AE 162: Environment Control & Protection Engineering

Prepared By: ER Lapong, AE Dept., MSU-GSC

Water and Wastewater System

WATER SYSTEM
Purposes of Water Supply (in a community)
1. Drinking and culinary uses
2. Cleaning washing, bathing, laundry
3.
4.
5.
6.

For heating and air conditioning

Watering lawns and gardens
Aesthetics and recreation
Producing hydraulic and steam power

7. Industrial process
8. Waste removal from household industry
100 gpcd for residential communities
150 gpcd in larger/industrial cities
(70% of this water supplied will be collected by wastewater works as water.)
Components of Water System:
1. Collection works
2. Purification works
3. Transmission works
4. Distribution works
1. COLLECTION
- trapping a source continuously (adequate in volume for present and reasonable
future demands)
- convert an intermittent insufficient source into a continuously adequately supply.
- ensure adequacy, seasonal, and is high development must be stored for use in
times of insufficiency.
Sources of freshwater:
a. Rainwater from runoff, stored in cisterns, and prepared watershed catchment
b. Surface brook/streams/rivers, natural ponds, lakes

c. Groundwater - wells, natural springs, infiltration galleries, basin

Reasons/Factors considered to store enough water:
a. Care for hourly variations in water consumption in excess of inflow.
b. Deliver water needed to fight serious fires
c. Permit shutting down incoming lines for inspection and minor repairs
Water Source Level Designation:
Level I (Point Source) a protected well or developed spring with or without an
outlet but without a distribution system, generally adaptable in rural areas.
Level II (Communal Faucet System or Standposts) a system composed of a
source, reservoir, a piped distribution network and communal faucets. Generally
suitable for urban and rural areas where houses are clustered.
Level III (Waterworks System) a system with a source, reservoir, a piped
distribution system and household taps. It is suitable for densely populated urban
areas. This level of facility requires a minimum treatment or disinfection.
LWUA Local Water Utilities Administration
- Created by P.D. 198 (amended by RA 9286)
(Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973 or Local Water Districts Law)
2. PURIFICATION - disinfection of contaminated water
- aesthetically, displeasing water made attractive and palatable.
- water containing iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) deferrized and demanganized
- corrosive water deactivated and hard water softened
Purification Works:
1. Filtration - removal of objectionable odor, turbidity and bacteria and harmful
ingredients by filtration.
-

includes coagulation, settling, chlorination corrosion control, and

pure-water storage
2. Deferrization and demanganization- removal of excess amounts of Fe & Mn
- aeration, contact treatment and storage
3. Softening - removal of excessive amounts of scale-forming, soap-consuming
ingredients, chiefly calcium and magnesium ions by;
a. Addition of line and soda ash which precipitate calcium as carbonate and
magnesium as hydrate.

b. By passage of water in a cation-exchange media that substitute Na for Ca

and Mg
4. Reverse Osmosis
Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a
partially permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration.
Structures for Purification:
1. Mixing basin
2. Flocculating and reaction basin
3.
4.
5.
6.

Sedimentation basins (1/2, gpm per square foot)

Slow sand filters
Rapid filters
Coke filters

3. TRANSMISSION - conveyance of collected and purified supply to the community

Conduits are designed for open-channel or pressure flow depending upon topography
and available materials. Size and shape of the conduits are determined by hydraulic,
structural and economic considerations.
Velocity = 3-5 fps
Conduits for incoming flow commonly consist of cast-iron pipes but maybe made also
of asbestos-cement and plastic (PVC).
Materials for Water Lines:
a. Public main line & take-offs - cast iron
b. Small service lines (residences) - cement-lined iron or steel, brass, admiralty
metal, copper, and plastic such polyethylene (PE) and Polyvinyl Chloride
(PVC)
Note:

maximum size- 3/4inches

Lead and lead-lined pipe may corrode and release lead to water, and so are
no longer used.

Hazen-Williams Formula:
V=Cr0.63s0.54
V= mean velocity, fps

C= Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient

S= hydraulic gradient, or loss of heat
= slope of energy grade line

4. DISTRIBUTION- dispensation of adequate volume pressure

Distribution Works Patterns:
a. Branching Pattern
b. Gridiron Pattern
Factors:
a. Pressure- normally 60-75 psig in business blocks
40 psig in residential area
100 psig or more for fire fighting
b.
c.

Motor pumps - to discharge water at greater pressure or higher elevation

Capacity - indicated by domestic, industrial, and other normal water use, and
by the stand by or ready-to-serve requirements for piping. (2-4 fps)

Wastewater Engineering - branch of environmental engineering in which the basic

principle of science and engineering are applied to the problems of water and
pollution control.
Its objective is the protection of the environment in a manner commensurate with
public health, economic, social, and political concerns.
Wastewater - liquid portion of the waste produced by the community
- Combination of the liquid or water-carried wastes removed from residences,
institutions, and commercial and industrial establishments, together with such
groundwater, surface water, and stormwater as maybe present.
Sources of wastewater:
a. communities (domestic)
b. commercial establishments
c. industries
d. agriculture
e. runoff and stormwater
1. Sanitary sewages from community
2. Domestic sewages from house hold
3. Industrial wastewater - may contain rainwater or heavy laden with organic or
mineral matter, poisonous, corrosive, flammable or explosive substance.
Methods of treatment:
a. Primary - physical operation
Ex. Screening and sedimentation to remove the floating and settleable
solids found in wastewater.
b. Secondary biological treatment
c. Tertiary chemcial/advanced treatment
Concerns:
1. Changing wastewater characteristics
2. Problem on industrial wastes
3. Impact of stormwater and nonpoint sources of pollution
4. Combined sewer overflow
5. Treatment operation, processes, and concepts

- assessment of the treatability of wastewater, conduct of laboratory and pilot

plant studies, and translation of experimental data into design parameters
6. Health and environmental concerns
7. Treatment process effectiveness
8. Small and individual onsite systems
Sludge - semi-solid residuals
Methods of sludge disposal:
a. incineration
b. landfill
Reclamation- treatment or processing to make it reusable
Reuse - use of treated or processed wastewater for a beneficial use
Effluent Disposal
Methods of disposal:
a. discharge and dilution into stream, rivers, lakes, estuaries, or ocean
b. land disposal(flooding)
Consideration: oxidation, bacterial conversions, natural decay, photosynthesis,
respiration.

WASTEWATER SYSTEM
Components:
1. Collection works
2. Treatment works
3. Outfall or disposal works
Structures:
a. Storm sewers for runoff
b. Sanitary sewers - for domestic wastewater
c. Combined sewer- both for runoff and wastewater
Combined sewerage - wastewater from household and industry has same drainage with
surface runoff from rainstorm.
Separate sewerage - separation of channel (close) for wastewater and surface runoff (open)

Collection of Sewage:
70% of water brought is removed as wastewater
100 - 200 gpcd - average volume of wastewater from domestic source
2 -2.5 fps - velocity to prevent foul deposition
Manhole - for checking maintenance, and cleaning
- 600 ft. distance for large sewers, 8 in. diameter
(material often used - cast iron, asbestos cement)
Factor/Consideration in sewer construction or laying:
1. Protection against breakage by traffic shock
- 3 ft. below basement floors or 12 ft. below commercial districts
2. To permit them to drain the lowest fixture in the premises sewered
- 2% grade (1/4 in/ft)
Collection of Storm Water:
(2.5 to 3 fps to drain sand and gravel)
Factors in determining capacity:
1 . Intensity and duration of rainstorm
2. Size and runoff characteristics of tributary areas
3. Economy of design ( quick discharge to surface water)
IMPORTANT CONTAMINANTS IN WASTEWATER
1. Suspended Solids
These leads to the development of sludge deposits and anaerobic conditions
when untreated wastewater is discharged in the aquatic environment.
2. Biodegradable Organics - proteins, carbohydrates, and fats commonly measured in
BOD and COD
If wastewater is disposed unheated, their biological stabilization can lead to the
depletion of natural oxygen resources and to the development of septic conditions.
3. Pathogens - organisms transmitting communicable diseases

4. Nutrients - nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon which are essential for growth
(vegetation) in aquatic environment, these can lead to undesirable growth of phreatic
plants. On land, these can lead to pollution of groundwater.
5. Priority Pollutants - organic and inorganic compounds with carcinogenic, mutagenic,
teratogenic or toxic effect.
6. Refractory organics - surfactants, phenols, and agricultural pesticides
7. Heavy Metals e.g. lead, which should be removed if the wastewater is to be reused
8. Dissolved Inorganics elements/compounds such as Ca, Na and sulfate which are
product of domestic water use.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER
1. Total Solid Content - all matter that remains as residue upon evaporation at 103-105C
a. Floating matter/solid
b. Settleable solid - solids that settle to the bottom of a coned-shaped container,
called Imhoff (Cone) in a 60-minute period (expressed in mL/L)
- is an approximate measure of the quantity of sludge that will be removed
by primary sedimentation
c. Nonfilterable (suspended solid) - those that remains in a filter with nominal pore
size of about 1.2 micrometer.
d. Filterable solid - those that passes through a filter with nominal pore size of
about 1.2 micrometer.
i. Colloidal solids - 0.001 to 1 m
- can't be removed by settling but by biological oxidation or
coagulation followed by sedimentation.
ii. Dissolved solids - consist of both organic and inorganic molecules and ions
that are present in true solution in water
2. Odor - caused by gases produced by the decomposition of organic matter or by
substance added to the wastewater.
Fresh wastewater has a distinctive, somewhat disagreeable odor, which is less
objectionable than that of wastewater that has undergone anaerobic decomposition.
State of septic wastewater - odor that of hydrogen sulfide, produced by
microorganisms that reduces sulfate to sulfide.
Effects:
1. Odors at low concentrations are related primarily to the psychological stress
they produce.
2. Offensive odors cause poor appetite for food, lowers water consumption,

impairs respiration, causes nausea and vomiting and mental perturbation.

3. In extreme conditions, it can lead to deterioration of personal and community
pride, interfere with human relations, discourage capital investment, lower socioeconomic status, and deter growth, resulting to decline in market and rental
property values, tax revenues, payrolls, and sales.
Equipment used to analyze odor:
a. olfactometer
b. butanol wheel
c. scentometer
3. Temperature
Temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of the water supply
because of the additive of warm water from households and industrial activities.
Mean annual temperature of wastewater varies at 10-210C (150C - 600C is a
representative value)
Importance of temperature as a parameter:
1. Wastewater temperature has an effect on chemical reactions, reaction rate,
aquatic life, and the suitability of the water for beneficial use.
2. Oxygen is less soluble in warm water than in cold water.
3. Optimum temperatures for bacterial activity range from 25oC-35 oC. Aerobic
digestion and nitrification stop when the temperature rises to 50 oC.
4. Density
It is an important characteristic of wastewater because of the potential for the
formation of density currents in sedimentation tanks and in treatment units.
The density of domestic wastewater that does not contain significant amounts of
individual waste is essentially the same as that of the water at the same
temperature.
5. Color
Condition" refers to the age of the wastewater and is determined qualitatively by
its color and odor.
Freshwater wastewater is usually light brownish-gray in color.
Septic wastewater is color black. Its dark color of wastewater is due to the
formation of metallic sulfides.
As travel time in collection system increases, and more anaerobic conditions
develop, the color of the wastewater changes sequentially from gray to dark gray
and ultimately to black.

6. Turbidity
- is a measure of the light-transmitting properties of water and used to indicate
the quality of waste discharges and natural waters with respect to colloidal and
residual suspended matter.
- Colloidal matter scatters or absorbs light and thus prevents its transmission.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WASTEWATER

1. Organic Matter
In wastewater of medium strength, 75% of the suspended solid and 40% of the
filterable solids are organic in nature. It is derived from animals and plants
and
activities of man related to the synthesis of compounds. It is composed of a
combination of C, H, and 0, together with N
Principal groups includes protein (40%), carbohydrates (25-50%), and fats and oils
(10%).
Protein - together with urea are the chief sources of nitrogen in wastewater.
- produces foul odor upon decomposition
Carbohydrates - includes sugars, starches, cellulose and wood fiber
Cellulose is the most important carbohydrate found in wastewater.
Fats, oils, and grease - includes waxes and related constituents.
If not removed before discharge of the waste, it can interfere with the biological
life in the surface waters and create unsightly floating matter and films.
2. Surfactants - surface-active agents
- are large organic molecules that are slightly soluble in water and cause foaming
in wastewater treatment plants and in surface waters.
- also called "Methylane Blue Active Substance (MBAS)" and comes primarily
from synthetic detergents.
3. Priority Pollutants - are those which has known or suspected carcinogenic, mutagenic,
teratogenic, or toxic effect, most are classified as volatile organic
compounds (VOCs)
- composed of metals (Ba, Cr, Pb, Hg, Ag), nonmetals (As, Se),
halogenated compounds, pesticides herbicides, insecticides.
VOCs -organic compounds that have a boiling point greater than or equal to
100C and/or a vapor pressure lesser than 1 mm Hg at 25C.

Effects:
1. Many, which are VOCs, increase reactive hydrocarbons in the atmosphere,
leading to the formation of photochemical oxidants.
2. Its release in sewers and treatment plants, especially at headworks poses risk to
health.
3. Concentrations of these chemicals can result in fish kills, contamination of the
flesh of fish that decreases their value as food source, and impairment of water
supplies.
Measurement of Organic Matter Content (for organic matter content 1 mg/L):
l. BOD - Biochemical Oxygen Demand
2. COD - Chemical Oxygen Demand
3. TOC - Total Organic Carbon
4. ThOD - Theoretical Oxygen Demand
- complementary measurement, which is determined from the chemical
formula of the organic matter.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
These involve the measurement of the dissolved oxygen used by microorganisms in
the biochemical oxidation of organic matter.
It is widely used:
1. To determine the approximate quantity of oxygen that will be required to
biologically stabilize the organic matter present.
2. To determine the size of waste treatment process.
3. To measure the efficiency of waste treatment process.
4. To determine compliance with wastewater discharge permits.
Most widely used is 5- Day BOD (BOD5).
BOD5:

Incubation period is 5 days at 20oC, though other length of time and temperature is
used.

temperature should be constant

dissolved oxygen is measured before and after incubation

Analysis of BOD data: Determination of k and L (ultimate BOD) from a series of BOD
measurements.
a) Least Square Method (LSD)

b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

Method of Moments
Daily-difference Method
Rapid-ratio Method
Thomas Method
Fujimoto Method

Least Square Method:

Involves fitting a curve through a set of data points, so that the sum of the squares
of the residuals (the difference between the observed value and the value of the
fitted curve) must be a minimum.
Limitation of BOD test:
1. A high concentration of active, acclimated seed bacteria is required.
2. Pretreatment is needed when dealing with toxic waste.
3. Only measure biodegradable organism.
4. An arbitrary, long period of time is required to obtain results.
5. Doesnt have stoichiometric validity after the soluble organic matter present in the
solution is used.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD is used to measure the content of organic matter of both wastewater and
natural waters. The test must be performed at an elevated temperature, and a catalyst (silver
sulfate-AgSO4) is required to aid oxidation.
Also used to measure the organic matter in industrial and municipal wastes that
contain compounds that are toxic to biological life.
The COD of a waste is generally higher than the BOD since more compounds can
be chemically oxidized than can be biologically oxidized.

Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

Applicable only for small concentrations of organic matter. The test is performed
by injecting unknown quantity of a sample into a high-temperature furnace or chemically
oxidizing environment. The CO2 produced is quantitatively measured by means of an
infrared analyzer.

Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)

Applicable when the chemical formula of the organic matter is known.

For Typical Untreated Domestic Wastewater:

BOD5/ COD ratio = 0.4 0.8
BOD5/TOC ratio =1.0 1.6
COD and TOC = more rapid to be conducted

4. Inorganic Matter
Greatly affected uses of water:
1. Chloride result from leaching of chloride-containing rocks and soils with which
the water comes in contact, and in control areas, from salt water intrusion Human
excreta contain 6 g of chlorides per day.
2. Nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite, ammonia) - essential in the growth of algae and other
biological organisms
3. Phosphorous (phosphate) - essential growth of algae and other biological organisms.
4. Sulfur
5. Hydroxides, carbonates, and bicarbonates such as Ca, Mg, Na, K, NH4 which make
the wastewater alkaline.
6. Heavy metals Ni, Mn, Pb, Cr, Cd, Zn, Cu, Fe, Hg (are usually toxic)

5. Gases
Gases commonly found in untreated wastewater include N2, O2, CO2,
H2S (Hydrogen Sulfide), NH3 (Ammonia), CH4 (Methane)
O2: Its presence is desirable because it prevents the formation of noxious odors.
H2S: Formed from anaerobic decomposition of organic matter containing sulfur or
from reduction of sulfates. It causes odors.
CH4: Principal by-product of an aerobic decomposition of organic matter in
wastewater. It is a colorless, odorless, combustible hydrocarbon with high fuel
value.

BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Principal Microorganism
2. Pathogenic organism
3. Indicator organisms

1. PRINCIPAL MICROORGANISMS
Classification of Microorganisms:
1. Eucaryotes:
Plants - seed plants, ferns, mosses
Animals - vertebrates, invertebrates
Protists algae, fungi, protozoa
2. Eubacteria: most bacteria in wastewater
3. Archaebacteria: Methanogens, halophiles, themoacidophiles

Viruses are classified separately according to the host infected.

Bacteria
-

Single-celled prokaryotic eubacteria

Spherical bacteria - cocci (1-3 m )
Rod-shaped bacteria bacilli (0.3-1.4 m , 1.0-10.0 m length)
Ex. Escherichia coli (common in human feces)

Curved rodshaped- vibrios (0.6 11.5 m , 2-6 m length)

Spiral bacteria spirilla (up to 50 m in length)

Fungi
-

aerobic, multicellular, non-photosynthetic, eukaryotic protist

most are saprophytes (obtaining food from dead organisms matter)

principal organisms responsible for the decomposition of carbon in the biosphere

Ecological Advantage of fungi over bacteria:

1. They can grow in low-moisture areas and can grow in low-ph environment.
2. Without it, the carbon cycle would soon cease to exist and organic matter would start
to accumulate.

Algae
-

Great nuisance in surface waters, because they rapidly reproduced and cover streams,
lakes, and reservoirs in large floating colonies called bloom

Characteristic of eutrophic lake

Often cause taste and odor problems

Protozoa
-

Single-celled eukaryotic microorganism without cell walls.

Includes amoeba, flagellates, cilliates.

A number are pathogenic

Ex. Cryptosporidium
Important as a causative agent in life-threatening infections in patient with AIDS;
-

found in drinking water

Worm Phyla
1. Platyhelminthes- flatworms
-

Flukes (class Tubellari), tapeworm (Class Cestoda)

2. Ascehelminthes nematodes
-

Trichinella, Necator, Ascaris, Filaria

Virus
-

Parasitic particles consisting of a strand of genetic materials (DNA) or RNA

with a protein coat.

Invades the living (lost) cell where the viral genetic materials reflect cells
activities. When an inflected cell dies, large numbers of viruses are released
to inflect other cells.
Ex. Hepatitis virus emitted from human feces. Virus lives as long as 41 days
in water and waterways at 200C for 6 days.

2. PATHOGENIC ORGANISM
-

Found in wastewater discharged by humans infected with disease or are carries of a

particular disease.

Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, helminthes

Bacterial pathogenic organisms exerted by man causes diseases of gastrointestinal

tract such as typhoid and parathypoid fever, diarrhea, and cholera.

Highly infectious.

3. INDICATOR ORGANISMS
-

Pollution-indicating bacteria
Ex. Coliform bacteria

Genera Eschericia and aerobacteria

E. coli- entirely of fecal origin, although presence of coliforms does not always
mean contamination with human waste since these bacteria can also grow
in soil
Coliform concentration is reported as MPN/100 mL (most probable number)

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

OBJECTIVES OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT

a) The removal of suspended and floatable material
b) Treatment of biodegradable organic
c) Elimination of pathogenic organism

IMPORTANT DESIGN CONSIDERATION:

1. Equipment availability: plays an important role in process selection because,
a) The need to provide redundant systems, when there are long delivery time for
spare parts and replacement units.
b) When equipment delivery is critical to the construction schedule.
2. Personnel Requirement: amount of operating and maintenance personnel needed but
also the skills required. For example, and aerated lagoon treatment system will
require less highly skilled that can activated sludge plant.
3. Energy and Resource Requirements:
Energy resource:
a) Electric Power mainly used for running electric motors and providing light
b) Natural Gas or Propane for building and digester heating and for standby
generators.
c) Diesel or Gasoline for standby generators and vehicle fuel.

STEPS IN WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT

1. Facility Planning
Facilities Plan a document established to analyze systematically the technical,
economic, environmental, and financial factors necessary to select a cost effective
wastewater management plan. Include an environmental impact assessment on major
projects.
a) Defining the problem.
b) Identifying design year needs (at least 20 years)
c) Defining developing and analyzing alternative treatment and disposal systems
d) Selecting a plan

e) Outline of implementation plan including financial arrangement and schedule for

design and construction.
Ultimate Objective: A well-defined, cost-effective, and environmentally-sound
project capable of being implemented and being acceptable to taxpayers and
regularity authorities.
2. Design
a) Conceptual Design used to finalize the preliminary design criteria used in
the facilities plan.
b) Preliminary Design expansion of the conceptual design and defines fully
the facilities to be included in the project so that final design could be
proceeded.
-

Represent 20-30% stage of the project

Site plan is finalized, equipment requirements are defined, alternative

mechanical equipment and piping arrangement, space arrangements
and architectural concepts are developed

c) Special studies include pilot plant testing of new equipment or processes

d) Final Design preparation of construction plans and specifications.
3. Value Engineering
-

An intensive review of a project in which a specialized cost control technique

is used to identify high costs in a project

To obtain the best project at the cost without sacrificing in quality or

reliability

4. Construction
Considerations:
a) How the plan will be built
b) How it will interface with existing facilities
c) Materials of construction
d) Maintaining operation during construction
e) Continuing treatment at a level that wont violate discharge permit
requirements
f) Safety hazards to personnel
5. Startup and Operations

a) Meeting performance requirements

b) Managing operation and maintenance cost
c) Maintaining equipment to ensure proper operation
d) Training operating personnel

EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF DESIGN FLOWRATES

Wastewater treatment plants have to be designed to meet a number of conditions that
are influence by flowrates, wastewater characteristics, and combination of both (mass
loadings). Peaking conditions (Peak Hydraulic Flowrates and Peak Process Mass Loading
Rates) also have to be considered.

Developing Average Flowrates and Peaking Factors

1. Development and forecasting of average
2. Rationale used in selecting flowrate factors
3. Application of peaking and minimum flowrate factors
4. Upstream control of peak flowrate that may affect treatment plant design

Forecasting Average/Design Flowrate

-

70 gal/capitad when no flow data is available

120 gal/capitad total dry weather base flow

70 gal/capitad domestic flow

10 gal/capitad commercial and industrial flow

40 gal/capitad infiltration

Peaking Factor ratio of peak flow to average flow

Primary Settling Tank - holds sewage for 2 hrs and rated at 900 gpd/ft2 of water surfaces
Secondary Settling Tank (biological treatment) 1 1/2hrs and 1800 gpd/ft2
Sludge-Digestion Tank 2ft3/capita

ELEMENTS OF CONCEPTUAL PROCESS DESIGN

1. Establishing the design period for facilities
Design period
-

Establishes the largest data when the design capacity of the facilities will be
reached.

Vary depending upon the ease of or difficulty of expansion

2. Development of the Process Flow Diagram

Treatment Process Flow Diagram
-

Are graphical representations of particular combinations of unit operations

and processes

Depends on the constituents that must be removed

3. Establishing Process Design Criteria

-

Size determination of physical facilities, as affected by factors as hydraulic

detention

Ex. If the hydraulic detention time in the aerated grit chamber is to be 3.5
min in peak flowrate. The corresponding grit volume would then be
calculated.

4. Preliminary Sizing of Treatment Units

-

Determination of the number and sizes of the physical facilities

Physical sites should be considered

5. Preparation of Solid Balance

Sizing of:
a) Sludge thickening and storage facilities
b) Sludge digesters
c) Sludge- dewatering facilities
d) Terminal- reduction system
e) Composting facilities
f) Sludge- piping and pumping equipment
6. Site layout considerations
Plant Layout- refers to the spatial arrangement of the physical facilities required to
achieve a given treatment object. It includes control & administration buildings and
other necessary structures.

Factors:
a) Geometry of the available treatment plant sites
b) Topography
c) Soil and foundation conditions
d) Location of influent sewer
e) Location of discharge point
f) Plant hydraulics ( flow paths) to reduced head loses
g) Types of processes involved
h) Process performances and efficiency
i) Transportation access
j) Accessibility to of operation
k) Reliability & economy of operation
l) Aesthetics (symmetry, art)
m) Environmental control
n) Provision of future plant expansion

WATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE

Wastewater reclamation - is the treatment or processing of wastewater to make it reusable.
This term is also often to include delivery of reclaimed wastewater to its place
of use and its actual use.
Wastewater Reuse already an important element in water resources, planning, and a viable
option of water source
Water Conservation efficient use of existing water supplies and development of new water
resources.
Potential status of Wastewater Reuse:
1. Municipal Wastewater Reuse
a. Agriculture and landscape irrigation (largest application)
b. Industrial application
c. Groundwater recharge
d. Potable reuse
- These includes public supply (domestic, public, commercial, and industrial
uses, rural irrigation)
2. Self-supplied industrial uses including Thermoelectric Power
Agricultural and Landscape Irrigation
- Wastewater for crops and farmlands
- Maintain recreational lands such as golf and golf courses
* Crop yield and soil properties must both be taken into prime consideration,
especially in arid zones since the greater the evaporation he greater is the salt
deposition from the applied water, which accumulates in the soil profile. The
physical and mechanical properties of soil such as degree of dispersion of the soil
particles, stability of aggregates, soil structure, and permeability, are sensitive to the
types of exchangeable ions present in irrigation water.
Definition of Terms:
Beneficial uses are the ways water can be used either directly by people or for their
overall benefit
Direct potable reuse is a form of reuse that involves the incorporation of reclaimed
wastewater directly into a potable water supply system, often implying the
blending of reclaimed wastewater.

Direct reuse is the use reclaimed wastewater that has been transported from
wastewater reclamation plant to the water reuse site without intervening
discharge to a natural body of water. It includes such uses as agricultural and
landscape irrigation.
Indirect potable reuse is the potable reuse by incorporation of reclaimed wastewater
into a raw water supply. It allows mixing and assimilation by discharge into a
natural body of water, such as in domestic supply reservoir or ground water.
Indirect reuse is the use of wastewater reclaimed indirectly by passing through a
natural body of water or use of groundwater that has been recharged with
reclaimed wastewater
Planned reuse is the deliberate direct or indirect use of reclaimed wastewater without
relinquishing control over the water during its delivery.
Potable water reuse is a direct or indirect augmentation of drinking with reclaimed
wastewater that is normally high treated to protect public health.
Reclaimed wastewater is wastewater that, as a result of wastewater reclamation, is
suitable for direct beneficial use or a controlled use that would not otherwise
occur.
Unplanned reuse is the incidental use of wastewater after surrendering control of the
water after discharge, such as the diversion of water from a river downstream
of a discharged of treated wastewater.
Wastewater reclamation is the treatment or processing of wastewater to make it
reusable. This term is also often to include delivery of reclaimed wastewater
to its place of use and its actual use.
Wastewater recycling is the use of wastewater that is captured and redirected back
into the same water-use scheme. Recycling is practiced predominantly in
industrial plant.
Wastewater reuse is the use of treated wastewater, for a beneficial use such as
agricultural irrigation or industrial cooling.

Categories of Municipal Wastewater Reuse and Potential Constraints:

Wastewater reuse and categories
Agricultural irrigation
Crop irrigation
Commercial nurseries
Landscape Irrigation
Park
School yard
Freeway median
Golf course
Cemetery
Greenbelt
Residential
Industrial recycling and reuse
Cooling
Boiler feed
Process water
Groundwater recharge
Groundwater replenishment
Soil water intrusion control
Subsidence control
Recreational/environmental uses
Lakes and ponds
Marsh enhancement
Streamflow augmentation
Fisheries
Snowmaking
Non-potable urban uses
Fire protection
Air conditioning
Toilet flushing
Potable use
Blending in water supply reservoir
Pipe to pipe water supply

Potential constraints
Surface and groundwater pollution if not
properly managed
Effect of water quality, particularly salts, on
soils and crops
Public health concerns related to pathogens
(bacteria, viruses and parasites)
Use area control including buffer zone. May
result in high user costs

Constituents in reclaimed wastewater related to

scaling corrosion, biological growth, & fouling
Public health concerns, particularly aerosol
transmission of heavy construction pathogens
in reclaimed wastewater.
Organic chemicals in reclaimed wastewater and
their toxicological effects.
Total dissolved solids, nitrates, and pathogens in
reclaimed wastewater.
Health concerns of bacteria and viruses
Eutrophication due to N and P in receiving water
Toxicity to aquatic life

Public health concerns on pathogens transmitted

by aerosols
Effects of water quality on scaling, corrosion,
biological growth, and fouling
Cross-connection
Constituents in reclaimed wastewater, especially
trace organic chemicals and their toxicological
effects
Aesthetics and public acceptance
Health concerns about pathogen transmission,
particularly pathogens

Potential Management Problems Associated with Wastewater Quality:

1. Salinity determined by measuring its electrical conductivity
- the most important parameter in determining the suitability of a water for
irrigation.
- measured by Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) concentration.
Effects of salts:
a. Osmotic effect caused by Total Dissolved Salt
b. Specific ion toxicity
c. Soil particle dispersion, caused by high sodium and low salinity.
2. Specific Ion Toxicity if the decline of crop growth due to excessive concentrations
of specific ions rather than to osmotic effect.
(As, Be, CD, Co, Cr, F, Fe, Li, Mn)
3. Water Infiltration Rate indirect effect of high sodium content in which is the
deterioration of physical condition of a soil (formation of dust, water-logging,
and reduced soil permeability)
- Reduction of water infiltration rates makes supply of enough of water
impossible.
4. Nutrients and Miscellaneous Problems nutrients in reclaimed wastewater provide
fertilizer water value for crop and landscape production, however, can cause
problems if excess of plant needs.
- N & P, cause excessive vegetative growth, delayed or uneven maturity or
reduced crop quality.
- In chlorinated wastewater, chlorine residuals in excess of 5 mg/L can
cause severe plant damaged when reclaimed wastewater is spayed
directly on foliage.
Health and Regulatory Requirements: (for non-potable water reuse)
1. Installation of separate storage and distributions systems or potable water.
2. Use of color-coded tapes to distinguish potable from non-potable distribution
piping.
3. Cross connection and backflow prevention devices.
4. Periodic use of tracer dyes to detect the occurrence of cross contamination in
potable supply lines.
5. Irrigation during off hours to further minimize the potential for human contact.

Industrial Water Reuse

- cooling tower make-up water (such as in steam electric generation)
- mining and processing of coal and oil shale, and extracting and refining
of oil and natural gas (mining of metals, non metals, and fuels)
Cooling Tower Make-up Water:
- used in electric power generating stations, oil, refining, many types of
manufacturing plants ( to of total water use is used in cooling
tower)
Problems with Industrial wastewater reuse:
1. Scaling formation of hard deposits, usually on hot surfaces, which reduce
efficiency of heat exchanger
- Calcium scales like CaCO3, CaSO4, and CaPO4 are principal cause of
cooling tower scaling problems.
- Magnesium scales and silica deposits
2. Metallic corrosion case by creation of electrical potential between dissimilar metal
surfaces
- Anode where oxidation of one metal occurs
- Cathode where reduction of another metal takes place
3. Biological growth microorganism
4. Fouling refers to the process o attachment and growth o deposits of various kind
in cooling tower recirculation happens.
Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Wastewater
Purposes:
1. To reduce, stop or even reverse declines of groundwater levels
2. To protect the underground freshwater in coastal aquifers against saltwater intrusion
from the ocean
3. To store reclaimed wastewater, including flood or other surplus water for future use
Advantages of Storing Water Underground:
1. The cost of artificial recharge may be less than the cost of equivalent reservoir.
2. The aquifer serves as an eventual distribution system and may eliminate the need for
surface pipelines or canals.
3. Water stored in surface reservoir is subject to evaporation, to potential and odor
problem caused by algae and other aquatic growth to pollution.

4. Suitable sites for reservoir may not available or environmentally acceptable.

5. Inclusion of groundwater recharge in wastewater reuse project may also provide
psychological and aesthetics secondary benefits as a result of the transition of the
between reclaimed wastewater and groundwater.
Groundwater Recharge Methods:
1.Groundwater recharge by surface spreading
Infiltration basins are the most favoured method of recharge because they allow
efficient use of space and require relatively little maintenance.
2.Groundwater recharge by direct injection
- Is achieved when is injected directly into the groundwater aquifer, usually a
well-confined aquifer.
- Applicable where groundwater is deep where the topography or the existing land
use make surface spreading impractical or too expensive.
- Particularly effective in clearly freshwater barriers against intrusion of saltwater
from the sea in coastal aquifers.
- Entails contaminants removal, particulates, pathogen
Reverse Osmosis hyperinfiltration
- filtering dissolve salts by filtering through semi-permeable
membrane at pressure greater than osmotic pressure.
Potable Water Reuse
- Not so popular because of health and safety and aesthetic concern.
- First used in US (Chanute, Kansas in 1956-57) during severe droughts
- Greatest problem in public acceptance (rejection)
- Deals with the most advanced treatment method
- Practically no organic and inorganic contaminants, particulates, pathogens, etc.
Industrial Water Reuse
- Mining industry, stream electric generation, cooling make-up tower
Planning Consideration in Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse
1. Assessment of wastewater treatment and disposal needs
2. Assessment of water supply and demand
3. Assessment o water supply benefits based on wastewater reuse potential
4. Analysis of reclaimed wastewater market

5. Engineering and economic analysis of alternatives

6. Implementation plan with financial analysis
Planning:
1. Project objectives
2. Project study area
3. Market assessment
4. Monetary analysis
5. Economic and financial analyses
6. Cost and price of water
Others: 1. Water demand characteristics
2. Supplemental water supply and emergency backup
3. Water quality requirements
4. Determination of optimum project size
Effluent Disposal
Water quality parameters:
- Dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, bacteria, nutrients, pH, and toxic
chemicals, including organics, and acid/based neutrals, metals, pesticides
and PCBs
Dissolved oxygen above 4-5 mg/L dependent on aquatic species
Suspended solids affect water column turbidity and ultimately settle at the bottom,
leading to benthic enrichment, toxicity and sediment, oxygen
demand
Coliform bacteria used as an indicator of other pathogenic organisms of fecal
origin and provide safety for recreational uses.
Nutrients can lead to eutrophication and DO depletion.
Acidity of waters affects the chemical and ecological balance of ambient waters.
Toxic chemicals include range of compounds which have detrimental effects on
aquatic life or on human upon ingestion of water and/or fish or
shellfish.
1. Disposal into lakes and reservoir
- Where streams are unavailable
- Inputs include septic system leachates and storm water runoff, which may
contain BOD, nutrients, and other pollutants.

a. Stratification layering (epilimnion, thermocline, hypolimnion)

b. Eutrophication compounded by large day-and-night excursions in
dissolved oxygen due to photosynthesis and respiration
2. Disposal into rivers and estuaries
a. Instantaneous source
b. Continuous discharge
Estuaries portion of rivers near their discharge into the sea where the effects of
tides or saltwater are observed.
a. Coastal plain estuaries fiords
b. Embayments
From hydrodynamic point of view:
a. Salt-wedge type usually in larger freshwater and narrow estuaries
- Wedge of sea extends upstream gradients
b. Partiallymixed type there is a gradual salinity gradient
c. Wellmixed type salinity is practically uniform vertically but increases towards the
sea
These depends on its geometry, fresh water flow, and tidal amplitude
3. Ocean disposal
Wastewater is typically carried to offshore discharge point by a pipe laid on or
buried in the ocean floor, or by a tunnel. The discharge can be through a single-part
or multiport outfall structure.