tense

Simple
Present

Affirmative/Negative/Q
uestion
A: He speaks.

N: He does not speak.

Q: Does he speak?

Present
Progressive

Simple Past

A: He is speaking.
N: He is not speaking.
Q: Is he speaking?

A: He spoke.
N: He did not speak.
Q: Did he speak?

Past
Progressive

A: He was speaking.
N: He was not speaking.
Q: Was he speaking?

Present
Perfect
Simple

A: He has spoken.
N: He has not spoken.
Q: Has he spoken?

Present
Perfect
Progressive

A: He has been speaking.

N: He has not been
speaking.

Q: Has he been
speaking?

Use
action in the present taking place
once, never or several times
facts
actions taking place one after another
action set by a timetable or schedule
action taking place in the moment
of speaking
action taking place only for a limited
period of time
action arranged for the future
action in the past taking place once,
never or several times
actions taking place one after another
action taking place in the middle of
another action
action going on at a certain time in
the past
actions taking place at the same time
action in the past that is interrupted by
another action
putting emphasis on the result
action that is still going on
action that stopped recently
finished action that has an influence on
the present
action that has taken place once,
never or several times before the moment
of speaking
putting emphasis on the course or
duration (not the result)
action that recently stopped or is still
going on
finished action that influenced the
present

Signal Words
always, every , never, normally,
often, seldom, sometimes, usually
if sentences type I (If I talk, )

at the moment, just, just now,

Listen!, Look!, now, right now

yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990,

the other day, last Friday
if sentence type II (If I talked, )

when, while, as long as

already, ever, just, never, not yet, so

far, till now, up to now

all day, for 4 years, since 1993, how

long?, the whole week

Past Perfect
Simple

A: He had spoken.
N: He had not spoken.
Q: Had he spoken?

Past Perfect
Progressive

A: He had been speaking.

N: He had not been
speaking.

Q: Had he been
speaking?

Future I
Simple

A: He will speak.
N: He will not speak.
Q: Will he speak?

Future I
Simple
(going to)
Future I
Progressive

Future II
Simple

Future II
Progressive

Conditional

A: He is going to speak.
N: He is not going to
speak.
Q: Is he going to speak?
A: He will be speaking.
N: He will not be
speaking.
Q: Will he be speaking?
A: He will have spoken.
N: He will not have
spoken.
Q: Will he have spoken?
A: He will have been
speaking.
N: He will not have been
speaking.
Q: Will he have been
speaking?
A: He would speak.

action taking place before a certain

time in the past
sometimes interchangeable with past
perfect progressive
putting emphasis only on the fact(not
the duration)
action taking place before a certain
time in the past
sometimes interchangeable with past
perfect simple
putting emphasis on the duration or
course of an action
action in the future that cannot be
influenced
spontaneous decision
assumption with regard to the future
decision made for the future
conclusion with regard to the future

already, just, never, not yet, once,

until that day
if sentence type III (If I had
talked, )

for, since, the whole day, all day

in a year, next , tomorrow

If-Satz Type I (If you ask her, she will
help you.)
assumption: I think, probably,
perhaps
in one year, next week, tomorrow

action that is going on at a certain

time in the future
action that is sure to happen in the
near future
action that will be finished at a certain
time in the future

in one year, next week, tomorrow

action taking place before a certain

time in the future
putting emphasis on the course of an
action

for , the last couple of hours, all

day long

action that might take place

by Monday, in a week

if sentences type II

I Simple
Conditional
I
Progressive

Conditional
II Simple

Conditional
II
Progressive

N: He would not speak.

Q: Would he speak?
A: He would be speaking.
N: He would not be
speaking.
Q: Would he be
speaking?
A: He would have spoken.
N: He would not have
spoken.
Q: Would he have
spoken?
A: He would have been
speaking.
N: He would not have
been speaking.
Q: Would he have been
speaking?

(If I were you, I would go home.)

action that might take place

putting emphasis on
the course /duration of the action

action that might have taken place in

the past

action that might have taken place in

the past
puts emphasis on
the course /duration of the action

Simple Tenses:

Simple tenses are used whenever we are talking about a point in time.

if sentences type III

(If I had seen that, I would have
helped.)

Past Simple
Use for an action that happened at a point in
time in the past.
e.g. - I ate breakfast this morning.

Present Simple
Use when making a general statement of
truth at the present point in time.
e.g. - I eat breakfast every day.

Future Simple
Use for an action that will happen at a point
in time in the future.
e.g. - I will eat breakfast later.

Continuous Tenses:

Continuous tenses are used whenever we are talking about a length of time.

Past Continuous
Use for an action that was happening for a
length of time in the past when another
action happened in the middle of it.

Present Continuous
Use for an action that is happening now.

Future Continuous
Use for an action that will be happening for a
length of time in the future.

e.g. - I was eating breakfast when my

brother arrived.

e.g. - Right now, I am eating breakfast.

e.g. - I will be eating breakfast from 9:00 to

9:30.

Perfect Tenses:

Perfect tenses are used whenever we are talking about a point in time before another point in time.

Past Perfect
Use for an action that happened in the past
before another action.

Present Perfect
Use for an action that happened in the past
before the present moment.

Future Perfect
Use for an action that will happen in the
future before another action.

e.g. - I had already eaten breakfast when my

brother arrived.

e.g. - I have already eaten breakfast.

e.g. - I will have already eaten breakfast by

the time my brothers arrives.

Perfect Continuous Tenses:

Perfect continuous tenses are used whenever we are talking about a length of time up to a point in time.

Past Perfect Continuous

Use for an action that was happening for a
length of time in the past up to the moment
when another action happened.

Present Perfect Continuous

Use for an action that was happening for a
length of time up to the present moment.

Future Perfect Continuous

Use for an action that will be happening in
the future for a length of time up to the
moment when another action will happen.

e.g. - I had been eating breakfast for 30

minutes when my brother arrived.

e.g. - I have been eating my breakfast for 30

minutes.

e.g. - I will have been eating my breakfast

for 30 minutes by the time you arrive.

PATTERNS
Verb patterns
The structure of the clause depends on
the verb. For example:

An intransitive verb has the

structure: N (=noun) + V (=verb):
(John) + (smiled).

A transitive verb has the

structure: N + V + N: (We) + (had
been playing) + (football)

A link verb has the structure: N

+ V + Adj : (She) + (looked) + (happy)

A phrasal verb has the

structure: N + V + p + N (She) +
(gave) +(back) + (the money)
or
N + V + N + p (She) + (gave) + (the
money) + (back)

Double object verbs

Nou
n
Phra
se
(Sub
ject)

She
They

Nou
n
Phra
se
(Sub
ject)

Ver
b
Phr
ase

Nou
n
Phr
ase
(Dir
ect
obje
ct)

Prepos
itional
phrase

gav
e
bro
ugh
t

som
e
mon
ey
a lot
of
food

to the
old man
for the
animals

>>
>>

<<<<

Ver
b
Phr
ase

Nou
n
Phr
ase
(Ind
irec
t
obje
ct)

gav
e
bro

the
old
man

Some verbs, like give and bring can

have two different patterns after them:
She
They

ugh
t

the
ani
mals

food

These verbs are called double object

verbs. When we have two noun
phrases after the verb the first noun
phrase is the indirect object and the
second noun phrase is the direct
object.
Verbs with to + infinitive
Some verbs have the pattern N + V +
to+infinitive:
They agreed to help.
We decided to go.
Some verbs have the pattern N + V
+ N + to+infinitive:

Noun
Phrase
(Direct
object)

some
money
a lot of

She told him to go home.

They advised us to wait.
Note: we suggest that you read
about Verbs with -ing
forms before doing this activity.

Reporting verbs with that, whand if clauses

N + V + N + (that) + clause.
Reporting verbs with wh- and if
clauses

Reporting verbs with that clauses:

N + V + N + if + clause:
Ken asked us if we wanted to go.
Two- and three-part verbs

Some verbs introduce summaries,

reports, questions or problems:
She explained what we had to
do.
He asked if I was ready
I didnt know what to do.

Some verbs introduce a report, an idea

or a summary. These verbs have the
pattern:
N + V + (that) + clause

Two part verbs

Some verbs consist of two words a
verb and a particle (p). These verbs
have a number of patterns:

These verbs have the pattern:

When we want to say what someone
says or thinks we can use a clause
with that;
He said that I had to see a
doctor.
I thought that he was being
silly.
We can leave out the word that:

N + V + wh- + clause:
She wondered where she was.
or
N + V + if + clause:
Ken asked if we wanted to go.
With some verbs we can mention the
hearer as the object of the verb:

He said I had to see a doctor.

I thought he was being silly.
With some verbs we can mention the
hearer as the object of the verb:
She reminded him that it was
time to go.
He told me he was a friend of
yours.
These verbs have the pattern;

Peter came in. (N + V + p)

He took out his diary. (N + V +
p + N)
He gave the money back. (N +
V + N + p)
Phrasal verbs
Some transitive two part verbs
are phrasal verbs. They have two
different patterns.
N+V+N+p

She asked me if I was ready.

He told me what I had to do.

She gave the money back

He knocked the vase over
We will be leaving our
friends behind

These verbs have the pattern:

N + V + N + wh- + clause:
I told them what he was doing.
or

or
N+V+p+N

She gave back the money

He knocked over the vase
We will be leaving behind our
friends.

When the object is a pronoun these

verbs always have the first pattern N
+ V +N + p:

Last year Mary and the family

were driving to Madrid in an old
bus.
(Adv + N + V + Adv + Adv)

Our closest friends have just bought

a new house in the village.

She put the flowers carefully in

a vase.
(N + V + N + Adv + Adv)

Sometimes the noun phrase begins

with a quantifier:

She gave it back

He knocked it over
We will be leaving them behind
Three part verbs
Some verbs are made up of three
parts a verb and two particles.
They have the pattern:
N + V + p + p + N:
His girlfriend walked out on him.
She soon caught up with the
other runners
Children should look up to their
parents.

Verb patterns - adverbials

A clause often has one or
more adverbial phrases:

The children laughed happily.

(N + V + Adv)

All the girls are learning

English at school in the second
year.
(N + V + Adv + Adv)

Noun Phrases
Often a noun phrase is just
a noun or a pronoun:

perhaps with an adjective:

All those children go to school

here.
Both of my younger brothers are
married
Some people spend a lot of
money.
Numbers:

People like to have money.

I am tired.
It is getting late.

or a determiner and a noun :

Our friends have bought a house in

the village.
Those houses are very expensive.

Quantifiers come before determiner

s,
but numbers come after determiners
:
My four children go to school
here. (All my children go to
school here.)
Those two suitcases are mine.
(Both those suitcases are mine)
So the noun phrase is built up in this
way:

Noun: people; money

Determiner + noun: the village, a
house, our friends; those houses
Quantifier + noun: some people; a lot
of money
Determiner + adjective + noun: our
closest friends; a new house.

Quantifier + determiner + noun: all

those children;
Quantifier + determiner + adjective +
noun: both of my younger brothers
The noun phrase can be quite
complicated:

a loaf of nice fresh brown bread

the eight-year-old boy who
attempted to rob a sweet shop
with a pistol
that attractive young woman in
the blue dress sitting over there
in the corner

Content words are words that have meaning. They are words we would look up in a dictionary, such as "lamp," "computer,"
"drove." New content words are constantly added to the English language; old content words constantly leave the language as
they become obsolete. Therefore, we refer to content words as an "open" class.
Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are content parts of speech.
Function words are words that exist to explain or create grammatical or structural relationships into which the content words
may fit. Words like "of," "the," "to," they have little meaning on their own. They are much fewer in number and generally do not
change as English adds and omits content words. Therefore, we refer to function words as a "closed" class.
Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, qualifiers/intensifiers, and interrogatives are some function
parts of speech.
Note the differences between content and function parts of speech:

Generally, we can use one or more of five signals to help us determine a word's part of speech designation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

function words (the, what, and)

inflectional morphemes (-s, -ed)
derivational morphemes
word order in sentence patterns
stress patterns (subJECT/SUBject, INsert/inSERT, IMprint/imPRINT)

NOUNS

usually signify that the word is a noun, as

in suggestion,happiness, involvement, and diner.

Traditional grammarians define a noun as "a person, place,

thing, or idea."

Nouns may be made plural, usually with the suffix -s or -es,

as in books and foxes.

Child designates a person; therefore, child is a

noun.
Similarly, democracy designates an idea;
therefore, democracy is a noun. In addition, nouns can be
identified by the presence of signal words such as the.

Nouns show ownership with the addition of

an apostrophe and, sometimes, an additional -s, as in
a book's pages, twenty students' essays.
Common nouns such as school,
business, or person designate an entire class.
Proper nouns, on the other hand, designate a specific
example of a class: Towson University, Black and Decker
Company, Joe. Proper nouns are capitalized.

Word order can also provide clues about nouns. For example,
in the following sentence, it is clear that the part of speech
that will fit into slot #1 and slot #2 must be nouns:

Often, suffixes will suggest that a word is a noun. For

example, -tion, -ness, -ment, or -er at the end of a word

Nouns may be countable (1 fork, 2 forks, 3 forks, etc.) or noncountable (sugar, oil).
Nouns may signify concreteness (computer, fingernail) or
abstractness (peace, friendship).

Functions of Nouns
Subject (S) - a noun or pronoun partnered with a
predicate verb.
A subject

Object of Preposition (OP) - a noun or pronoun answering

"whom" or "what" after a preposition in a prepositional
phrase.

1. Does an action with an action verb

2. exists with a verb of being

3. Is renamed or described after a verb of being or

a linking verb

4. Is acted upon with a passive verb

Direct Object (DO) - a noun or pronoun answering "whom"

or "what" after an action verb. A direct object "receives" or is
the "object" of the action.

Retained Object (RO) - a noun or pronoun answering

"whom" or "what" after a passive verb.

Indirect Object (IO) - a noun or pronoun answering "to

whom/what" or "for whom/what" after an action verb.
An indirect object

always precedes a direct object

never has the word to or for stated

Subjective Complement (SC) - a noun, pronoun,

or adjective that renames or describes (equals) the subject
after a verb of being or a linking verb.

Appositive (App) - a noun or pronoun that renames another

noun; An appositive is usually placed next to the noun it
renames...

Gourmet renames the noun Joe. Therefore, gourmet is an

appositive of Joe.
When an appositive is not placed next to the noun it
renames, the appositive is called a delayed appositive.

Objective Complement (OC) - a noun, pronoun, or

adjective that renames or describes (equals) the direct
object.
Test for OC: insert "to be" between the DO and the OC

A delayed appositive may rename the word it in some

sentence constructions.

In the above sentence, the appositive to meet

you renames it. It (to meet you) is a pleasure.
In this sentence, pleasure is the subjective complement
of it.
Therefore, it = pleasure = to meet you.

VERBS
Verbs have traditionally been defined as words that
show action or state of being.

Often, prefixes and suffixes (affixes) will signify that a word is

a verb. For example, the suffixes -ify, -ize, -ate, or en usually signify that a word is a verb, as in typify,
characterize, irrigate, and sweeten. Prefixes such as be-,
de-, or en- may signify that a word is a verb, as
in bestow, dethrone, and encourage.
These affixes, often inconsistent from verb to verb, are
called derivational affixes. Added to a word, they either
change the word's part of speech

Verbs can also sometimes be recognized by their position in a

sentence.

Example:

In the following two sentence frames, only a verb can be put

into the empty slot.
NOUN __________
(Verb)

THERE ________ NOUN

(Verb)

or change the word's meaning

Example:
Unlike the derivational affixes, these inflectional
suffixes are consistently used with all verbs, even though
their form may look different from verb to verb.
Because many verbs in English are irregular; as result, their
ed and/or en endings may not follow any obvious pattern.

The base form of a verb is derived from the

verbs infinitive: to + verb

Four suffixes consistently added to a verbs base create all

forms of a verb used in all tenses:
1. -s
creates 3rd person singular / present
tense (He talks.)
2. -ing
creates the present participle / used
with be (He is talking.)
3. -ed

creates the simple past (He talked.)

Examples:
(to
Smith writes short stories at home. (-s ending)
Smith is writing short stories at home. (write)
ing ending)
Smith wrote short stories at home. (-ed ending)
Smith has written short stories at home. (en ending)
(to
Jones buys a newspaper each day. (-s ending)
Jones is buying a newspaper today. (buy)
ing ending)
Jones bought a newspaper yesterday. (ed ending)
Jones has bought newspapers every day. (-en
ending)
(to go) Students go to the library often. (-s ending)
Students are going to the library often. (ing ending)
Students went to the library often. (-ed ending)
Students have gone to the library often. (en ending)

4. -en
creates the past participle / used
with have (He has talked.)

Note:

The majority of verbs are regular and consistently use ed and -en to form their simple past tense and past
The -en verb ending used with a form of to have as an auxiliary
is
participles.
(e.g. talked, has talked)
generally written-ed, as in has talked.

Many verbs are irregular, however, and follow no consistent

pattern in creating their -ed and/or -en forms. A list of the
major irregular verbs is shown below.

Examples of verb phrases:

He has taken the test.

Present

Past (-ed form)

Past Participle (-en form)

arise

arose

arisen

ask

asked

asked

A verb phrase is defined as the main verb together with all

its auxiliaries (helping verbs).
Auxiliary verbs always precede the main verb.

He is taking the test.

He did take the test.
He has
been taking the test.

(auxiliary has + main

verb take.)
(auxiliary is + main verb take)
(auxiliary do + main verb take)
(auxiliaries has been + main
verb take)

Verbs may be divided into three types:

A.

Action verbs - show an action -- either physical or mental

There are two types of auxiliary verbs:

1. Inflected auxiliary verbs:
be

have

do

2. Modal auxiliaries (considered more fully under (auxiliary

verbs)
present

past

no tense
must

will

would

shall

should

can

could

may

might

B. Verbs of being (forms of be - is, are, was, were, has/have/ha

- show a state of existence:

C. Linking verbs - link a subject with its complement

(A subjective complement "completes" / "equals" the
subject.)
Linking verbs: appear, taste, smell, feel, look, sound,
grow, seem, remain, become
Action verbs may be either transitive or intransitive.
A. A transitive verb is one that is followed by a direct object.
Example:

NOTE: Most linking verbs can also be used as action

verbs.

B. An intransitive verb is one that is NOT followed by a direct

object.
Example:

Caution: An intransitive verb may be followed

by adjectives, adverbs, and/or prepositional phrases. As long
as the verb is not followed by a noun or pronoun functioning
as the direct object, the verb is intransitive.
Example:

Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative,

and subjunctive.
NOTE: Some action verbs may be either transitive or
intransitive.
Example: (left)

A. The indicative mood states a fact, asks a question, or

exclaims.

Another example (read):

B. The imperative mood gives a command. The subject is
always "you" understood.

2. The sentence

shows a wish, desire, or demand

in a nominal clause beginning with that

C. The subjunctive mood occurs in two instances:

1. The sentence indicates a situation contrary to fact.

ADJECTIVES

following verbs such as desire, demand, requ

Traditionally, adjectives are defined as words that

describe nouns or pronouns. When they describe
nouns or pronouns, adjectives typically answer the
following questions:
What kind?

Which one?
many?

How

describe.

Example:

For example, in the phrase

Tall is an adjective describing the noun man.

Tall answers the question "which man?" or "what
kind of man?"
Similarly, in the phrase,

Easy is an adjective describing the

noun assignment.
Easy answers the question, "what kind of
assignment?"
Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they describe,
as in the examples, tall man and easy assignment, above.

Finally, adjectives may follow a verb of being or

a linking verb, thus completing the noun subject
Examples

Like nouns, adjectives are often recognizable by

their suffixes.
Endings such as -ous -ful -ish -able
usually designate adjectives.
Examples:

Comparative and superlative forms

Thus, one may identify an adjective by using the following
word-order test:

Single-syllable adjectives use -er and -est endings to

designate comparative
and superlative forms:
Examples:

*Adjectives may also follow the noun they

To create negative comparative and superlative forms,

use
less for er and least for est
Examples:
Adjectives of two or more syllables
use more and most for
comparative and superlative forms.

Examples:

Not
e:

Two-syllable adjectives ending in -y may also use

the -er / -est endings to designate comparative
and superlative.

Examples:

Note: the following adjectives do not follow the regular rules

for
Forming comparative and superlative forms: good, bad, little,
ill.

ADVERBS
Adverbs are traditionally defined as words that
describe verbs.
Adverbs answer any of the following questions
about verbs:
how? when? where?
why?

Most adverbs end in -ly. In fact, most adverbs are formed

by adding -ly
to adjectives:

The following examples illustrate adverbs

modifying verbs:
How did he lift the barbell?
Easily is an adverb.
When will we use it?
Tomorrow functions as an adverb.

Like adjectives of more than one syllable, adverbs usually

become
comparative and superlative by using more and most.
Examples:

Where did she hide the key?

Nearby is an adverb.

Adverbs are the most moveable of all parts of speech;

therefore, it is sometimes difficult to identify an adverb
on the basis of its position in a sentence.
For example, the adverb slowly will fit into three places
in the sentence
He climbed the ladder:

Flat adverbs
Adjectives that do not change form (add -ly) to become
adverbs
are called "flat adverbs."
Typical flat adverbs are early, late, hard, fast, long, high,
low, deep, near.

To determine whether these words are functioning as

adjectives or adverbs, one must determine
1) what the word is describing (noun or verb)
2) what question the word is answering
The following examples illustrate the distinction.
Early as adjective:
Early describes the noun train and answers the question
"which one?"
Early as adverb:
Early describes the verb arrived and answers the
question "when?"
Hard as adjective:

Hard describes the noun pass and answers the question

"what kind?"
Hard as adverb:

Hard describes the verb threw and answers the

question "how?"

PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns.
Every pronoun must have a clear antecedent (the word for which the pronoun stands).
KINDS OF PRONOUNS

A.

Personal Pronouns:
SINGULAR

PLURAL

subjec
tive

objec
tive

posses
sive

subjec
tive

objec
tive

posses
sive

1st per
son

me

my, mi
ne

we

us

our, ou
rs

2nd per
son

you

you

your, y
ours

you

you

your, y
ours

3rd per
son

he

him

his

they

them

she

her

it

it

her, h
ers

their, t
heirs

its

Personal pronouns have the following characteristics:

1. three persons (points of view)

1st person - the one(s) speaking (I me my mine we us our ours)
2nd person - the one(s) spoken to (you your yours)
3rd person - the one(s) spoken about

(he him his she her hers it its they their theirs)

2. three genders
feminine (she her hers)
masculine (he him his)
neuter (it its they them their theirs)
3. two numbers
singular (I me my mine you your yours he him his she her hers it its)
plural (we us our ours you your yours they them their theirs)

4. three cases
subjective (I you he she it we they)
possessive (my mine your yours his her hers our
ours their theirs)
objective (me you him her it us them)
Examples - subjective case

Examples - possessive case

Demonstrative pronouns can also be used

as determiners.
Example:
Hand me that hammer. (that describes the
noun hammer)

Examples - objective case

Demonstrative pronouns can also be used

as qualifiers:
Example:
She wanted that much
money? (that describes the adjective much)
C. Reflexive / Intensive Pronouns : the "self" pronouns
These pronouns can be used only to reflect or intensify a
word already
there in the sentence.
Reflexive / intensive pronouns CANNOT REPLACE personal
pronouns.
Examples:
I saw myself in the mirror. (Myself is a reflexive pronoun,
reflecting the pronoun I.)
Ill do it myself. (Myself is an intensive pronoun, intensifying
the pronoun I.)
Note: The following words are substandard and should not
be used:
theirselves
theirself
hisself
ourself

B.

Demonstrative Pronouns:

D. Indefinite Pronouns:
Singular:
one

someone

anyone

no one

everyone

each

somebod
y

anybody

nobody

everybod
y

(n)either

somethin
g

anything

nothing

everythin
g

Indefinite pronouns use apostrophes to indicate possessive

case.

Examples:

Examples:
Somebody is coming to dinner.
Neither of us believes a word Harry says.

The accident is nobodys fault.

How will the roadwork affect one's daily
commute?
Some indefinite pronouns may also be used as determiners.
one, each, either, neither, some, any, one, all, both, few,
several, many, most

Plural:

Note the differences:

Each person has a chance.
Examples:

(Each is a determiner describing person.)

Both are expected at the airport at the

same time.
Several have suggested canceling the
meeting.
Singular with non-countables / Plural with countables:

Each has a chance.

(Each is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)
Both lawyers pled their cases well.
(Both is a determiner describing lawyers.)
Both were in the room.

Examples:
Some of the dirt has become a permanent
part of the rug.
Some of the trees have been weakened by the
storm.

(Both is an indefinite pronoun replacing a noun.)

E. Interrogative Pronouns:

Interrogative pronouns produce information questions that

require
more than a yes or no answer.

Examples:
What do you want?
Who is there?

F. Relative Pronouns:

Relative pronouns introduce relative (adjectival) clauses.

Note:
Use who, whom, and whose to refer to people.
Use that and which to refer to things.

PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions are words which begin prepositional phrases.
A prepositional phrase is a group of words containing
a preposition, a noun or pronoun object of the preposition,
and any modifiers of the object.
A preposition sits in front of (is pre-positioned before)
its object.

at
becaus
e of
before

behind

ing
despite
down

of
into
like

g
since
through

during

near

through
out

except

of

to

within
without
with
regard
to
with
respect
to

The following words are the most commonly used

prepositions:

about

below

above

against

beneat
h
beside(
s)
betwee
n
beyond

along
among

but
by

around

concern

across
after

excepti
ng
for

of

toward

on

under

from

onto

in

out

underne
ath
until

in front
of
inside
in spite
of
instead

outside

up

over
past

upon
up to

regardin

with

It is useful to locate prepositional phrases in sentences since

any noun or pronoun within the prepositional phrase must be

the prepositions object and, therefore, cannot be

misidentified as a verbs direct object.

Held up is a verb meaning to rob.

To the store is a prepositional phrase.

Therefore, up is not a preposition, and bank is not the object

of a preposition.

Store is the object of the preposition to, not the direct

object of the verb drove.

Instead, bank is the direct object of the verb held up.

To avoid confusing prepositions with particles, test by

moving the word (up) and words following it to the front of
the sentence:
Up the bank four armed men held.

Car is the direct object of the verb drove.

To the grocery store is a prepositional phrase.

If the resulting sentence does not make sense, then the word
belongs with the verb and is a particle, not a preposition.
Note the difference:

NOTE:
A word that looks like a preposition but is actually part of a
verb is called a particle.
The resulting sentence makes sense. Therefore, up is
a preposition.

The resulting sentence does not make sense.

Therefore, up is a particle in this sentence.

The following examples illustrate the difference between

prepositions and particles:
Some other examples of particles:

CONJUNCTIONS

give in

turn in

go in
for
look
up

put in
for
make
up

pull
through
bring up

wore
out
found
out

broke
up
blow up

look over

Different kinds of conjunctions join different kinds of

grammatical structures.

Conjunctions are words used as joiners.

The following are the kinds of conjunctions:

A. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS (FANBOYS)

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Coordinating conjunctions join equals to one another:
words to words,
clauses to clauses.

phrases to phrases,

Punctuation with coordinating conjunctions:

When a coordinating conjunction joins two words, phrases, or
subordinate clauses, no comma should be placed before the
conjunction.

Coordinating conjunctions usually form looser connections

than other conjunctions do.
A coordinating conjunction joining three or more words,
phrases, or subordinate clauses creates a series and requires
commas between the elements.

Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at

the beginning or end.

A coordinating conjunction joining two independent

clauses creates a compound sentence and requires a
comma before the coordinating conjunction

C. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
These conjunctions join independent clauses together.

The following are frequently used conjunctive adverbs:

also

incidentally

nonetheless

after all

in addition

next

either. . .or

as a result

indeed

on the contrary

both. . . and

besides

in fact

on the other
hand

consequently

in other words

otherwise

finally

instead

still

for example

likewise

then

furthermore

meanwhile

therefore

hence

moreover

thus

however

nevertheless

B. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

neither. . . nor
not only. . . but also

These pairs of conjunctions require equal (parallel) structures

after each one.

Punctuat
ion:

Place a semicolon before the conjunctive

adverb and a comma after the conjunctive

adverb.

inasmuch as

though

in case (that)

till

D. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
These words are commonly used as subordinating
conjunctions

after

in order (that)

unless

although

insofar as

until

as

in that

when

as far as

lest

whenever

as soon as

no matter how

where

as if

now that

wherever

as though

once

whether

because

provided (that)

while

before

since

why

even if

so that

even though

supposing (that)

how

than

if

that

Subordinating conjunctions also join two clauses together,

but in doing so, they make one clause dependent (or
"subordinate") upon the other.

A subordinating conjunction may appear at a sentence

beginning or between two clauses in a sentence.

A subordinate conjunction usually provides a tighter

connection between clauses than a coordinating conjunctions
does.
Loose:
It is raining, so we have an umbrella.
Tight:

Because it is raining, we have an umbrella.

Punctuation Note:
When the dependent
clause is placed first in a
sentence, use a comma
between the two
clauses. When the
independent clause is
placed first and the
dependent clause;
second, do not separate
the two clauses with a
comma.

DETERMINERS
Determiners signal (determine) that a noun will follow.
Unlike adjectives, which also signal that a noun will follow,
determiners cannot add the inflectional morphemes -er and est. In addition, because they are function words,
determiners do not have other forms or synonyms. Their
"meaning" is their function: to signal that a noun will follow.
The following examples illustrate the difference:

Types of determiners
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

articles (the hat, a hat, an opera)

possessive nouns / pronouns (Marys hat, her hat)
numbers (five hats, eight hats, twenty hats)
indefinite pronouns (each hat ,some hats, both hats)
demonstrative pronouns (that hat, those hats)

Determiner + noun tea

Native speakers of English learn when to use articles with
nouns as they learn to speak.
However, learning when to use articles is often difficult for
non-native speakers.
Adjective + noun tea

The difference between article use

with town and city illustrates the difficulty:
Correct: I walked to the town. (article the before town)
Correct: I walked to town. (no article before town)

Note that each adjective has a distinct meaning.

In addition, each adjective may add its comparative (er) and superlative (-est) form

Correct: I walked to the city. (article the before city)

Incorrect: I walked to city. (no article before city)

QUALIFIERS / INTENSIFIERS
Qualifiers / intensifiers are words like very, too, so, quite,
rather.
Qualifiers are function parts of speech. They do not add
inflectional morphemes, and they do not have synonyms. Their
sole purpose is to "qualify" or "intensify" an adjective or an
adverb.
Qualifiers / intensifiers modify adjectives or adverbs, telling to
what degree.

INTERROGATIVES

Interrogatives introduce questions when

1. the question requires more than a yes or no answer

Examples

2. the verb phrase has at least one auxiliary or is a be verb

Examples