below the AASHTO design standard.
Whereas in the analysis considering motorbike and car it was found that if the youngs modulus is
increased from 50.8x109 to 50.8x1010 Pa, a thickness of 15mm and 25.4mm was suitable for both
vehicles respectively.
Applications:
The Solar Roadways has LEDs which can paint the lanes and could be utilized to create
messages to warn the drivers of detours, accidents, or construction works ahead thus creating an
illuminated highway. The panels are capable of self heating thus keeping snow and ice off the road.
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Major application of solar roadways is in traffic management wherein the roads helps in drastically
reducing the number of deaths/injuries caused by impaired driving. The road also helps in
maintaining proper speed by the vehicles. The electricity produced by the solar roadways can be
used in lighting of street lights, traffic lights and traffic signs. Besides the solar roadways have
various applications in water management, home and business, and national security.
The need of the hour for an alternative energy source is increasing at an alarming rate. We
can't wait any longer to find a replacement for oil, which is rapidly disappearing. The solar
roadways if implemented can be a solution for all our energy concerns.Solar energy is considered as
one the most abundant, clean and simple solution to address global warming. This is why many
nations are now encouraged to come up with solar projects. What differentiates the solar roadways
project from the rest is the issue of land use, since the solar roadways are constructed on already
existing road surfaces, parking lots and footpaths. The cost of the project (compared to asphalt
roads) and lack of scientific data and methodology on how these road surfaces would behave in real
life situations is yet to be investigated. Despite these drawbacks, there is no doubt that solar panel
highways are a unique and groundbreaking idea.
The Solar Roadway or Solaroad technologies could play a vital role in overcoming our
dependency on fossil fuels. But still a lot of research has to be carried out in order to find the
structural action of solar roadways to static, dynamic and impact loads. Focus of the research
should be to find out a strong and economical glass that can be used to construct the top layer.
Ending on a positive note, it can be expected the current and future research on solar cells, glass
surfaces, hexagonal panel shape and superconducting transmission cables can eliminate the
drawbacks of solar roadways and turn our roads into electric roads.
References:
1) Alark A. Kulkarni(2013), Solar Roadways-Rebuilding our Infrastructure and Economy, International
Journal of Engineering Research and Applications(IJERA),
Vol. 3, Issue 3, May-Jun 2013, pp.1429-1436
2) "Solar Roadways," [Online]. Available: http://solarroadways.com/intro.shtml.
Passive Solar Buildings

Jiya Jaison
Semester Eight, B.Tech Civil Engineering
Thejus Engineering College, Vellarakkad, Thrissur
Page 309
Email Id: jiyajaison@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper discusses the principles and concepts underlying the design of building to
passively utilize solar energy for heating. A buildings windows, doors, walls and floors can be
designed to collect, store and distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject
solar heat in the summer. This is called passive solar design or climatic design because, unlike
active solar heating systems it doesnt involve the use of mechanical and electrical devices such as
pumps, fans or electrical control to move solar heat. Thus passive solar design is an economic way
of using solar energy in buildings.
This paper gives an idea about the basic systems and building features that can be used to
passively heat buildings using solar energy. Also it discusses the feasibility of cost effective passive
solar systems at specific project sites. It helps to gain knowledge about the guidelines to use in
preparing feasibility studies for passive solar projects and to develop the foundation to move
forward with passive solar design as an integral part of our building design skill.
Introduction:
Passive solar energy is one of the most efficient forms of energy in the world. All
our
energy ultimately comes from the sun. Passive solar, free solar heat collected by passive means, i.e.
not requiring the use of pumps or fans, is already a part of every house, because all windows collect
solar energy in the form of heat. Not only does it reduce the cost of energy it also reduces the
demand on non-renewable supplies and avoids carbon emission and other environmental impacts
associated with energy production and utilization.
Passive solar buildings aim to maintain interior thermal comfort throughout the day and
reducing the requirement for active lighting, heating and cooling systems. Passive solar building
design is one part of green building design and does not include active systems such as mechanical
ventilation or photovoltaic.
The scientific basis for passive solar building design has been developed from a
combination of climatology, thermodynamics and human thermal comfort. Passive solar homes
range from those heated almost entirely by the sun to those with south facing windows that provide
some fraction of the heating load. The difference between a passive solar home and a conventional
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home is design. And the key is designing a passive solar home to best take advantage of the local
climate. Elements of design include window location and glazing type, insulation, air sealing,
thermal mass, shading, and sometimes auxiliary heat.
Objectives of Paper:
1.
To discuss the principles of passive solar buildings.
2.
To discuss the various systems in passive solar buildings.
Passive solar thermodynamic principles:

As a fundamental law, heat moves from warmer materials to cooler ones until there is no
longer a temperature difference between the two. A passive solar building makes use of this law by
three heat movement mechanisms conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction is the way heat moves through materials, travelling from molecule to molecule.
In convection, heat circulates through liquids and gases. Lighter, warmer fluid will always rise and
cooler, denser fluid will sinks. Radiant heat moves through the air from warmer objects to cooler
ones. The main source of heat transfer is radiant energy and the primary source is sun.
Passive solar design:
There are three possibilities in passive solar design:
Passive solar heating
Passive solar cooling
Day lighting
Passive solar heating:

Components:
Components of passive heating systems are collection, storage, distribution and control. The
solar heat will be collected through collection systems including windows, skylights, or some other
type of solar aperture. The storage component will store the collected solar heat until it is needed by
the occupants in the building. Distribution of this heat is accomplished by arranging the functional
spaces of the building such that those that need heat are closest to the storage subsystem. Control of
heat is achieved through the use of shading devices, or some other means to regulate the sunlight
entering the building
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Passive solar heating systems:

Passive solar heating systems are generally classified into three.
They are:
Direct gain heating system
Indirect gain heating system
Isolated gain heating system
1. Direct gain heating system: Direct gain buildings

are passive solar heating systems in which sunlight is
directly introduced in to the living space. This is
possible through windows or glazed apertures.
Direct gain heating system
2. Indirect gain heating system: This system is also

called thermal storage system. An indirect-gain passive solar home has its thermal storage
wall between the south-facing windows and the living spaces.
There are many types of thermal storage walls
distinguished by the type of storage medium
employed. They are mainly trombe wall, water wall
and concrete block wall.
Thermal storage wall
3. Isolated gain heating system: An isolated gain

heating system (e.g. Sunspace) is also known as a
solar room or solarium. It collects solar radiation in an
area that can be selectively closed off or opened to the rest of the building.
Passive solar cooling:
Sunspace
Passive cooling benefits are achieved by avoidance of

the cooling load in the building. In buildings, the cooling
requirement is directly associated with solar gains. By
avoiding solar gains, a portion of the cooling load is avoided.
This can be accomplished by shading the apertures of the
building. Shading can be achieved using the shape and form of the
facade, using low transmission glazing, or using devices inside of the
Shading schematics
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building. From a passive solar viewpoint, the most effective method of shading is on the outside of
the building using overhangs, fins, or louvers.
Daylighting:
Daylighting is the use of natural light from the sky as a supplement for
electric lighting in buildings. Traditional daylighting systems differ in one
major respect from passive heating systems: they use the sky as a source of
light and avoid letting direct sunlight into a building. Since light from the sky is
used in lieu of direct sunlight, daylighting systems function quite well on overcast, partly cloudy, or
clear days.
Daylighting is an instantaneous use of the light from the sky. Therefore,
daylighting systems consist of collection and distribution components and do
not include a storage component like passive heating systems. However, much
like solar thermal strategies, daylighting systems are categorized according to
the type of collection system used. Thus, there are three basic types of daylighting systems:
Sidelighting
Toplighting
Core daylighting
In many large buildings, the largest single component of the cooling load is the energy
needed to remove heat generated by the electric lighting system. Therefore, turning off the electric
lighting, reduces, by as much as 40%, the energy used to mechanically cool the building. A total of
five different daylighting systems are there.
They are:
Windows (sidelighting) (WIN)
Skylights (toplighting) (SKY)
Saw tooth apertures (toplighting) (SAW)
Monitor apertures (toplighting) (MON)
Atria (core daylighting) (ATR)
1. Sidelighting (win): It is not necessary to add extensive amounts of glazing to sidelight a

building. However, there are limitations to the depth that daylight can penetrate into a
building from a window. In most cases, 30 feet is the maximum depth of daylight
penetration for a typical office, though a greater depth can be assumed for tall hangars,
Window day lighting

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depending on their geometry. The layout of interior walls and

furnishings can reduce this depth of daylight penetration. Beyond
this distance, either top lighting or core
daylighting systems must be used
Skylights
2. Top lighting: Toplighting systems bring light through the roof of
the building to illuminate interior spaces. These systems are most effective in one-story
buildings. Three different types of toplighting systems are considered in this handbook:
(1) Skylights, (2) Saw tooth apertures, and (3) Monitor apertures.
Skylights: Skylights are horizontal apertures cut
Saw tooth aperture
through the roof of building.
Saw tooth Aperture: Saw tooth apertures are a top lighting system that includes a
glazed vertical surface and a sloped roof.
Monitor Aperture: In this type of toplighting high bay is extended beyond the
roof line and glazed on the opposite sides that extend above
the roof.
Mo
nit
or
aperture
Atrium: In multistory commercial-type buildings, the most difficult location to daylight is the
centre of the building, called the building core. An atrium (ATR) is a core daylighting concept that
opens up the centre of the building so that it can he daylight. An atrium works best when the
Atrium
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perimeter of the building within 15 ft of the exterior walls is daylighted using sidelighting
techniques. An atrium can be capped with any of the roof aperture systems
Conclusion:
The brief discussion has been intended to introduce the reader to the basic types of passive
solar systems that may be used to heat, cool and lighting the building and there by conserve energy.
Passive solar buildings are an important tool to fight against energy crisis. If we properly utilize the
energy from sun we can attain comfort inside a building. This paper has discussed various scopes in
passive solar design. This paper was intended to give the reader a foundation for learning about the
various passive solar systems which can be successfully introduced in buildings. By the proper
implementation of these systems the energy consuming for mechanical heating, cooling and
lighting of a building can be reduced. Hence the Passive Solar Building concept can be
considered as a relevant topic of today as the energy crisis is increasing day by day.
Reference:
Introduction To Passive Solar Concepts United States Air Force. Passive solar handbook
Volume 1.
Jonathan Scott, Martin Edge, and Richard Laing Passive solar design of mass housing:
ensuring environmental improvements at the planning stage for
suburban housing.
Journal of building appraisal, Vol.2 No.3, PP 207-222. Page No: 207-223.
Paul Kando Solar houses Costal Journal Part 1, March 15, 2012.
Representative designs of energy-efficient
buildings in India. Ministry of Non-
conventional Energy Sources, Delhi.
Sequential Production of Biofuel from Leather

Fleshing Waste
Dhanya Muralidharan
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Thejus Engineering College, Vellarakkad, Thrissur
Page 315
Abstract:
This paper describes the production of biofuels in sequence from the fleshing waste
generated from leather processing. Fleshing has high protein and fat content and has obnoxious
odour. Presently it is being disposed of by landfilling, leading to groundwater pollution and air
pollution due to its putrefaction. The problem is acute in regions where leather process industries
are located. Around 70000 tonnes of fleshing waste is generated in India per annum. It was
attempted to harness the fat content of fleshings to produce bio-diesel and bio-ethanol. In the
present study the fat oil from animal fleshing material was recovered and used in transesterification
reactions to produce biodiesel using the solvent methanol which yielded Fatty acid methyl esters
(FAME). Around 96% of fat conversion was observed in the chemical transesterification into
FAME. FTIR is done to identify the presence of FAME. The biodiesel yield was around 100 ml per
kg of animal fleshing waste. The residue after biodiesel production comprises of glycerol, which
acts as the raw material for bioethanol production by acidogenic yeast enriched strictly fermented
anaerobic seed sludge fed in to batch digested enriched from molasses. The residue left after
bioethanol production is further utilized in the production of gaseous biofuels Biomethane and
Biohydrogen, thus aiming for the development of a zero discharge scheme for generation of fuel
from waste through a biorefinery process.
Keywords: Leather fleshings, fat, transesterification, methyl esters, biodiesel, glycerol,
anaerobic digestion, bioethanol, biomethane, biohydrogen
Introduction
Every year, about 55 million tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) and 38 billion litres of
sewage are generated in the urban areas of India. In addition, large quantities of solid and liquid
wastes are generated by industries. Leather Industry has been categorized as one of the most
polluting industries due to the nature of wastes generated in the leather processing and pre processing stages, which are of unsightly appearance and obnoxious odour. About 50-60% of
Page 316
solid wastes are produced during the raw to wet blue process. Fleshing is the adipose layer
removed from the hide prior to tanning to improve the penetration of chemicals and is rich in
protein and fat. Most of this waste ends up in landfills, causing groundwater pollution by
seepage in the leather industry cluster areas, indicated by the level of total dissolved solids in
these areas going up by about ten times beyond the permissible level. Improper management of
waste also leads to problems for the local population, especially in the rainy season. Hence it has
been proposed in the present study to put this waste to use in a productive manner by recovering
the fat content in it for biofuel generation. The fat is primarily converted to biodiesel using alkali
- a process called Transesterification.
The various conditions affecting this conversion have been studied in detail. The waste
generated during the production of the same acts as the base for bioethanol production using pre
fermented strictly anaerobic seed sludge. This is an attractive prospect since ethanol acts as a
raw material as well as substitute for petro fuel in vehicles. Furthermore, the waste generated
from ethanol production is used to produce gaseous biofuels biohydrogen and biomethane.
Hence this work exemplifies the setting up of a Biorefinery process. Biofuels are often presented
as a contribution towards the solution of the problems related to our strong dependency on fossil
fuels, besides being a way to support rural development. Moreover, the use of waste as raw
material offers a better waste management approach. Hence this work focuses on the twin
benefits of waste management along with fuel generation which can be put to use in industrial
and commercial scenario.
1. To produce biofuels from waste fleshings obtained from tannery industry
2. To investigate the conditions for maximum product recovery.
3. To reduce the burden on treatment and disposal of waste.
4. To achieve renewable energy based waste management.
Raw fleshings were cut into small pieces and immersed in alkaline solutions of pH ranging
from 8 to 12. The volume of the solution was varied from 1:1 to 1:4 ratios for fleshing weight. The
fat floating on the top of the solution was then collected and heated to expel all the moisture. The
free fatty acid content of the fat was found to be less than 1% hence alkali catalysis was adopted for
Page 317
transesterification using an oil:methanol ratio 1:6. The catalyst used was 1.2% the weight of fat.
The system was maintained at a temperature of 60 degree Celcius for 30 minutes with mixing. The
mixture is then poured out into a separating funnel and allowed to separate into Glycerol, Fatty acid
methyl esters and unreacted methanol.
The biodiesel is confirmed to be present using FTIR analysis. The glycerol is then separated out
and provided as substrate for ethanol production. The waste was mixed with different ratios of seed
sludge and adjusted to pH4.5 in sealed serum bottles. This set up was maintained for 5 days. Daily
analysis of process parameters such as TS, VS, COD, VFA, Alkalinity, pH and ORP were carried
out. Ethanol content was analysed on every alternate day. The waste from ethanol production was
similarly treated under strictly anaerobic conditions using different seed sludge at pH 5.5 and pH
6.5 for hydrogen production and methane production respectively.
Results and Discussions
It was observed that maximum hydrolysis took place at pH 11 ratio 1:4. About 120g fat was
obtained from 1kg fleshing waste. After alkali catalyzed transesterification, the fat yielded 100ml
fatty acid methyl ester (FAME), called biodiesel.
100.0
90
2289.63
1021.30
80
70
3472.32
1362.85
%T
60
50
1452.06
40
1176.37
30
2859.08
20
1743.73
Ester peak
2926.59
10
0.0
4000.0
3000
2000
c m -1
1500
1000.0
The FTIR analysis of FAME was done to identify the presence of esters and compared with the
standard spectrum. Ethanol production was affected by various interlinked parameters. Volatile
fatty acid content reduces with time and attains a maximum value on 5th day after slight decrease
on the 2nd day. This caused a decrease in pH. The VFA content affects ethanol production
positively till 3rd day and then inversely affects the production due to the inability of the organisms
Page 318
to utilize this substrate. Correspondingly, the pH values reduce to optimum around 4.5 with time
due to acetogenesis taking place. Beyond this point, the organisms are not able to break down all
the organic acids and hence pH value reduces further inhibiting the growth of acetogens. Optimum
VFA/ Alkalinity ratio is obtained on the third day, signifying good amount of ethanol production.
Overall COD removal was 69.5%, which was also on the third day.
Conversion of fat to biodiesel achieved was 96%. The waste material was then used for
ethanol production. The glycerol generated from biodiesel production is demonstrated as a
source for bio ethanol generation through anaerobic digestion. Highest ethanol production was
supported by pH 4.47, which are nearly 4.5 on the third day of observation. Highest yields of
ethanol was shown at higher concentration of the raw material, which was about 0.08 L per
gram COD. Hence it can be concluded that fleshing waste can be utilized productively in
sequential generation of biofuels as biodiesel followed by bioethanol, biohydrogen and
biomethane successfully becomes a major process efficient and renewable energy based waste
management for leather industries.
References:
1. Abara E Abara., Godwin O Obochi., Magdalene E., and Obi-Abang. 2011 Ethanol
Production From Environmental Wastes, J. of Medical research and science, 1(3).
2. Abhishek Murarka., Yandi Dharmadi., Syed Shams Yazdani., and Ramon Gonzalez., 2007
Fermentative utilization of glycerol in Escherichia coli and its implications for the
production of fuels and reduced chemicals, Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 10, 192-97.
3. Dharmadi Y., Murarka A., and Gonzalez R. 2006 Anaerobic fermentation of glycerol by
Escherichia coli: a new platform for metabolic engineering, Biotechnol. Bioeng., 94(5), 8219.
4. Selime Colak, Gokhan Zengin, Hasan Ozunguay., and Ozcan Sari. 2005 Utilization of
leather industry pre-fleshings in biodiesel production, JALCA, 100(4), 137 141.
5. Shanmugam P and Horan N J. 2009 Optimising the biogas production from leather fleshing
waste by co-digestion with MSW, Bioresource Technology, 100, 41174120.
Page 319
6. Mittelbach M., Pokits B., and Silberholz A. 1992 Production and fuel properties of fatty
acid methyl esters from used frying oil, Procedure of Alternative Energy Conference: Liquid
Fuel from Renewable Resources 1415 December, 7478.
7. Ramesh, 2000 Case Study of the Leather Industry in Tamilnadu, Internet
8. Nanqi Ren., Defeng Xing., Bruce E., Rittmann., Lihua Zhao., Tianhui Xie., and Xin Zhao.
2007 Microbial community structure of ethanol type fermentation in bio hydrogen
production, Environmental Microbiology, 9, 11121125.
9. Nida Chaudhary., Michael O Ngadi., Benjamin K Simpson., and Lamin S Kassama. 2011
Biosynthesis of Ethanol and Hydrogen by Glycerol Fermentation Using Escherichia coli ,
Advances in Chemical Engineering and Science, 1, 83-89.
10. Ozgunay H., Colak S., Mutlu M M., and Akyuz F. 2011 Characterization of Leather
Industry Wastes, Polish J. of Environ. Stud., 16(6), 867 873.
Scope of Non-Conventional Energy in India

Arjun Murali1, Asst. Prof. Anju Paul2
1
B. Tech Student, Department of Civil Engineering, TIST

2
Department of Civil Engineering, TIST
Page 320
Abstract:
India is a developing country. As for any developing economy, the energy sources play a vital
role in our growth as a world power. Our primary energy needs are met by more than 25% energy
imports. We have 2 lakh MW cumulative installed capacity of power as of March 2012. The
Union Power Ministries has set a target of 100,000 MW of additional power generation between
2012-17. Renewable energy has been an important component in Indias energy planning process.
This paper focuses on the current status of various energy sources and their potential capacity in
India.
Key Words: Conventional energies, Non-conventional energies
Introduction:
Availability of energy from sources that are affordable, accessible and environmental friendly,
play an important role in the development of any country. India has second largest population
bank in world with a total human resource of 1,21,01,93,422 which is approximately 17%. The
high standards of living in the developed countries are attributable to high-energy consumption
levels. Electricity use has become a scale to measure the level of development and quality of life.
Table 1 gives the per capita energy consumption of the country.
Table 1: Per capita energy consumption

U.S.A
Energy Consumption:
(million barrels of oil
equivalent)
Energy Per Capita:
Russian
Federation
17,260
5220
57.2
36.8
China
U.K.
India
13380
1620
3280
10.2
26.6
2.9
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(barrels of oil
equivalent
per person)
We are far behind in terms of energy per capita even though we rank sixth in the world in energy
consumption. Thus there is a huge scope for non-conventional energy in the country.
Conventional Energy Sources:
1. Coal
Coal provides 30.3% of global primary energy needs and generates 42% of the world's electricity.
Half of the primary energy needs and a third of the total energy needs in India is met by the use of
coal. The electricity generation using coal is quite less as compared to developed countries.
Developed countries has switched to other form of energies because electricity generation through
coal is destructive to our environment through massive production of various toxic pollutants.
2. Oil
World oil reserves, by the end of 2011, is about 1481526 million tonnes. It is sufficient to meet
approximately 55 years of energy requirement at the current rate of consumption. India is the 4th
largest consumer of petroleum oil in the world, including domestically produced and imported oil.
But petroleum meets only 23% of the total Indian energy demand.
3. Natural gas
Natural gas can be a substitute for both coal as well as petroleum because it emits 20% to 25%
less carbon dioxide emission as compared to petroleum products and 60% less as compared to
coal based energy output. India is the 12th largest natural gas consumer in the world with about
55.7 million tonnes oil equivalent. India is the 6th largest importer of natural gas.
Non-Conventional Energy Sources:

The budget of India for the economic year 2013-14 is about 680123 crores of rupees of which
158287 crores of rupees is planned to spend in energy sector, i.e., 23% of the national economy is
being spent on energy. India, which relies on import for 79% of its oil needs, bought a total of
182.5 million tonnes crude in 2012-13. We had in the previous fiscal imported 171.7 million
tonnes of crude oil, up from 163.4 million tonnes in 2010-11 and 159.2 million tonnes of 2009-
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10. During 2011-12, India spent a 160 billion USD to import crude oil. This is more than half of
the countrys total earnings from exports during the same period.
This energy deficit can be reduced by the judicious development of renewable energy sources.
Indian government has taken an interest in renewable energy to overcome the difference between
its demand and supply. The Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy estimates that there is
a potential of around 90,000 MW in the country.
1. Solar Power
Solar energy is a much diffused energy source. Therefore, to gather solar energy at a level
sufficient to meet our national energy needs, we would need approximately 45000 sq. km of land
area. India has 5 trillion kWh/year potential in solar energy. Most of the country receives more
than 4kWh/m2/day and we about 300 sunny days in most parts of the country which makes solar
power an ideal scenario in India. But we are far behind in the utilization and storage of solar
energy.
The first applications of solar power were for replacing Indias four to five million diesel powered
water pumps. Many new projects are in the design phase including solar power projects in Thar
desert. It is estimated that these projects will generate 200,000 MW by 2050 which is around 1.3
times the energy production of the country. But the main hindrance in the execution of these
projects is the availability of the technology and the land acquisition required for the projects.
Since solar energy is not continuously available, storage of energy to bridge the difference
between power generation and demand across the grid would be necessary.
2. Wind Energy
As of February 2013, installed wind energy capacity of India is 18527 MW. The total potential for
wind power in India is estimated to be about 65-70 GW. India has a long coastline of over 7500
km, based on which World Institute of Sustainable Energy assumes that with some innovation,
approximately 100 GW of wind energy.
Wind in India is influenced by the strong south-west summer monsoon, which starts in May-June,
when cool, humid air moves towards the land and the weaker north-east winter monsoon, which
starts in October, when cool, dry sir moves towards the ocean. During the period march to
August, the winds are uniformly strong over the whole Indian Peninsula, except the eastern
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peninsular coast. Wind speeds during the period November to march are relatively weak, though
higher winds are available during a part of the period on the Tamil Nadu coastline. The western
coastline has modest potential. While the Gujarat coastline has reasonable potential, it is prone to
severe cyclonic conditions. The state-wise wind potential is given in Table 2.
Table 2: State-wise wind power installed capacity of India
State
Gross Potential (MW)
Installed Capacity (MW)
Andhra Pradesh
8968
136
Gujarat
10645
1864
Karnataka
11531
1473
Kerala
1171
28
Madhya Pradesh
1019
229
Maharashtra
4584
2078
Orissa
255
Rajasthan
4858
1088
Tamil Nadu
5530
4907
3. Hydroelectric Power
Over 19% of electricity produced by India today is from hydropower. The Central Electricity
Authority expects a hydro capacity addition of 11897 MW in the Twelfth Plan period, including a
contribution of 3534 MW by private companies.
4. Nuclear Power
Nuclear energy is the energy of tomorrow. The energy produced by 1 kg of uranium, if utilized at
its full capacity, is equivalent to 3000 tonnes of coal. In the reactor core, nuclear energy is
released in the form of heat which is used to generate steam and this steam is used to generate
electricity.
Uranium is the most common nuclear fuel. India produced 400 tonnes of uranium in the year
2010 but the demand was 930 tonnes. This huge difference between demand and supply is a very
big obstacle in the successful use of the nuclear power.
Thorium is yet another nuclear fuel which is a safer and more efficient alternative to the use of
uranium and plutonium. Also, India has a vast thorium reserve as against limited uranium sources.
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Another hurdle in the use of nuclear power is the technology required. A lot of research and
development is happening in this direction. Also, we need to prepare the people and address their
concerns.
Conclusion:
Although India is abundantly endowed with renewable energy sources in the form of solar, wind,
hydro and nuclear power, we are still dependent on coal, petroleum products and energy imports.
Only if this situation change, can we surge forward in economic development. The immense
potential of solar, wind, hydro and nuclear energy should be judiciously used.
Reference:
[1] Singh L. P, Dubey M. K, Singh P. K, Verma S. K, Kushwaha V. K, Analytical Study of the
Scope of Nuclear Energy in Indian Energy Scenerio, International Journal of Mechanical
Energy and Technology, Vol. 4, August 2013, p.p. 224-231
[2] Hasmukh N. Patel, Dr. Vivek L. Manekar, Dr. Prakash D. Porey, Viability of Wind Farm
Planning at Proposed Project, Gujarat (India), International Journal of Civil Engineering
and Technology, Vol. 2, March 2011, p.p. 01-09
[3] Chandrasekhar R. Suryawanshi, Geothermal Energy: The Eco-Friendly Alternative Source
of Energy, International Journal of Advanced Research in Engineering and Technology,
Vol. 4, April 2013, p.p. 81-84
Role of FRP as sustainable construction material -An overview

Ramadass S1 and Job Thomas2
1
Research Student, 2Reader in Civil Engineering
Page 325
Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kochi, Kerala, India

job_thomas@cusat.ac.in
Abstract:
Over the last decade, there has been significant growth in the use of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
composite as construction materials. FRP composites are used in structural engineering in a variety
of forms, from structural profiles to internal reinforcing bars for concrete members and also as
strips and sheets for external strengthening of concrete and other structures. This paper gives an
overview that follow focuses on the use of FRP composite materials in three prime areas (1)
reinforcements for new concrete structural members (2) strengthening for existing structural
members, and (3) profiles for new structures. This paper addresses the role of FRP as sustainable
construction material in structural engineering.
Key words: FRP, construction material, structural engineering
Introduction:
Fibre reinforced composite materials have been used to many decades in the aerospace, automotive
and the industrial and recreational products industries. However, Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP)
composite materials have developed into economically and structurally viable construction
materials for buildings and bridges over the last two decades. FRP composites materials used in
structural engineering typically consist of glass, carbon or aramid fibers encased in a matrix of
epoxy, polyester, vinyl ester or phenolic thermosetting resins that have fiber concentrations greater
than 30% by volume. Depending on the form of the FRP product used in structural engineering, the
FRP material is supplied either as a ready-to-use structural component such a wide flange profile or
a reinforcing bar, or it is supplied in its constituent forms as dry fiber and liquid polymer resin and
formed and cured in situ to create a structural component. These two forms should be familiar to
structural engineers, as they have analogs in conventional structural materials such as steel beams
or steel reinforcing bars which are supplied in ready- to- use form from a steel mill, or Portland
cement concrete, which is supplied in the form of cement aggregate and water constituents and is
formed in situ to create a structural element.
Over the years there have been a number of other applications and uses of FRP composites in
structural engineering. In many cases, code based guidance has only recently been developed or is
currently being developed for these applications. The applications include FRP tendons for internal
Page 326
or external prestressing of concrete. FRP stay cables for bridges or guy wires for towers. FRP grids,
meshes and grating for reinforcing concrete; FRP stay-in-place forms for concrete beams, slabs or
columns: FRP strengthening of prestressed concrete structures; FRP strengthening of masonry
structures; FRP strengthening of steel, aluminum, or timber structures; mechanically fastened FRP
strengthening system, FRP pretensioned sheets for strengthening; and FRP strengthening systems;
FRP pretensioned sheets for strengthening; and FRP strengthening for blast loads on structures.
Also known as fiber-reinforced plastics, or advanced composite materials (ACMs), these material
have proven themselves to be valuable for use in the construction of new buildings and bridges and
for upgrading of existing buildings and bridges.
Overview:
The overview that follow focuses on the use of FRP composite materials in three prime areas (1)
reinforcements for new concrete structural members (2) strengthening for existing structural
members, and (3) profiles for new structures. The various forms of FRP structural components are
given in Fig 1. The various structural applications of FRP are given in Fig 2.
(1) FRP reinforcements for new concrete structural members:
FRP reinforcements for new concrete structural members can be divided into three primary areas
(1) FRP bars or grids for reinforced concrete (RC) members, (2) FRP tendons for prestressed
concrete (PC) members, and (3) stay- in- place FRP formwork for reinforced concrete members.
Today, FRP reinforcing bars for concrete with both glass and carbon fibers are produced by a
number of companies in North America, Asia and Europe.
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(a) rebar for internal reinforcement
(b) grill for drains
(c) mats for surface reinforcement
(d) pultruded structural sections
Fig 1 Forms of FRP in structural applications

(1) FRP strengthening of existing structural members:
FRP materials used to strengthen and repair load bearing structural members are popular
applications of FRP composites in structural engineering. Collectively, these applications are
known as retrofitting applications, as they are used in existing structures and not in the construction
of new structures. Retrofitting applications can be classified broadly into two types. One type is
strengthening, where the original structures strength or ductility (typically, its displacement
capacity) is increased from the loads (or displacements) for which it was originally designed. This
increase may be necessitated by the desire to make the structure compatible with existing building
codes (particularly in the case of seismic retrofitting) or may be desired due to changes in use of the
structure. FRP retrofitting to improve the performance (load carrying and ductility) of a structure
when subjected to blast and impact loading has become of interest of late.
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The other type of FRP retrofitting can be classified as repair. In this case, the FRP composite is
used to retrofit an existing and deteriorated structure to bring its load carrying capacity or ductility
back to the loads or displacements for which it was designed (and hence is in fact, a type of
strengthening), Repair is necessitated when the original structure has deteriorated due to
environmental effects, such as corrosion of steel reinforcing in concrete structures or when the
original structure has been damaged in service or was not constructed according to the original
design.
(a) FRP rebar in slab construction
(b) FRP rebar in deck construction
(c) FRP bars in marine structures
(d) FRP mat is strengthening column
Fig 2 Applications of FRP in concrete structures
Page 329
FRP retrofitting has been used successfully on reinforced concrete structures, prestressed concrete
structures, timber structures and masonry and metal structures. At this time, code design guidance is
only available for FRP retrofitting of reinforced concrete structures, particularly as applied to
strengthening. FRP retrofitting has been used with bridge and building structures to strengthen
static and quasi static loads (such as increases in deal or live load in a bridge or building structure),
and for dynamic loads (such as strengthening for improved seismic or blast response in a bridge or
building structure). FRP composites have been used successfully for flexural strengthening of
concrete beams and slabs, shear strengthening of concrete beams, and axial strengthening and
ductility enhancement of concrete columns.
(2) FRP profiles for new structures:
FRP profiles of standard cross sections are seldom used in multistory framed building structures for
commercial or residential construction. One of the major difficulties with multi story frame
structures using FRP profiles is the development of economical and effective means of connecting
the individual members. No simple and effective connection system has yet been developed or
commercialized for FRP pultruded profiles.
Other emerging applications of interest to structural engineers
Strengthening of masonry structures with FRP strips, sheets, and fabrics is one of the largest
emerging applications areas of FRP composites in structural engineering. Unfortunately, no code
based design guidance is available for a masonry strengthening at this time. Strengthening of timber
structures, primarily glue laminated beams, with FRP strips and manufacturing of glue laminated
beams containing FRP layers to increase strength at the outer fibers has been used since the early
1990s.Retrofitting of metallic structures has recently attracted some interest in the structural
engineering community. In most case the steel or aluminum structure is sufficiently stiff and strong.
The FRP composite is generally used to increase fatigue resistance and to arrest cracks. In the
United States, FRP composite wraps have been used successfully to repair fatigue damage on
overhead aluminum sign support bridges. In this particular application, the FRP strengthening
system is preferable to in situ welding, which is difficult and time consuming. The use of round
bars as surface reinforcement in masonry wall structures is shown in Fig 3
Page 330
Fig 3 Masonry strengthening using FRP bar surface reinforcement.

Summary and conclusions:
An overview of the use of FRP as a sustainable construction material in structural engineering has
been discussed. The service life of a structure depends on the potentiality and the level of corrosion
of internal reinforcement. Deterioration becomes a serious problem in concrete structures due to the
corrosion of internal steel reinforcement. Fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP) bars are alternative type
of reinforcements in concrete structures, which can be used for mitigating the life reduction of
structures associated with corrosion damages.
References:
Composites for Construction: Structural Design with FRP Material, John Wiley & Sons Inc., Bank
L C 2006, NJ, 551p.
Structural implications of using GFRP bars as concrete reinforcement, Swamy N and Aburawi M
1997, Proceedings of Third International Symposium on Non- metallic (FRP) Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures (FRPRCS-3), Japan Concrete Institute, Sapporo, Japan, 2, pp 503-510.
Behaviour of shear critical RC beams reinforced with GFRP, Thomas J 2010, Report No.
PLB3/00463/2007, CUSAT, 12p.
Page 331
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Environment Observer

Asso. Prof. Lekshmi M. S., Dept. of Civil Engineering, TIST

Department of Civil Engineering

Invitation Price - 250 INR

Society for Environment Education Research

ISSN- 2320- 5997

Prof. Lathi Karthi

No part of this publication may be reproduced or

CHAIR PERSON (Organising Committee) :

TECHNICAL COMMITTEE MEMBERS:

SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Fuzzy Model for Multi-Objective Integrated Solid Waste Management

Polymer Sponge Assisted Bacterial Digestion method for Municipal

Study on Waste Management in Visakhapatnam using RIAM analysisV R Sankar Cheela

E-Waste Management-The Present Scenario- Anna Donia Palett1

BEST PRACTICES IN CONSTRUCTION

Utilization of Construction and Demolition Waste

Study on Concrete with Glass Powder- Shilpa Raju

Concrete Technology In Sustainable Development- Jithin Thomas

Waste Plastic As A Stabilizing Additive In Stone Mastic

WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT

Polishing Domestic Wastewater With Subsurface Flow Constructed

Recovery Of Nutrient From Waste Water Through Struvite

Role of Phytoremediation in Soil Waste Management

ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS OF SOLID WASTE

Cost And Economic Returns of Resource Recovery from

Double Skin Facade System A Sustainable Strategy for High Rise

SUSTAINABLE URBAN PLANNING

Understanding Acoustic Leak Detection Methods For

POLLUTION & HEALTH ISSUES

Life Cycle Assessment of Rubber Industries in KeralaMary Dhanya

SOIL POLLUTION & TREATMENT

Bioremediation A Green solution for Soil Pollution- Riya

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION ON THE

Study on Urban Environment Quality in Visakhapatnam - V R Sankar

Impact of Industrial Activities on Heavy Metal Concentrations in

GROUND WATER ISSUES

Arsenic Contamination In Ground Water - Mithra.P 1,

RENEWABLE & NON-RENEWABLE ENERGIES

Solar Roadways- Parvathi.S

Sequential Production of Biofuel from Leather Fleshing

Scope of Non-Conventional Energy in India- Arjun Murali1

SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

College of Engineering, Trivandrum

Key Words: Fuzzy model, integrated soil waste management

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH PAPER

A. Profile of Study Area

Fig. 1: GIS mapping of flow network

B. Selection of Planning Period

The proposed multi-objective, multi-period model was applied to Thiruvanathapuram

TABLE II: OUTPUT DATA FOR DEFUZIFICATION

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 2 (a): Solid waste quantity analysis

Fig. 2 (b): Solid waste quantity analysis

Fig. 2 (c): Solid waste quantity analysis

Fig. 2 (d): Solid waste quantity analysis

Fig. 3: Environmental risk analysis

[1]Amitabh Kumar Srivastava a, Arvind K. Nema(2012). Fuzzy Parametric Programming Model

Coconut Builds Up Sustainable Structure

B.Tech students, [4] Assistant Professor

Toc H Institute of Science & Technology, CUSAT University

To discuss the use of coconut fibres reinforced composites.

Suitability of Coconut Shell Ash as Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete Production

10% replacement is 31.78 N/mm .