Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 67

PYC4802/101/0/2014

Tutorial letter 101/0/2014


Psychopathology

PYC4802 or PSY481U
Year module
Department of Psychology
IMPORTANT INFORMATION:
This tutorial letter contains important information
about your module.

CONTENTS
Page
1

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................3

1.1

Tutorial material........................................................................................................4

PURPOSE OF AND OUTCOMES FOR THE MODULE ..........................................5

2.1

Purpose ....................................................................................................................5

2.2

Outcomes .................................................................................................................5

LECTURER(S) AND CONTACT DETAILS .............................................................6

3.1

Lecturer(s) ................................................................................................................7

3.2

Department ..............................................................................................................7

3.3

University .................................................................................................................7

MODULE-RELATED RESOURCES ........................................................................7

4.1

Prescribed book .......................................................................................................7

4.2

Recommended books (subject to availability) ..........................................................8

4.3

Electronic Reserves (e-Reserves)..........................................................................10

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES FOR THE MODULE .......................................14

MODULE-SPECIFIC STUDY PLAN ......................................................................16

MODULE PRACTICAL WORK AND WORK-INTEGRATED LEARNING ............17

ASSESSMENT.......................................................................................................17

8.1

Assessment plan ....................................................................................................19

8.2

General assignment numbers ................................................................................20

8.2.1

Unique assignment numbers..................................................................................20

8.2.2

Due dates for assignments ....................................................................................21

8.3

Submission of assignments....................................................................................21

8.4

Assignments ...........................................................................................................22

OTHER ASSESSMENT METHODS ......................................................................45

10

EXAMINATION ......................................................................................................45

11

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ...................................................................67

12

CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................67

Please note / important notes:

Formal tuition in this course will be conducted in English only. Where capability
exists, and upon request, individual consultations will be conducted in any
preferred South African language.

PYC4802/101

INTRODUCTION

Dear Student
Welcome to our postgraduate module in Psychopathology! We trust that you will
find the experience of studying abnormal behaviour at honours level rich and
rewarding. We also hope that the module proves to be interesting, informative, and
useful for deepening and developing your expertise in researching, identifying, and
classifying abnormal behaviour.
This Tutorial Letter PYC4802/PSY481U/101/0/2014 is vitally important for
your studies in psychopathology. It is your only guide that contains the
information you need concerning this module.
All study material (including this tutorial letter) can be downloaded from myUnisa,
and study related queries can be found in my Studies @ Unisa.
Please read this tutorial letter carefully and completely. Since tutorial material is
the major means of distance teaching, it is essential to make regular use of the
internet and myUnisa. Should you encounter academic problems, do not hesitate
to contact us by writing a letter, e-mailing, phoning, sending a fax, or making an
appointment to come and see us. Wherever we can we will strive to assist you
with regard to academic and personal problems.
Please note:
2014 is the last year for students who were registered for the BA Honours course
in Psychology in 2010 and before, to follow the old curriculum path with the code
PSY481U.
Students who registered for the BA Honours course in Psychology for the first time
in 2011 are following the new curriculum path with the code PYC4802. Students
who follow the old curriculum path PSY481U, who studied and passed one or
more papers before 2011 retain their credits for the paper(s) they passed. In order
to complete their current Honours qualification these students are required to
choose the outstanding paper(s) from List A, and complete their current Honours
qualification not later than 2014.
Students, who failed one or both papers from List B before 2011, are allowed to
repeat these papers. We encourage these students to complete and pass the
papers from List B as soon as possible, since the last examination for the papers
from List B will be written at the end of 2014.
LIST A:

PSY471S :
PSY481U :
PSY482V :
PSY473U :
PSY484X :
PSY4988 :
PSY474V :
PSY4999 :

Research methodology (open-book examination)


Psychopathology
Social psychology
Personology
Developmental psychology
Psychological assessment
Ecosystemic psychology
Therapeutic psychology
3

PSY475W : The psychology of work


PSY461Q : Community and health psychology
PSY4794 : Sport psychology
LIST B:

PSY485Y :
PSY4885 :

Physiological psychology
Cognitive psychology

PSY481U students who are unable to complete their Honours degree in


Psychology by the end of 2014 will be advised about making module choices that
allow them to align their module combination with the new BA Honours in
Psychology.
Prior learning we assume to be in place:
We assume that you have previously acquired the following levels of learning and
competencies in order to gain from this course:
You have successfully completed a BA, BA (BSW), or a BSc degree on NQF
level 7.
You have successfully completed Psychology 3, with an average of at least
60%.
You are able to take responsibility for your own learning in a structured learning
environment.
You are able to identify, analyse and reflect upon complex texts with regard to
real life problems.
You are able to communicate your views coherently and reliably by using basic
conventions of academic discourse.
You are committed to strive for life-long learning within the context of ethical
behaviour.
1.1

Tutorial material

Your tutorial material consists of the following:


1. Tutorial Letter PSYHONM/301 (which contains the rules and regulations for
all honours courses).
2. This tutorial letter for PYC4802/PSY481U/101 (which serves as your study
guide and
examination guide).
3. The booklet entitled my Studies @ Unisa (which provides you with
assistance for the following:
Contact addresses for the various departments
How to submit assignments via myUnisa
Other questions you may have.
Some of this tutorial material may not have been available when you registered.
Tutorial material that was not available when you registered will be posted to you
as soon as possible, but is also available on myUnisa, and can be obtained by
downloading, saving, and/or printing the document.
4

PYC4802/101
2

PURPOSE OF AND OUTCOMES FOR THE MODULE

2.1

Purpose

The purpose of this module is to deepen your understanding of the complexity of


Psychopathology within different contexts.
Range statements for the whole module: The scope of this module ranges from an
in-depth study of selected themes with regard to psychological disorders/
phenomena in the world with the aim of researching, analysing, discussing, and
synthesising these disorders/phenomena in the context of the physical,
psychological and social environment of individuals.
2.2

Outcomes

A range of tasks in tutorial letters, assignments, and an examination will show that
you can do the following:
Outcome 1: Use general and qualitative research skills.
Assessment criteria:
We will know that you are competent in using general and qualitative research
skills when you can do the following:
Analyse, discuss, explain and describe new information from many
recommended books, journal articles and additional sources within the
framework of, and relevant to the selected themes, by critically synthesising the
new information with the DSM criteria.
Select, order, and relate the new information according to the focus of each
theme
into a coherent discussion with specific emphasis on relevance to the
problem statement or question.
Outcome 2: Use relevant theories, models, and the latest DSM classification
system for describing, explaining, assessing, and classifying abnormal behaviour.
Assessment criteria:
We will know that you are competent in using relevant theories, models, and the
latest DSM classification system for describing, explaining, assessing, and
classifying abnormal behaviour, when you can do the following:
Analyse questions and select relevant data and underlying knowledge (also
from other modules) in order to describe, explain, assess, and classify abnormal
behaviour, identify connections, and infer hidden meanings from a theme and
across themes, by means of discussing the process and choice of arguments.
Outcome 3: Use academic discourse and referencing techniques.
Assessment criteria:
We will know that you are competent in using academic discourse and referencing
techniques, when you can do the following:

Analyse questions and select relevant data in order to evaluate


psychological disorders, abnormal behaviour, and dysfunctional
interactional patterns, identify connections, and infer hidden meanings
within and across themes, by justifying and referencing the process and
choice of arguments.
Apply the APA style of referencing and acknowledge all literary sources
appropriately in the text and in the reference section (refer to Tutorial
Letter PSYHONM/301).
Cross-field outcomes and embedded knowledge
The following competencies and cross-field outcomes with regard to the honours
course in psychopathology are assessed indirectly. The three formative
assessment tasks that will assist you in acquiring the skills that should enable you
to demonstrate your competence during the one cumulative assessment task
should have developed your proficiency, mind and character in the following ways:

The ability to conduct literature studies in preparation for further studies.

An increase in awareness of your responsibility for primary and tertiary


prevention and for the promotion of mental health within your family,
community, and other contexts.

An increase in sensitivity and compassion towards all individuals who


suffer from mental disorders.
The ability to promote the eradication of a judgmental attitude within
contexts of minimal information, strangeness, difference, and otherness.

The ability to actively participate in eradicating bad behaviour, violence,


child abuse, substance related problems, depression, and environmental
destruction.
3

LECTURER(S) AND CONTACT DETAILS

You can communicate in the following ways: by telephone, fax, e-mail, prearranged personal visit, and by letter (surface- and airmail). The following
telephone numbers and e-mail addresses are provided for your convenience.
(Always provide your student number and a contact number where you can be
reached when e-mailing your lecturers.) Although lecturers are always willing to
help you with your academic problems, they may not always be sitting next to their
telephone. They are required to give and attend courses, go to meetings, attend
conferences, provide masters and doctoral supervision, do research, read, write,
conduct discussion classes, and do community work. They may also be on study
leave, sick leave or on vacation. It is therefore important to adhere to the following
principles when you want to contact a lecturer.
Please phone lecturers for academic queries and direct all other queries and
requests to Ms Phuthi. When you cannot reach the person you have phoned,
phone Ms Phuthi or the departmental secretary, who will connect you to an
available lecturer. You can also send an e-mail to Ms Phuthi, who will forward your
e-mail to the relevant lecturer.
If you wish to contact a lecturer by sending a letter to the fax number of the
Department of Psychology please indicate the paper code (PYC4802/PSY481U)
and the lecturers name.
6

PYC4802/101
Note: No study material may be sent to students by fax, since you can download
all study materials from myUnisa.
3.1

Lecturer(s)
Your Psychopathology team consists of the following lecturers:

3.2

Mr B Palakatsela

+27 12 429 3778

palakbr@unisa.ac.za

Ms C Laidlaw

+27 12 4298294

laidlc@unisa.ac.za

Mrs PB Mokgatlhe

+27 12 429 8238

mokgapb@unisa.ac.za

Mr FP Visser

+27 12 429 8894

vissefp@unisa.ac.za

Mrs JK Moodley

+27 12 429 8069

moodljk@unisa.ac.za

Dr BC von Krosigk
(Module Leader)

+27 12 429 8224

vkrosbc@unisa.ac.za

+27 12 429 8309

phuthmg@unisa.ac.za

Department
Ms MG Phuthi
(Honours Secretary)
Departmental Secretary
Departmental Fax

3.3

+27 12 429 8223


+27 12 429 3414

University
Postal Address:

SMS
Website
E-mail
Fax

PO Box 392
UNISA
0003
32695
www.unisa.ac.za
Study-info@unisa.ac.za
(012) 429-4150

MODULE-RELATED RESOURCES

4.1

Prescribed book

Burke, A. (Ed.). (2012). Abnormal Psychology: A South African Perspective (2nd


ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
ISBN: 13: 978 0 19 5998375
The prescribed book needs to be purchased as soon as possible from any official
bookseller, by consulting the list of official booksellers and their addresses in the
brochure my Studies @ Unisa. Should you encounter any difficulties with obtaining
books from these bookshops, please contact the Prescribed Book section at email vospresc@unisa.ac.za or telephone +27 12 429 4152.
7

4.2

Recommended books (subject to availability)

The preferred way of requesting recommended or additional books is online via the
librarys catalogue.
Go to http://oasis.unisa.ac.za, or
via myUnisa, go to http://my.unisa.ac.za > Login > Library > Library catalogue, or
for mobile access (AirPAC), go to http://oasis.unisa.ac.za/airpac
Recommended books may also be requested telephonically from the Main Library in
Pretoria. Please refer to section 5 Student support services for this module

List of recommended books for PYC4802 and PSY481U for 2014


TITLE
SHELF NUMBER

AUTHOR

Abnormal child psychology


618.9289 MASH

Mash, Eric J

Abnormal psychology
616.89 ABNO

Kring, Ann M.

Abnormal psychology
616.89 DAVI

Davison, Gerald C

Abnormal psychology
616.89 NOLE

Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan

Abnormal psychology: an integ


616.89 BARL

Barlow, David H.

Abnormal psychology: media &


research update
616.89 NOLE

Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan

Adolescence and youth: psychological


development in a changing world
305.235 CONG

Conger, John Janeway

Child abuse: implications for


child development
362.76 WOLF

Wolfe, David A.

Child abuse and culture: working with


diverse families
362.7653 FONT
Child abuse and neglect: facing the
challenge
362.76 CHIL

Fontes, Lisa Aronson

Stainton Rogers, Wendy.

PYC4802/101
Child clinician's handbook
618.9289 KRON

Kronenberger, Willia

Development through the lifespan


155 BERK

Berk, Laura E.

Effective interventions for child


abuse and neglect
362.768 MACD

Macdonald, Geraldine

Family therapy: a systemic integration


616.89156 BECV

Becvar, Dorothy Strh

Family therapy techniques


616.89156 MINU

Minuchin, Salvador.

Living in the labyrinth:


616.831 FRIE

Friel McGowin, Diana

Mental health: the nutrition


616.891 HOLF

Holford, Patrick.

Patrick Holford's new optimum


nutrition of the mind
613.2 HOLF

Holford, Patrick.

Psychopathology and social prejudice


362.20968 PSYC

Hook, Derek

The new optimum nutrition bible


613.2 HOLF

Holford, Patrick.

To be old and sad: understanding


Depression in the elderly
618.9768527 BILL

Billig, Nathan

Understanding abnormal behavior


616.89 SUED

Sue, David.

Understanding child abuse and neglect


362.760973 TOWE

Crosson-Tower, Cynth

Understanding child maltreatment


362.76 SCAN

Scannapieco, Maria.

4.3

Electronic Reserves (e-Reserves)

Recommended material can be downloaded from the librarys catalogue at


http://oasis.unisa.ac.za. Under search options, click on Course code search and
type in your course code, for example, PYC4802. Click on the Electronic reserves
for the current year. The recommended articles are available in PDF (portable
document format).
Requests for photocopies of journal articles (or extracts from books) must be
made on the standardised PERIODICAL REQUEST CARDS. Fully completed
request cards should be posted or faxed to the Main Library (fax no. (012) 4298128). Requests in faxed or mailed letters or lists will be referred back to you.
Periodical request cards are available from the Library (tel. +27 12 429 3134).
Photocopies will be sent by air-mail only if request cards are accompanied by the
appropriate air-mail postage. See my Studies @ Unisa for tariffs.
Requests for photocopies to be air-mailed may, therefore, not be faxed.

ELECTRONIC RESERVES ARTICLE LIST


PYC4802 and PSY481U 2014

First Author

Year

Sheridan,
Michael J.

Journal/Publication

Volume

Pages

(1995) A proposed intergenerational


model of substance abuse,
family functioning, and
abuse/neglect / Michael J.
Sheridan.

Child Abuse & Neglect

Vol. 19,
no. 5

p. 519530.

Alexander,
Pamela C.

1985

A systems theory
conceptualization of incest /
Pamela C. Alexander.

Family Process.

Vol. 24,
no. 1

p. 7988.

Makovec, M.R.

2010

Adolescent substance
dependency in relation to
parental substance (ab)use

Zdrav Var

49

1-10

Flemons,
Douglas G.

1989

An ecosystemic view of family


violence / Douglas G. Flemons

Family therapy.

Vol. 16,
no. 1

p. 110.

Bala, N.

(2007) An historical perspective on


family violence and child abuse:
comment on Moloney et al N.
Bala

Journal of Family Studies

Vol. 14

p. 271278

Emery, Robert
E.

1998

American psychologist.

Vol. 53,
no. 2

p. 121135.

10

Title

An overview of the nature,


causes, and consequences of
abusive family relationships /
Robert E. Emery and Lisa
Laumann-Billings

PYC4802/101
Phend, C.

(2009) APA: borderline Personality


Disorder Often Missed First
Time Around / C. Phend

MedPage Today

Vol. 22

Oldham, J. M.

(2009) Borderline Personality Disorder


Comes of Age. John M Oldham

American Journal of
Psychiatry.

Vol. 166, p. 509no. 5


511

Kernberg, O.F.

(2009) Borderline Personality Disorder.


O.F. Kernberg

American Journal of
Psychiatry.

Vol. 166, p. 505no. 5


508

Hoffman, P.D.

(2007) Borderline Personality Disorder:


a Most Misunderstood Illness /
P.D. Hoffman

National Education Alliance


for Borderline Personality
Disorder

Winter

Gunderson,
J.G.

(2009) Borderline Personality Disorder: American Journal of


Ontogeny of a Diagnosis John G Psychiatry
Gunderson.

Vol. 166, p. 530no. 5


539.

Richter, L.M.

(2008) Child abuse in South Africa:


Child Abuse Review .
Rights and Wrongs. L.M. Richter

Vol. 17

p. 7993

Suprina, J.S.

(2005) Child abuse, society, and


individual psychology: whats
power got to do with it? J.S.
Suprina

Journal of Individual
Psychology .-

Vol. 61,
no 3

p. 1423

Krestan, JoAnn.

1990

Codependency : the social


reconstruction of female
experience / Jo-Ann Krestan
and Claudia Bepko.

Smith College Studies in


Social Work

Vol. 60,
no. 3

p. 216232.

Knudsen, T.M.

2012

Codependency, perceived
interparental conflict, and
substance abuse in the family of
origin

The American Journal of


Family Therapy

40

245257

Gregory, V. L.

2010

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy
for Schizophrenia: Applications
to Social Work Practice

Social Work in Mental Health

140159.

McQueen, D.

2009

Depression in adults: Some


basic facts

Psychoanalytic
Psychotherapy

23(3)

225235

Maj, M.

2012

Development and validation of


the current concept of Major
Depression

Psychopathology

45

135146

Hill, J.

2009

Developmental perspectives on
adult depression

Psychoanalytic
Psychotherapy

23(3)

200212

Keane,
(1997) Differentiating post-traumatic
Terence Martin
stress disorder (PTSD) from
major depression (MDD) and
generalized anxiety disorder
(GAD) / Terence M. Keane,
Kathryn L. Taylor and Walter E.
Penk.

Journal of anxiety disorders.

Vol. 11,
no. 3

p. 317328.

Menard, C.

Social Psychiatry and


Psychiatric Epidemiology

Vol. 39

p. 857865

(2004) Epidemiology of multiple


childhood traumatic events:
child abuse, parental
psychopathology and other
family-level stressors / C.
Menard

p. 1-3

p. 1-2

11

Frederick, J.

(2007) Exploring the relationship


between poverty, childhood
adversity and child abuse from
the perspective of adulthood J.
Frederick

Child Abuse Review .

Vol. 16

p. 323341

Sheridan,
Michael J.

1993

Family dynamics and individual


characteristics of adult children
of alcoholics : an empirical
analysis / Michael J. Sheridan,
Robert G. Green.

Journal of Social Service


Research

Vol. 17,
no. 1/2

p. 7397.

Ponder, F.T.

2009

Family of origin addiction


patterns amongst counselling
and psychology students

The Forum on Public Policy

Browne,
Dorothy
Howze.

1988

High risk infants and child


maltreatment : conceptual and
research model for determining
factors predictive of child
maltreatment / Dorothy Howze
Browne.

Early Child Development and


Care

Vol. 31

p. 4353.

Milevsy, A.

2007

Maternal and Paternalparenting


styles in adolescents:
associations with self-esteem,
depression and life-satisfaction
A. Milevsky

Journal of Child and Family


Studies.

Vol. 16
(1)

p. 39 47

(1994) Physical symptoms in posttraumatic stress disorder / A.C.


Mcfarlane ... [et al.]

Journal of psychosomatic
research.

Vol. 38,
no. 7

p. 715726.

Meyer, P. S.

2012

Positive Living: A Pilot Study of


Group Positive Psychotherapy
for people with Schizophrenia.

The Journal of Positive


Psychology

7(3)

239248

De Silva,
Padmal

1993

Post-traumatic stress disorder :


cross-cultural aspects / Padmal
de Silva.

International Review of
Psychiatry

Vol. 5

p. 217229.

Nutt, D. (Ed.)

2000.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder:


Diagnosis, Management and
Treatment / D. Nutt

Post-traumatic Stress
Disorder: Diagnosis,
Management and Treatment
/D. Nutt. Blackwell Science
Inc.USA ,

Averill, Patricia
M.

(2000) Posttraumatic stress disorder in Journal of anxiety disorder.


older adults : a conceptual
review / Patricia M. Averill and J.
Gayle Beck.

Rosen, G.M.

2004.

Christoffersen,
M.N.

(2009) Prevention of child abuse and


neglect and improvements in
child development M.N.
Christoffersen

Child Abuse Review .

Vol. 18

p. 2440

Giel, R.

1990

International Journal of
Mental Health

Vol. 19,
no. 1

p. 720.

12

1-11

p. 147161

Vol. 14,
no. 2

Post-traumatic Stress
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder:
Issues and controversies / G. M. Disorder: Issues and
Rosen
controversies /G.M. Rosen
Blackwell Science Inc.USA ,

Psychosocial processes in
disasters / R. Giel.

p. 133156.

p. 147161

PYC4802/101
Psychosis: Psychological,
Social and Integrative
Approaches

3(3)

(2009) Quieting the Affective Storm of


Borderline Personality Disorder.
M. Goodman.

American Journal of
Psychiatry.

Vol. 166, p. 522no. 5


528

Teychenne, M.

2010

Sedentary behavior and


depression among adults: A
review

International Journal of
Behavioral Medicine

17

246254

Mork, E.

2012

Self-Harm in Patients with


Schizophrenia Spectrum
Disorders

Archives of Suicide Research

16

111123

Drug and alcohol


dependence.

Vol. 35

p. 5159.

22(2)

159165

Vol. 18

p. 467476

19

109117

Fontao, M. I.

2011

Goodman, M.

Psychosocial treatment in group


format with people diagnosed
with schizophrenia: Results and
limitations of empirical research.

Brown, Pamela (1994) Substance abuse and postJ.


traumatic stress disorder
comorbidity / Pamela J. Brown
and Jessica Wolfe.
Kagee, A.

2010

Symptoms of depression and


AIDS Care: Psychological
anxiety among a sample of
and Socio-medical Aspects of
South African patients living with AIDS/HIV
HIV

Schumn, J.A.

Journal of Traumatic Stress


(2005) The double-barreled burden of
child abuse and current stressful
circumstances on adult women:
the kindling effect of early
traumatic experience / J.A.
Schumn

Takeuchi, M.
S.

2012

The effect of interpersonal touch Journal of Child and Family


Studies
during childhood on adult
attachment and depression: A
neglected area of family and
developmental psychology?

226234.

Carroll, Joseph (1977) The intergenerational


C.
transmission of family violence :
the long-term effects of
aggressive behavior / Joseph C.
Carroll.

Aggressive Behavior

Vol. 3

p. 289299.

Williams, L.M.

2002

The Seven Ps for fighting


depression

Journal of Clinical Activities,


Assignments & Handouts in
Psychotherapy Practice

2(1)

51-57

Velleman, R

2007

Understanding and modifying


the impact of parents substance
misuse on children / R.
Velleman

Advances in Psychiatric
Treatment

Vol. 13

p. 7989

Joseph, S.

1997

Understanding Post-Traumatic
Stress: psychosocial
perspective on PTSD and
treatment / S. Joseph

Understanding PostTraumatic Stress:


psychosocial perspective on
PTSD and treatment /S.
Joseph. John Wiley and Sons
Inc.

p. 5167

13

Morgan, J.P.

1995

What is Co-dependency / J. P.
Morgan

Journal of Clinical Psychology Vol. 47


(5)

p. 720729

Brookfield, S.

2011

When the Black Dog Barks: An


Autoethnography of Adult
Learning in and on Clinical
Depression

New Directions for Adult and


Continuing Education

132

35-42

Cox, R.B. Jr

2013

Working with couples and


substance abuse:
Recommendations for clinical
practice

The American Journal of


Family Therapy

41

160172

STUDENT SUPPORT SERVICES FOR THE MODULE

Important information appears in your my Studies @ Unisa brochure.


myUnisa
What is myUnisa?
myUnisa is an Internet facility offered free of charge to all registered Unisa
students. With the aid of this, you will ultimately be able to perform all studyrelated functions on the Internet. The following functions have been implemented
on myUnisa:

you can contact your lecturers via e-mail


you can download study material placed on myUnisa
you can check whether your assignments have been received and marked
you can submit written assignments via myUnisa
you can look up your assignment or exam marks as soon as they are
released
you can join a discussion forum (e.g. to discuss your course with other
students doing the same module)
you can order books from the library, and search for books on the library
database

To make use of myUnisa, you will need a computer and an Internet connection,
as well as a browser such as Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome or Internet Explorer.
See my Studies @ Unisa for further information.
UNISA LIBRARY
Unisa Library services information and login
In order to access the librarys online resources and services you will be required
to provide your login details, that is, your student number and your myUnisa
password. This will enable you to do the following:

14

View or print your electronic course material


Request library material
View and renew your library material
Download, print and study the librarys e-resources

PYC4802/101
Requesting books from the library
Electronic book requests
The preferred way of requesting recommended or additional books is online via
the librarys catalogue.
Go to http://oasis.unisa.ac.za, or
via myUnisa, go to http://my.unisa.ac.za > Login > Library > Library catalogue, or
for mobile access (AirPAC), go to http://oasis.unisa.ac.za/airpac
Telephonic book requests
This can be done on +27 12 429 3133. Please supply the reservation order
number (RON).
Postal requests
Books may also be requested by completing one library book request card for
each book. Request cards are included in your study package. These should be
faxed to +27 12 429 8128, or mailed to:
The Head: Request Services
Department of Library Services
PO Box 392
UNISA 0003
Enquiries about requested books should be addressed to bib-circ@unisa.ac.za
Please note: Book requests should not be sent to this email address.
Telephonic enquiries can be made at +27 12 429 3133/3134, and an after-hour
voicemail service is also available at these numbers.
Requesting journal articles from the library
Electronic course material / e-Reserves
Recommended material can be downloaded from the librarys catalogue at
http://oasis.unisa.ac.za. Under search options, click on Course code search and
type in your course code, for example, PYC4802. Click on the Electronic reserves
for the current year. The recommended articles are available in PDF (portable
document format).
The Adobe Reader should be loaded on your computer so that you can view or
print scanned PDF documents. This can be done free of charge at
http://www.adobe.com.
Additional journal articles
The preferred way of requesting journal articles is online via the librarys
catalogue.
Go to http://oasis.unisa.ac.za or
via myUnisa, go to http://my.unisa.ac.za > Login > Library > Library catalogue, or
for mobile access (AirPAC), go to http://oasis.unisa.ac.za/airpac
15

Telephonic requests
Telephonic requests can be done at +27 12 429 3133/3134. Please supply the
reservation order number (RON) if available.
Postal requests
Journal articles may also be requested by completing an article request card for
each item.
These should be mailed to the same address as postal requests above or faxed to
+27 12 429 8128.
Enquiries about requested articles should be addressed to bib-circ@unisa.ac.za,
and telephonic enquiries can be made at +27 12 429 3432.
Requesting literature searches from the library
You may request a list of references on your topic from the librarys Information
Search Librarians if you are enrolled for an undergraduate course which has a
research essay. To request a literature search, go to the catalogues homepage,
and click on Request a Literature Search, fill in the form and return it to the
address provided.
Services offered by the Unisa Library
The my Studies @ Unisa booklet, which is part of your registration package, lists
all the services offered by the Unisa Library at
http://www.unisa.ac.za/contents/myStudies/docs/myStudies_unisa2012.pdf
Group discussions
There are no group discussions for this module.
6

MODULE-SPECIFIC STUDY PLAN

General time management and planning


Use the brochure my Studies @ Unisa for general time management and planning
skills.
General outline for this module
The honours module in Psychopathology differs from your previous experience of
undergraduate studies. It consists of an introduction to a research method
approach to studying a small selection of disorders more in-depth than you have
done before. The aim is to do the following:
Explore the five (5) themes by reading and studying all the prescribed and
preferably all the recommended literature sources mentioned in this tutorial letter.
View the selected disorders in a way that allows you to understand and apply
different theoretical perspectives from which the selected disorders can be
explained. (These perspectives formed part of your undergraduate studies as part
of the abnormal behaviour and mental health and personality theory modules.)
16

PYC4802/101
Integrate the knowledge from your undergraduate modules with the more in-depth
knowledge of your honours modules, and apply your newly synthesized
knowledge to the disorders in each theme. (Boundaries between subjects are
artificial, and everything you have learnt from the first year modules until now
forms part of your repertoire of knowledge that is in the process of becoming wider
and deeper with every further application of your intellect in the field of
psychology.)
Write about what you have read and studied by applying scholarly methods of
presenting your thoughts in the form of a scholarly essay (in Assignment 03) by
solving the problems posed in the assignment question.
Should you have forgotten or missed aspects of your psychological foundational
training on one or more undergraduate levels, you need to fill the gaps on your
own by engaging in extra reading. The short summaries of the different
psychological approaches to understanding abnormal behaviour and mental health
on pages 22 to 27 in this tutorial letter are an indication of which theories/
modules/ approaches/ perspectives amongst others are used to explain abnormal
and normal behaviour. However, for the purpose of this module, you are required
to explain the disorders covered in the five (5) themes from the perspective of the
following models:

The psychoanalytic and psychodynamic models/approaches/perspectives


The cognitive and behavioural models/approaches/perspectives
The family systems model/approach/perspective
The medical model in the context of the DSM 5 classification system.

The five (5) themes we focus on this year form some of the core problem areas in
our African and South African society. Most of these disorders can be prevented,
but before we can do so, we need to study diligently what is already known about
these disorders, how we can identify them, how we explain them, and how we
classify them according to the DSM 5, (which is the short form for The American
Psychiatric Associations (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (5th Edition). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.) Ideally
we would like you to engage in your own learning by finding recent publications on
this years themes in order to deepen your understanding even further. That is
however not always possible, but certainly something to aspire towards. Reading
extensively is however within every individuals reach; so, let that be your goal it
is the secret habit of every true academic.
7

MODULE PRACTICAL WORK AND WORK-INTEGRATED LEARNING

No practical work is required for this module.


8

ASSESSMENT

Assessment strategy and plan


Three formative assessment tasks (assignments) and one cumulative assessment
task (examination) are set for this module spaced over a period of 10 months.
Three compulsory assignments need to be submitted for gaining admission to the
examination.
17

Assessing assignments
Assignments 1 and 2 consist of multiple choice questions which will be marked by
computer. In the case of wrong answers, students are required to re-work the
prescribed and recommended literature with the aim of understanding the material
better.
Assignment 3 consists of an essay which will be marked and feedback will be
provided.
The purpose of the first three formative tasks (assignments) involves the
acquisition of new knowledge and the demonstration of your capability to
systematically order the new information by making distinctions between the
content and process literature, between the general and specific information, and
the implicit and explicit outcomes of your literature study by applying your critical
thinking skills to the selected literature sources.
The tasks will be structured in such a way that you are required to complete a
number of steps that will enable you to acquire new knowledge by studying the
literature for every theme, analyse a particular question on a particular theme,
compile a profile for a scholarly discussion (table of contents), and
comprehensively reply to the question, or solve the problem statement (by writing
an essay) within certain limits by relating the new information to the DSM-5
diagnostic criteria for each disorder.
Throughout the essay task, frequent referencing in the latest APA (American
Psychological Association, 6th edition) style of referencing with regard to the
literary material, indicates that you are familiar with the literature. A complete
reference list of the sources you have consulted, referred to and cited, needs to be
included at the end of the essay, according to the latest APA style of referencing.
Assessing the examination
The cumulative assessment task (examination) consists of a three hour
examination at the end of the academic year around October. You are expected to
demonstrate your acquired skills with regard to solving problems in the context of
critically engaging in psychological discourse, without having to reference your
reading list.
The primary lecturers/assessors will know that you are competent when you
provide well thought through responses to a number of new, unseen
problems/questions during a limited time span of three hours. Four short essays
with reference to the years selection of themes will be the compulsory
requirement for demonstrating your academic competence in psychopathology,
based on the selection of prescribed and recommended books, journal articles,
and additional material you studied throughout the year. Use the focus points to
direct your learning, since the examination questions are often directly or indirectly
related to the focus points of each theme.
A second examiner/assessor reviews your answers to the set questions by
checking for consistency in the assessment process. An external
examiner/assessor reviews a representative sample of all student answers in
18

PYC4802/101
conjunction with the marks allocated by the primary lecturers/assessors and the
course content.
All assessors are registered with the relevant ETQA.
Supplementary examinations
Students who fail to obtain the required 50% (with a subminimum of 40%) for the
year are provided with the opportunity to write a supplementary examination in the
following year.
8.1

Assessment plan

Admission to the examination


You are required to submit Assignments 01, 02, and 03 in order to obtain
admission to the examination.
Mark distribution: Year mark 20% + Examination mark 80% = Final mark 100%
Active student
Assignment 1 counts 100 marks. It records you as an active student.
Year mark
Assignment 2 counts 100 marks. 10% of your mark out of 100 contributes to your
final mark for the course.
Assignment 3 counts 100 marks. 10% of your mark out of 100 contributes to your
final mark for the course.
Examination mark
The examination counts 100 marks. 80% of your examination mark out of 100
contributes to your final mark for the course.
Your final mark consists of your year mark (20% of your results for assignments 2
and 3) plus your examination mark (80% of your results for the examination).
Examination
The format of the examination paper is the same as last years examination paper,
which can be viewed on myUnisa. Please note that the content has changed. You
are required to answer 4 essay questions that can range between 20 and 30
marks each, with a total of 100 marks.
Examination guidelines
You will receive four (4) questions from Themes 2 to 5 (Theme 1: Schizophrenia
will not be examined, since you have already received marks in the form of the
year mark for the content of that theme in Assignment 03.) Your examination
answers should be in essay style, and you do not need to add references.
Your examination answers are assessed by evaluating the following:

Did you answer the question comprehensively?


19

How did you use the information from the prescribed literature, the
recommended literature, and your additional reading to answer the
question?
Have you thought about the information by integrating it meaningfully in
your answer?
Have you introduced your answer to each question adequately by a brief
introduction, which includes necessary definitions of the terms you are
using, important diagnostic criteria, and other important details for creating
the relevant context for your discussion with regard to answering the
question?
Is your conclusion of each essay relevant to and essential for bringing
your discussion to a close, by rounding it off with an appropriately placed
final conclusive comment?

Assignment 3 Guidelines
Assignment 03 is assessed according to the same criteria as the examination.
However, you are required to provide a list of references in APA style and cite
extensively within your text as you use the thoughts, ideas and conclusions of the
people whose articles and books you have consulted. You will receive
personalised feedback for Assignment 03. We urge you to engage with this
feedback as a part of your examination preparation. The questions in the
examination will be similar in kind to the assignment question, and if you are able
to construct one answer by following the process for your assignment, you should
be able to respond adequately in the examination, provided you have studied the
literature and engaged in critical thinking.
8.2

General assignment numbers

Assignments are numbered consecutively per module from 01 to 03. Each


assignment for each module has a unique assignment number listed under 8.2.1.
For this module you are required to submit Assignments 01, 02, and 03 on the
dates listed in 8.2.2, together with each assignments unique assignment number
listed under 8.2.1 for your module code.
8.2.1

Unique assignment numbers

Attach the relevant unique assignment number for your course to each assignment
before submitting it.
Unique assignment numbers for Assignment 01:
PYC4802: 564411
PSY481U: 536746
Unique assignment numbers for Assignment 02:
PYC4802: 564437
PSY481U: 536752
Unique Assignment numbers for Assignment 03:
PYC4802: 536700
PSY481U: 536765
20

PYC4802/101
8.2.2

Due dates for assignments

Assignment 01:

Closing date 14 April 2014

Assignment 01 consists of 10 multiple-choice questions which count 100 marks.


Examination admission can be earned by handing in Assignment 01, 02, and 03
irrespective of the marks you receive. Unfortunately, no extension can be granted
for Assignment 01, since this Assignment serves to record you as an active
student.
Assignment 02:

Closing date 12 May 2014

Assignment 02 consists of 10 multiple-choice questions which count 100 marks.


Examination admission can be earned by handing in Assignment 01, 02, and 03
irrespective of the marks you receive. Unfortunately, no extension can be granted
for Assignment 02.
10% of your marks for Assignment 02 will contribute towards your year mark.
Assignment 03:

Closing date: 17 June 2014

Assignment 03 consists of a comprehensive answer to the question on


Schizophrenia (Length: Twelve pages in Arial, Font size 12, Line spacing 1.5,
without counting the cover page, the page of contents, and the reference page,
submitted in PDF format). 10% of your marks for Assignment 03 will contribute
towards your year mark. When you receive your marks by SMS, please wait until
you have received your assignment with the feedback before you phone or e-mail
the lecturer who marked your assignment. (Contact Ms Phuthi for the telephone
numbers of the lecturers/markers not listed in this Tutorial Letter.)
NB: Always save and keep a copy of your assignment before making your final
submission as this protects your work in the case of loss. Please note that it is
your responsibility to keep records of your assignments.
8.3

Submission of assignments

For detailed information and requirements as far as the submission of


assignments is concerned, see my Studies @ Unisa, which you received with your
tutorial material.
This is the short version for submitting an assignment via myUnisa:

Go to myUnisa

Log in with your student number and password.

Select the module from the orange bar.

Click on assignments in the menu on the left-hand side of the screen.

Click on the assignment number you want to submit.

Follow the instructions

If the system is down, do not panic. Stay calm and re-submit your
assignment until the system has recovered, even if that means the
assignment will be three days late. You will not be penalised for system
failures.
21

8.4

Assignments
ASSIGNMENT 01
Closing date 14 April 2014
Unique Assignment number for PYC4802:
Unique Assignment number for PSY481U:

564411
536746

No extension can be granted for this assignment.

Assignment 01 is based on the revision of a small portion of some of your


undergraduate modules, in particular Personality Theories, and Abnormal
Behaviour and Mental Health. At the end of this section, you will find a list of
recommended reading sources you can consult to refresh your memory.
Introduction and orientation
Reflect for a moment on what you consider to be the purpose of studying
psychopathology. Very often we are perplexed about people's behaviour. For
instance, why does a father kill his whole family and then himself? Some people
appear to behave in self-defeating ways by slowly destroying themselves through
the abuse of drugs, alcohol or food. What is the basis of such destructive lifestyles? Of course there are no hard and fast rules for finding conclusive answers
to these questions, but there are many stimulating and thought-provoking theories
and views on the nature, origin, and maintenance of abnormal behaviour, and in
our study of psychopathology, we use them to understand more about the
complex nature of problematic human behaviour, including our own.
What follows is a brief outline of the different models of mental illness, each
presenting possibilities as well as limitations. Each of the perspectives presents its
own unique explanation and identification of abnormal behaviour. In some
respects these viewpoints may seem incompatible and in others they overlap.
Some are broad enough to encompass most kinds of mental disturbance; others
are more limited in scope. A thorough knowledge of each of these perspectives is,
however, essential to the course.
The medical model
Probably the single most influential theoretical perspective on Abnormal Behaviour
is the medical model, the influence of which can be seen in the common
acceptance of the term mental illness. As the name of this model indicates, it
approaches mental illness as medical science would approach any other illness.
When studying Abnormal Behaviour, this model typically focuses on underlying
physiological defects within the individual. The traditional model of
psychopathology emphasises disease and symptomatology in abnormal mental
and interpersonal functioning. Other names used for this model include
biochemical, psychomedical or psychiatric model. The DSM diagnostic
system is based on this model.
22

PYC4802/101
The psychodynamic model
The psychodynamic perspective is a collection of theories and therapies united by
a common concern with the dynamics (that is, the motivating or driving forces of
the mind) and the critical role of the first years of life. This model encompasses
Freud's original psychoanalytical views and takes his ideas much further. When
studying abnormal behaviour this model typically focuses on underlying
intrapsychic conflicts and maintains, furthermore, that psychological problems in
later life can be traced back to unresolved childhood conflicts.
The cognitive-behavioural models
Historically, the learning-theory approach has confined itself to identifying
abnormal behaviour and the mechanisms that underlie them. A recent trend has
been to focus also on certain patterns of thought, or cognitions that seem to
contribute to maladaptive behaviour. This model, also called learning theory,
emphasises the role of learning, whether it be the simple conditioning of a
response to a stimulus (the central theme of behaviourism), or the processing of
information in learning (the central theme of the cognitive approach). The cognitive
approach emphasises that the way in which people interpret events may be almost
as important as the events themselves. Another trend in this approach is social
learning theory.
The humanistic-existential models
These perspectives regard human beings as decision-making, reality-creating
agents at the centre of their experiential world. The humanistic approach
emphasises human positive potential and abilities, and abnormal behaviour is
seen as the result of the blockage of these potentials. The existential approach
emphasises the individual's inability to take responsibility for decisions and the
resultant existential anxiety and fear of death. The humanistic-existential
perspective, however, is optimistic placing great faith in people's ability to learn to
make new choices that will liberate their unique human qualities.
The family systems model
A shift away from the narrow focus of linear thinking has gradually occurred by
placing symptomatology in the context of the family. This shift, known as family
systems theory, gives new meanings to symptoms and so-called abnormal (or
deviant) behaviour by recognising the communicative function of symptoms. This
model is based on cybernetics (circular thinking). Note that this approach focuses
on interaction and the interrelatedness of the parts of a family system.
The family-systems approach sees mental disorders as necessarily involving the
network of relationships binding the individual. The abnormality of the individual, in
this view, can only be understood in the context of the family system in which it
arises.

23

The ecosystemic model


Ecosystemic thinking embodies a further shift, from so-called first-order
cybernetics" to second-order cybernetics, where the focus is no longer on
interaction, but on meanings and the co-creation and attribution of meaning within
systems. Ecosystemic thinking acknowledges that philosophical and scientific
theories and findings about the nature of humanity are not objective, but are
situated within our culture and influence our conceptions of what constitutes
adaptive and maladaptive behaviour, or, in other words, what it is to be a person.
The ecosystemic approach, like the family systems approach, looks not only at the
individual for the meaning of abnormal behaviour but also beyond the individual, to
his/her context. The ecosystemic perspective is important in calling attention to the
meanings attributed to psychological problems by everyone involved in the
particular situation, including the therapist.
By working through each of the perspectives pertaining to psychopathology
concentrate on the basic tenets (principles/ideas) of each approach.
For example:
The classical medical model emphasises the similarities between psychological
disorders and medical diseases and is based on three main assumptions:

the patient suffers from a disease


a specific symptom reflects this disease
each disease has a specific cause.

Diagnosis and classification of symptoms are of prime importance. If a specific


syndrome (set of symptoms) can be determined, then there should be a
corresponding treatment of a somatic type. The correct treatment is assumed to
relieve the symptoms and to restore the patient back to health. Modern thinking of
the medical model focuses on biochemistry of brain functioning and indicates there
is interaction of mind and body which produces the maladaptive behaviour.
Another example:
A viewpoint respecting cybernetic epistemology includes the following essential
characteristics:

24

an observing system (i.e. the inclusion of the therapist's own context)


a collaborative rather than a hierarchical structure
goals that emphasise setting a context for change, not specifying a
change
ways to guard against too much instrumentality
a circular assessment of the problem
a nonperjorative, nonjudgmental view
(Becvar & Becvar, 2009)

PYC4802/101

Each of the perspectives mentioned above presents with its own unique
explanation and identification of abnormal behaviour. Here you need to
consider the following:

How is abnormality viewed in each model?

For example
In the medical model the abnormality is viewed as an organic dysfunction which
results in maladaptive behaviour. This view of psychopathology is thus linear,
deterministic and reductionistic because human behaviour is considered to be
caused by physiological processes existing prior to the behaviour in question, and
the influence and effect of interactional processes is, by and large, ignored (except
the interview between patient and doctor). In fact, in its extreme form, the medical
model considers social and psychological influences as insignificant. Thus, from
this theoretical standpoint, for the human being to function normally a biochemical
balance must be maintained in the body and particularly in the brain. The one who
determines this normality is the expert - the objective, neutral and value-free
specialist in his/her field. The subjective views of the person-in-the-street have no
significance and s/he is thus not directly involved in the diagnostic process.
Another example
The family-systems approach sees mental disorders as necessarily involving the
network of relationships around the individual. The abnormality of the individual, in
this view, can only be understood in the context of the family system in which it
arises.
In order to understand the way in which the family-systems approach differs
from and/or resembles other theoretical orientations, you need to consider
that this process does not refer to a group of similar theories but to the
epistemological base they share. Here, for instance, you may want to
consider issues such as:

biological versus psychological processes


intrapsychic versus interpsychic processes
innate versus learned causes
holism versus reductionism [atomism]
empirical reality versus subjective reality
context versus individual
linear versus circular causality
seat of responsibility
the role of the diagnostician/therapist.

Linear versus circular causality, for example, has to do with the direction of cause,
NOT with the number of causes as some literature sources indicate. Linear
causality means that a particular cause (or more than one cause in combination)
leads to a specific effect (e.g. a virus causes an illness). Circular causality means
that two (or more) elements reciprocally cause each other (e.g. the husband drinks
because the wife nags and the wife nags because the husband drinks).
25

For example
The humanistic-existential perspective does not see abnormal behaviour as the
result of organic dysfunction, childhood trauma or inappropriate learning, but as a
linear consequence of conditional regard from others, especially during the
developmental years. The humanistic-existential model differs from the others in
the importance it assigns to individual responsibility. Human beings are seen as
born with an innate tendency to actualise themselves and often problems can be
linearly traced to poor choices. The humanistic-existential perspective is optimistic
by placing great faith in people's ability to learn to make new choices that will
liberate their unique human qualities.
With its emphasis on the importance of each individual's experience of the world,
this perspective necessarily lacks a precise, universal theory and rejects the idea
that a single set of psychological formulas can be applied to all people. It
emphasises the positive rather than the negative (such as people's capacity to
change and to make new choices) rather than the immediate problems they are
experiencing.
The limitations and specific contributions
understanding of what it means to be human.

of

each

model

to

the

For example
The medical model has done much to elevate the position of the mentally
disturbed in our society. The contention that mentally disturbed people are ill,
rather than possessed by demons or punished by gods, serves to focus attention
on the fact that these people need help, humane care and treatment.
Like the psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioural and humanistic-existential
approaches, the medical model places the origin of psychological abnormality
primarily within the individual. Unlike the psychodynamic and humanisticexistential approaches, the medical model regards the individual's subjective
experience (e.g. hallucinations, feelings of despondency) only as symptoms with
regard to diagnosis. The general focus on observable behavioural symptoms of
abnormality is shared by the medical and cognitive-behavioural approaches. The
medical model has been criticised for reducing a person to the status of an object,
not capable of intentional thought and action, resulting in the dehumanisation of
people. By understanding the etiology of abnormality as within the individual, this
model contrasts with the family systems and ecosystemic approaches as it takes
into consideration the impact of social or cultural contexts on individual pathology
only in a linear way, for example in the diathesis-stress view.
Psychopathology cannot be divorced from mental health, which explains
why strong emphasis is currently being placed on prevention in
psychopathology. From the basic assumptions you have gleaned from the
study of each model, formulate how each perspective views mental health. It
is also important to examine current generally-accepted notions of mental
health.

26

PYC4802/101
For example
Within the humanist-existential paradigm individual psychological health is
understood to include the fostering of satisfying relationships and a socially
constructive way of life. Thus, through the concept of self-actualisation, the
humanistic-existential perspective displays an understanding of the individual as
functioning within a broader context. This displays a similarity with the familysystems approach in understanding people.
Another example
Davison and Neale (1990) discuss several popularly used general definitions of
abnormal behaviour such as the following:

it is behaviour which is statistically infrequent


it is a state which involves personal suffering
it is behaviour which creates disability
it is behaviour which violates social norms and causes observer
discomfort.

And another example


Rosenhan and Seligman (1995), also from a general perspective, suggest that
mental health is a transient, relative state of optimal living which normal people
experience at different levels at different times. Any relevant understanding of
mental health must take into account the fact that the specific meaning of mental
health is borne of a particular context and is thus related to prevailing ideologies. A
definition which perhaps partially fulfills this requirement is one which states that:
Mental health refers to those conditions in a society leading to a situation
where people in their individual capacities and in interaction with one
another as members of groups and communities, are able to live lives of
quality in all contexts of their existence, and where the option for actualising
their potential are present (Report by the Council Committee: Mental Health,
1989).
For example
Considering Jahoda's six criteria for mental health adds depth to the Council
Committee's definition and also provides a context for developing a definition of
abnormal behaviour:

the attitude of the individual toward him-/herself


the nature of an individual's personal growth and self-actualisation
the degree to which an individual exhibits integration of personality
the degree of autonomy or self-determination an individual exhibits
the degree to which, what the individual sees corresponds to what is
actually there
the degree to which an individual exhibits environmental mastery.
27

These criteria explain mental health in terms of degree and dimensions. Thus an
individual may exhibit little mental illness along one dimension, much disturbance
along another dimension and may function normally along yet another.
Additional reading
Books
Barlow, D.H., & Durand, V.M. (2009). Abnormal psychology: An integrative
approach. (5th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. (Chapters 1 to 3)
Becvar, D.S., & Becvar, R.J. (2006 or 2009). Family therapy: A systemic
integration (6th ed. or 7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Davison, G.C. (2004, 2007, or 2011). Abnormal psychology (9th ed., 10th ed., or
11th ed.) Hoboken NJ: Wiley.
Hook, D., & Eagle, G. (2002). Psychopathology and social prejudice. Cape Town:
University of Cape Town Press.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2008). Abnormal Psychology (4th ed.). New York: McGrawHill.
Any child and adult developmental psychology book.
Any personality theory book.
Journal articles
Bateson, G. (1971). A systems approach. International Journal of Psychiatry, 9,
242-244.
Cottone, R.R. (1989). Defining the psychomedical and systemic paradigms in
marital and family therapy. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 15(3), 225235.
Aim of Assignment 01
Awakening your awareness to important aspects of your undergraduate
studies that have a bearing on the honours module in Psychopathology.
Recall the information from your undergraduate studies, or study the books and
articles mentioned above and do the following:
Answer the following 10 questions by using the mark-reading sheet you
should have received with your study material. Attach the unique
assignment numbers for PSY481U or PYC4802 and submit your answers as
Assignment 01.
1.

Circular causality means


(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

28

A causes B and B causes C


A causes B and C causes B
A and B together cause C
A causes B and B causes A

PYC4802/101
2.

A psychologist who believes that peoples behaviour is pre-determined


and views human beings as having no freedom of choice might be
using the model of psychopathology
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

3.

A psychologist who believes that abnormal behaviour can be eliminated


by making the client aware of the underlying intrapsychic processes is
using the model
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

4.

biological
psychodynamic
humanistic
1 and 2

biochemical
behaviourist
psychoanalytic
humanistic

The medical model focuses on


(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

intrapsychic conflicts
underlying physiological defects
the driving forces of the mind
the communicative function of symptoms

5.

Identify the statement which is NOT true with regard to the integrative
approach.

(1)

The integration of psychological theories leads to a better understanding of


psychopathology.
Both abnormal and normal behaviour are the product of a continual
interaction of psychological, biological and social influences.
Our thoughts, feelings and actions can influence the structure and function of
our brain.
Explanations of psychopathology need to include multidimensional,
integrative and reciprocal influences.

(2)
(3)
(4)
6.

The structure of the mind is the locus for explaining abnormal


behaviour by the....
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

7.

Freudians
Humanistic-existentialists
Neuroscientists
Family systems therapists

From a cognitive perspective abnormal behaviour can be explained as...


(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

the subjective experiences of conditioning.


a need for restructuring social relations.
a neglect of the inner determinants of behaviour.
the result of maladaptive thinking.
29

8.

Which one of the following statements is an aspect of labeling peoples


impairment in cognitive or behavioural functioning?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

9.

A deviation from normal behaviour is evidence of a psychological


disorder.
The spastic is booked for a brain scan and mental status exam
tomorrow.
Abnormal behaviour is the result of poor ego defense mechanisms.
Personal discomfort signals the presence of a psychological disorder.

The diagnostic report states: The patient was oriented to time and
place, showed appropriate affect, and could do simple calculations.
Short and long-term memory were intact. The health professional has
conducted . . . .
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

A mental status exam.


Psycho-physiological testing.
Projective testing.
A reliability evaluation.

10. Which research study/studies focuses/focus on the interaction between


the environment and genetics in the development of psychological
disorders?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Adoption studies.
Family studies.
Genetic linkage analysis.
All of the above.
End of Assignment 01

Submit your answers to assignment 01 not later than the 14th April 2014,
since no extension can be granted for this assignment.

30

PYC4802/101

ASSIGNMENT 02:
Closing date 12 May 2014
Unique Assignment number for PYC4802: 564437
Unique Assignment number for PSY481U: 536752
10% of your mark contributes towards the year mark.

Assignment 02 is based on your prescribed book, chapter 3:


Burke, A. (Ed.). (2012). Abnormal Psychology: A South African Perspective (2nd
ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
In order to do this assignment you are required to familiarise yourself with a
different view on mental health, mental wellness and abnormal psychology. Study
the entire Chapter 3: Abnormal Psychology from a Mental Wellness Perspective
and answer the following 10 questions.
1. Which of the following statement(s) are true when approaching
abnormal psychology from a psychological well-being perspective?
(a) It utilises a strength-based approach to pathology and dysfunction at the
individual and community level.
(b) It utilises a problem orientated approach to pathology and dysfunction at the
individual and community level.
(c) Adaptive and maladaptive psychological functioning are acquired and
maintained through the same process, but differ in degree rather than in
quality.
(d) Adaptive and maladaptive psychological functioning progress along two
distinct process continuums, the intersection of which, determines the
severity of pathology experienced and exhibited.
Choose the correct alternative:
(1) a and c
(2) a and d
(3) b and c
(4) b and d
2. Ryff (Ryff and Keyes, 1995) lists the six basic elements to positive
functioning as:
(1)Maturity, balance, productivity, purpose in life, self- acceptance, autonomy
(2)Self- acceptance, purpose in life, autonomy, positive relations with others,
environmental mastery, personal growth
31

(3)Self-acceptance, personal growth, maturity, balance, self- transcendence,


self- actualization
(4)Creativity, citizenship, self- regulation, kindness, maturity, purpose in life.
3. Hedonic well-being . . .
(a) is characterised by meaning, purpose, and the realisation of ones
potential.
(b) relates to subjective experiences of pleasure and life satisfaction.
(c) focuses mainly on optimal functioning in terms of individual fulfilment.
(d) is focused on the concept of happiness.
Choose the correct alternative:
(1) a and b
(2) b and c
(3) b and d
(4) All of the above
4. Keyes (1998) . . .
(a) argues for the study of optimal social functioning of individuals in terms
of their social engagement and societal embeddedness.
(b) provides a conceptual analysis of social well-being that consists of five
dimensions i.e. social coherence, social awareness, social
conceptualization, social actualisation and social integration.
(c) proposes that well-being may be defined along the continuums of
eudaimonic and social well-being.
(d) identified a psychological well-being factor consisting of satisfaction with
life, positive affect balance and a sense of coherence.
Choose the correct alternative:
(1) a, b and c
(2) a only
(3) d only
(4) All of the above
5. According to Westerhof and Keyess (2010) . . .
(a) mental health is viewed along a mental health continuum as a complete
state consisting of the presence and/or absence of mental illness and
mental health symptoms.
(b) mental Health is described along a two-continuum model where one
continuum indicates the presence or absence of mental health, and the
other shows the presence or absence of mental illness.
(c) the four levels of well-being identified along the mental health continuum
are flourishing, anguishing, lamenting and floundering.
32

PYC4802/101
(d) the four levels of well-being identified along the mental health continuum
are flourishing, languishing, struggling and floundering.
Choose the correct alternative:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

a and c
a and d
b and c
b and d

6. According to Keyes and Lopez (2005), an individual who exhibits low


levels of mental health and high levels of mental illness is categorised
as . . .
(1) floundering
(2) anguishing
(3) struggling
(4) languishing
7. The Values in Action classification system . . .
(a) identifies ways of doing well.
(b) identifies ways of doing poorly.
(c) categorises and describes 24 characteristic strengths with reference to
six broad virtue classes i.e. wisdom, courage, humanity, justice,
temperance, transcendence.
(d) categorises chauvinism as an exaggeration on the virtue justice.
Choose the correct alternative:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

a and c
b only
None of the above
All of the above

8. Mindfulness . . .
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

is a cognitive strength protecting against mental illness.


allows openness and flexibility in interpreting the world around us.
includes qualities like non-judging, non-striving and patience.
helps deal with uncertainty as it helps the individual to accept that things
change and that change need not be feared.

Choose the correct alternative:


(1) a only
(2) b only
33

(3) c only
(4) All of the above
9. According to Maes and Karoly (2005), self-regulation . . .
(1) involves the ability to monitor ones own others feelings and emotions,
to discriminate among them and to use the information to guides ones
thinking and actions.
(2) is a systematic process of human behaviour that involves setting
personal goals and steering behaviour toward the achievement of
established goals.
(3) is directed towards regulating emotional responses to problems.
(4) involves the use of realistic strategies that could make a tangible
difference in the situation that causes stress.
Well-being therapy . . .
(a) is a well-established long-term psychotherapeutic strategy based on
Ryffs model of psychological well-being.
(b) is based on the premise that an increase in psychological well-being
may have a protective effect in terms of vulnerability to chronic and
acute life stresses.
(c) may involve a structured, directive psychotherapeutic strategy aimed at
directing a client towards self-direction as guided by ones own socially
accepted internal standards.
(d) promotes emotion-focused, problem-focused and avoidance strategies
to self-autonomy.
Choose the correct alternative:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

a and b
b and c
c and d
All of the above
End of Assignment 02

Submit your Assignment 02 answers not later than the 12th May 2014,
since no extension can be granted for this assignment.

34

PYC4802/101

ASSIGNMENT 03:
Closing date 17 June 2014
Unique Assignment number for PYC4802: 536700
Unique Assignment number for PSY481U: 536765
10% of your mark contributes towards the year mark

THEME 01
Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
Schizophrenia
Introduction
Schizophrenia is one of the most prevalent psychiatric and psychological disorders
amongst those suffering from mental illness both nationally and internationally. In
addition Schizophrenia poses many challenges that range from treatment issues,
cost of long-term care and medication to the individual afflicted by the disorder
suffering severe psychological difficulties and challenges. Family guidance and
psycho-education pertaining to this disorder is also a very important aspect to
consider when dealing with the disorder. With this in mind the inclusion of this
disorder for this module is highly appropriate. This themes structure and contents
will guide you towards a better understanding of the disorder in addition to
equipping you with the necessary knowledge on aspects of the disorder such as
the diagnostic criteria, hallmark features and different types of Schizophrenia. You
are expected to familiarise yourself fully with the content of this theme in addition
to adding to your knowledge and understanding of the disorder by doing further
reading that will further your knowledge on Schizophrenia, as this will put you in a
position to not only complete the various learning activities and answer the
assignment question, but also to be more fully knowledgeable and versant on the
disorder as a whole.
Description
The aim of this learning opportunity is to guide you through the main / important
aspects of Schizophrenia. The subthemes mentioned above will form the basic
structure and / or path that you will follow in reaching an understanding of the
complex and rampant disorder that is Schizophrenia in our society today.
Schizophrenia is a difficult and challenging disorder for those who suffer from it
and the family members living with the individual who suffers from Schizophrenia.
In addition Schizophrenia can present with unique difficulties for those professional
individuals, psychiatrists, psychologists and the like who attempt to treat this
psychotic disorder.
35

In working through the course material, you will gain specific knowledge in addition
to a better understanding of Schizophrenia as part of the psychotic spectrum
disorders.
Assessment Criteria
You will have sufficient knowledge of Schizophrenia if you display adequate
knowledge of the following:
01

Definition of Schizophrenia

02

DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria of Schizophrenia

03

Clinical Picture of Schizophrenia

Method
In this theme we will consider the complex psychotic spectrum disorder of
Schizophrenia. You will be guided through the information systematically. Activities
01 to 04 build upon one another and it is important that you complete every activity
and master the information contained in each Activity before proceeding to the
next one. However, you may also need to revise completed activities and
elaborate on the content of previously completed activities, thereby ensuring a
dynamic, consistent and continuous engagement with the learning material.
1) Introduction to Activity 01:
Schizophrenia is defined as a severe psychotic illness characterised by an
array of diverse symptoms including extreme oddities in perception, thinking,
action, sense of self and the manner in which the self relates to others. The
hallmark characteristic of Schizophrenia is a significant loss of contact with
reality, referred to as psychosis. In addition the disorder is characterised by
hallucinations most often auditory and/or visual hallucinations (seeing or
hearing things that others cannot see or hear, in essence a sensory experience
very real for the sufferer in the absence of any real external perceptual stimuli),
delusions (a fixed, false belief held by the sufferer despite clear evidence to the
contrary), apathy and indifference, withdrawal behaviour in addition to an
incapacity to work and attend to tasks of daily living, disorganised speech,
disorganised or catatonic behaviour and positive and negative
symptomatology. These will be discussed further in Activity 03 below.
The section above was adapted from:
Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S. & Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology. (14th
ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon
Activity 01: Definition of Schizophrenia
Compile an adequate and comprehensive definition of Schizophrenia
Use your prescribed book Chapter 6 as a resource:
36

PYC4802/101
Burke, A. (Ed.). (2012). Abnormal Psychology: A South African Perspective (2nd
ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
(Chapter 6)
2) Introduction to Activity 02:
The DSM-5 (APA,2013) identifies the following diagnostic criteria for
Schizophrenia:
Diagnostic
for Major
Disorder
DSM-5 criteria
diagnostic
criteriaDepressive
for Schizophrenia

(APA, 2013, pp.160-162)


(APA, 2013, p.99)

A. Two (or more) of the following, each present for a significant portion of time
during a 1-month period (or less if successfully treated). At least one of
these must be (1), (2), or (3):
Delusions
2. Hallucinations
3. Disorganized speech (e.g., frequent derailment or incoherence)
4. Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior
5. Negative symptoms ( i.e., diminished emotional expression or
avolition
For a significant portion of the time since the onset of the disturbance, level
of functioning in one or more major areas, such as work, interpersonal
relations, or self-care, is markedly below the level achieved prior to the
onset (or when the onset is in childhood or adolescence, there is failure to
achieve the expected level of interpersonal, academic, or occupational
functioning).
Continuous signs of the disturbance persist for at least 6 months. This 6month period must include at least 1 month of symptoms (or less if
successfully treated) that meet Criterion A (i.e., active-phase symptoms)
and may include periods of prodromal or residual symptoms. During these
prodromal or residual periods, the signs of the disturbance may be
manifested by only negative symptoms or by two or more symptoms listed
in Criterion A present in an attenuated form (e.g., odd beliefs, unusual
perceptual experiences).
Schizoaffective disorder and depressive or bipolar disorder with psychotic
features have been ruled out because either 1) no major depressive or
manic episodes have occurred concurrently with the active-phase
symptoms, or 2) if mood episodes have occurred during active-phase
symptoms, they have been present for a minority of the total duration of the
active and residual periods of the illness.
The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical
condition.
If there is a history of autistic spectrum disorder or a communication
37
1.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

disorder of childhood onset, the additional diagnosis of schizophrenia is made


only if prominent delusions or hallucinations, in addition to the other required
symptoms of schizophrenia, are also present for at least 1 month (or less if
successfully treated).
(APA, 2013, p.99)

Activity 02: Diagnostic Criteria of Schizophrenia


Provide the diagnostic criteria for Schizophrenia
3) Introduction to Activity 03:
The clinical picture of Schizophrenia follows roughly the same description as
the diagnostic criteria as per the DSM-5 as noted in Activity 02. In addition it is
important to note the main or hallmark features of the disorder, namely:
Hallucinations: a sensory experience that seems real to the person having it
but that occurs in the absence of any real external stimuli. Hallucinations can
occur in any sensory modality auditory (pertaining to hearing), visual
(pertaining to sight / seeing), olfactory (pertaining to the sense of smell or the
act of smelling), tactile (pertaining or relating to touch), or gustatory (pertaining
to the sense of taste). Of these auditory hallucinations is by far the most
common occurrence in individuals with Schizophrenia who suffers from
hallucinations. Hallucinations often have relevance to the individual sufferer at
some affective, conceptual or behavioural level and those individuals can
become emotionally involved in their hallucinations, often incorporating them
into their delusions. In some cases individual sufferers can act on their
hallucinations and do what the voices tell them to do.
Delusions: a fixed false belief erroneously held by the individual who suffers
from Schizophrenia despite clear contradictory evidence. Individuals who suffer
from delusions believe things that other individuals who share their social,
religious and cultural backgrounds do not believe. Delusions involve a
disturbance in the content of thought. Although delusions are common in
Schizophrenia it is important to remember that not all individuals who have
delusions necessarily suffer from Schizophrenia. Certain types of delusions or
false beliefs are quite characteristic in Schizophrenia, and these include the
beliefs that ones thoughts, feelings or actions are being controlled by external
agents, that ones private thoughts are being broadcast indiscriminately to
others, that thoughts are being inserted into ones mind by some external
agent, or that some external agent has robbed one of ones thoughts.
Delusions of reference, where some neutral environmental event such as a
television programme or a radio broadcast is believed to have special and
personal meaning intended only for the individual sufferer, is also a common
occurrence. Individuals with delusions can also believe that they have odd or
strange bodily changes or that their organs are removed when it is not so.
38

PYC4802/101
Disorganised Speech: Disorganised speech is the external manifestation of a
disorder in the form of thought. Sufferers often fail to make sense despite
seemingly conforming to the semantic and syntactic rules that governs verbal
communication. This failure is not due to low intellectual functioning, poor
education or cultural deprivation. The words used or word combinations sound
communicative, but the listener is left with little or no understanding of what the
sufferer said. Sufferers can make up words (neologisms), they can derail
(losing their train of thought), associations made can be loose (loosening of
associations) and in the extreme form disorganised speech can lead to total
incoherence.
Disorganised or Catatonic Behaviour: Goal directed behaviour is almost
universally disrupted or lost in Schizophrenia. The impairment occurs in areas
of daily living / functioning, such as work, social relations and self-care to the
extent that others note that the sufferer is not him- / herself anymore. Personal
hygiene might not be maintained and a profound disregard for personal safety
and health might be evident. Grossly disorganised behaviour can also manifest
in silliness or unusual dress sense. Catatonia is an even more striking
behavioural disturbance where the sufferer may show virtual absence of all
movement or speech in what is referred to as a catatonic stupor. At other times
the sufferer might hold an unusual posture for an extended period of time
without noticeable discomfort.
Positive and Negative Symptoms: Positive symptoms are those symptoms in
which an excess or distortion of normal behavioural and experiential repertoire
is evident, such as hallucinations and delusions. Negative Symptoms reflect an
absence or deficit in behaviours that are normally present, including flat or
blunted emotional expressiveness, alogia (very little speech) and avolition (no
ability to engage and maintain goal-directed activities). Although many
sufferers display both positive and negative symptoms during the course of the
disorder, a preponderance of negative symptoms in the clinical picture of the
individual with Schizophrenia is not a good sign of the sufferers prognosis
(future outcome).
The section above was adapted from:
Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S. & Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology. (14th
ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon
Activity 03: Clinical Picture of Schizophrenia
Provide a Clinical Picture of Schizophrenia
Use chapter 6 of your prescribed book as a resource:
Burke, A. (Ed.). (2012). Abnormal Psychology: A South African Perspective
(2nd ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.

39

Study
You are now ready to study chapter 6 in your prescribed book and the articles
below in order to compile your answers to the questions in assignment 03.
Prescribed Reading
Book
Burke, A. (Ed.). (2012). Abnormal Psychology: A South African Perspective (2nd
ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
Articles (obtain these from the list of e-Reserves)
Fontao, M. & Hoffmann, K. (2011). Psychosocial Treatment in Group Format with
People Diagnosed with Schizophrenia: Results and limitations of empirical
research. Psychosis: Psychological, Social and Integrative Approaches, 3(3),
226-234.
Gregory, V. L. (2010). Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Schizophrenia:
Applications to Social Work Practice. Social Work in Mental Health, 8, 140-159.
Meyer, P. S., Johnson, D. P., Parks, A., Iwanki, C. & Penn, D. L. (2012). Positive
Living: A Pilot Study of Group Positive Psychotherapy for people with
Schizophrenia. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 239-248.
Mork, E., Mehlum, L., Barrett, E., Agartz, I., Harkavy-Friedman, J. M., Lorentz, S.,
Melle, I., Andreassen, O. A. & Walby, F. A. (2012). Self-Harm in Patients with
Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders. Archives of Suicide Research, 16, 111-123.
Additional Reading
Books
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders: Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Arlington VA: American Psychiatric
Association
Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S. & Hooley, J. M. (2010). Abnormal Psychology. (14th
ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Sadock, B. J. & Sadock, V. A. (2004). Kaplan & Sadocks Synopsis of Psychiatry.
(9th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Question for Assignment 03: Schizophrenia
a) Provide the diagnostic criteria and hallmark features of Schizophrenia
(4 to 5 pages content in addition to a Title page, Table of Contents
and Reference list please remember to use headings).
[40 marks]

40

PYC4802/101
b) Critically discuss how people who have been diagnosed with
Schizophrenia are able to live positively with their disorder (7 pages
content in addition to a Title page, Table of Contents and Reference
list please remember to use headings).
[60 marks]
[Total: 100 Marks]
End of Assignment 03

Please submit your Assignment 03 in PDF format and remember to include


the Plagiarism Declaration on the next page.

41

42

PYC4802/101

Plagiarism is the act of taking words, ideas and thoughts of others


and passing them off as your own. It is a form of theft which
involves a number of dishonest academic activities.
The Disciplinary Code for Students is given to all students at
registration. You are advised to study the Code, especially Sections
2.1.13 and 2.1.14 (pp. 3-4). Kindly read the Universitys Policy on
Copyright Infringement and Plagiarism as well.
Please cut out and include the declaration below on the cover page of
your Assignment
3
PLAGIARISM DECLARATION
1.

I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is using anothers


work and pretending that it is ones own work.

2.

I have used the American Psychological Association (APA) as


the convention for citation and referencing. Each significant
contribution to, and quotation in, this assignment from the work,
or works of other people has been attributed and has been cited
and referenced.

3.

This assignment is my own work.

4.

I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work
with the intention of passing it off as his or her own work.

5.

I acknowledge that copying someone else's assignment, or part


of it, is wrong, and declare that this assignment is my own work

SIGNATURE: __________________________

DATE: _________________

43

44

PYC4802/101
9

OTHER ASSESSMENT METHODS

There are no other assessment methods for this module.


10

EXAMINATION

Use the my Studies @ Unisa brochure for general examination guidelines and
examination preparation guidelines.
Examination admission
To qualify for examination admission, you are required to submit Assignments
01, 02, and 03 irrespective of the marks you obtain. Assignments must be
submitted on their particular closing dates. However, we urge you to try and
submit your assignments before the due date in order to avoid possible system
problems that may result in student-panic-attacks and stress-related-confusion.
Study
Themes 02 to 05 consist of your examination curriculum that you are
required to study on your own. Apply the same process you have learnt for
preparing assignments 03, or use your own process.

THEME 02
Trauma and Stressor Related Disorders
Acute and Posttraumatic Stress Disorders
Introduction to the theme
The relationship between illness and stress is embedded in complex mutual
interactions between biological, psychological, social, and socio-cultural factors,
and although stressor-related effects have always been present, there was no
stressor-related category name in the DSM until now. In the past, Acute and
Posttraumatic Stress Disorders were categorized as Anxiety Disorders in the
DSM-IV-TR until the end of 2012. However, since the inception of the DSM-5 in
May 2013, a new DSM-5 category, Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders, has
become the officially recognized diagnostic category for the following two
childhood disorders - Reactive Attachment Disorder and Disinhibited Social
Engagement Disorder - and three childhood/adulthood disorders - Acute Stress
Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Adjustment Disorders.
Focus
This module will specifically focus on the following:
1. DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria of Acute Stress Disorder
2. DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
3. Causative Factors (Aetiology)
4. Impact of these disorders on human functioning.
The presence of psychological distress which usually follows the exposure to
such a traumatic or stressful event typically manifests as symptoms of
45

anhedonia (loss of experiencing pleasure), dysphoria (a state of feeling sad,


unwell or unhappy), externalizing angry and aggressive symptoms, or
dissociative symptoms, in addition to the typical presence of anxiety- and fearbased symptoms. This combination of anxiety, dissociative, depressive,
aggressive, angry, and fear based symptoms has therefore baffled clinicians
for many years, and stress and trauma related disorders were thus relegated
to a wide spectrum of different DSM categories. This heterogeneous group of
symptoms has also been recognized in the Adjustment Disorders, Reactive
Attachment Disorder and Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder. In the case
of Reactive Attachment Disorder and Disinhibited Social Engagement
Disorder, social neglect was found to be the common etiological foundation for
traumatic experiences in children below the age of 5. Social neglect of children
can lead to either internalizing, depressive, withdrawn behaviour, as depicted
in Reactive Attachment Disorder, or Disinhibiting and Externalizing behaviour,
as depicted in Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder.
Outcomes
When you have studied the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Acute Stress
Disorder and for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder below you should be able to
do the following:
define Acute Stress Disorder
define Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
identify individuals who are suffering from Acute Stress Disorder
identify individuals who are suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Acute Stress Disorder


(APA, 2013, pp. 280-281)

A.

Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violation in


one (or more) of the following ways:
1. Directly experiencing the traumatic event(s).
2. Witnessing in person the event(s) as it occurred to others.
3. Learning that the traumatic event(s) occurred to a close family member
or close friend. In cases of actual or threatened death of a family
member or friend, the event(s) must have been violent or accidental.
4. Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the
traumatic event(s) (e.g., first responders collecting human remains;
police officers repeatedly exposed to details of child abuse).

Note: Criterion A4 does not apply to exposure through electronic media,


television, movies, or pictures, unless this exposure is work related.
B.

Presence of nine (or more) of the following symptoms from any of the five
categories of intrusion, negative mood, dissociation, avoidance, and
arousal, beginning or worsening after the traumatic event(s) occurred:
Intrusion Symptoms
1. Recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive distressing memories of the
traumatic events.
Note: In children repetitive play may occur in which themes or aspects of
the traumatic event(s) are expressed.

46

PYC4802/101
2. Recurrent distressing dreams in which the content and/or affect of the
dream are related to the traumatic event(s).
Note: In children, there may be frightening dreams without recognizable
content.
3. Dissociative reactions (e.g., flashbacks) in which the individual feels or
acts as if the traumatic event(s) were recurring. (Such reactions may
occur on a continuum, with the most extreme expression being a
complete loss of awareness of present surroundings.)
Note: In children, trauma-specific reenactment may occur in play.
4. Intense or prolonged psychological distress or marked physiological
reactions in response to internal or external cues that symbolize or
esemble an aspect of the traumatic event(s).
Negative Mood
5. Persistent inability to experience positive emotions (e.g., inability to
experience happiness, satisfaction, or loving feelings).
Dissociative Symptoms
6. An altered sense of reality of ones surroundings or oneself (e.g., seeing
oneself from anothers perspective, being in a daze, time slowing).
7. Inability to remember an important aspect of the traumatic event(s)
typically due to dissociative amnesia and not to other factors such as
head injury, alcohol, or drugs).
Avoidance Symptoms
8. Efforts to avoid distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings about or
closely associated with the traumatic event(s).
9. Efforts to avoid external reminders (people, places, conversations,
activities, objects, situations) that arouse distressing memories,
thoughts, or feelings about or closely associated with the traumatic
event(s).
Arousal Symptoms
10. Sleep disturbance (e.g., difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless
sleep.
11. Irritable behavior and angry outbursts (with little or no provocation)
typically expressed as verbal or physical aggression toward people or
objects.
12. Hypervigilance.
13. Problems with concentration.
14. Exaggerated startle response.
C.

Duration of the disturbance (symptoms in Criterion B) is 3 days to 1 month


after trauma exposure.
Note: Symptoms typically begin immediately after the trauma, but
persistence for at least three days and up to a month is needed to meet
disorder criteria.

D.

The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social


occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

E.

The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a


substance (e.g., medication, alcohol) or another medical condition (e.g.,
mild traumatic brain injury) and is not better explained by brief psychotic
disorder.

(APA, 2013, pp. 280-281)

47

DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder


(APA, 2013, pp. 271-272)

Note: The following criteria apply to adults, adolescents, and children older than
6 years.
A.

Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence in


one (or more) of the following ways:
1. Directly experiencing the traumatic event(s).
2. Witnessing in person the event(s) as it occurred to others.
3. Learning that the traumatic event(s) occurred to a close family member
or close friend. In cases of actual or threatened death of a family
member or friend, the event(s) must have been violent or accidental.
4. Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the
traumatic event(s) (e.g., first responders collecting human remains;
police officers repeatedly exposed to details of child abuse).
Note: Criterion A4 does not apply to exposure through electronic media,
television, movies, or pictures, unless this exposure is work related.

B.

Presence of one (or more) of the following intrusion symptoms associated


with the traumatic event(s), beginning after the traumatic event(s) occurred:
1. Recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive distressing memories of the
traumatic events.
Note: In children older than 6 years repetitive play may occur in which
themes or aspects of the traumatic event(s) are expressed.
2. Recurrent distressing dreams in which the content and/or affect of the
dream are related to the traumatic event(s).
Note: In children, there may be frightening dreams without recognizable
content.
3. Dissociative reactions (e.g., flashbacks) in which the individual feels or
acts as if the traumatic event(s) were recurring. (Such reactions may
occur on a continuum, with the most extreme expression being a
complete loss of awareness of present surroundings.)
Note: In children, trauma-specific reenactment may occur in play.
4. Intense or prolonged psychological distress at exposure to internal or
external cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic
event(s).
5. Marked physiological reactions to internal or external cues that
symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event(s).

C.

Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event(s),


beginning after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as evidenced by one or
both of the following:
1. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid distressing memories, thoughts, or
feelings about or closely associated with the traumatic event(s).
2. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid external reminders (people, places,
conversations, activities, objects, situations) that arouse distressing
memories, thoughts, or feelings about or closely associated with the
traumatic event(s).

D.

Negative alterations in cognitions and mood associated with the traumatic


event(s), beginning or worsening after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as

48

PYC4802/101
evidenced by two (or more) of the following:
1. Inability to remember an important aspect of the traumatic event(s)
(typically due to dissociative amnesia and not to other factors such as
head injury, alcohol or drugs).
2. Persistent and exaggerated negative beliefs or expectations about
oneself, others, or the world (e.g., I am bad, No one can be trusted,
The world is completely dangerous, My whole nervous system is
permanently ruined).
3. Persistent, distorted cognitions about the cause or consequences of the
traumatic event(s) that lead the individual to blame himself/herself or
others.
4. Persistent negative emotional state (e.g., fear, horror, anger, guilt or
shame).
5. Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities.
6. Feelings of detachment or estrangement from others.
7. Persistent inability to experience positive emotions (e.g., inability to
experience happiness, satisfaction, or loving feelings).
E.

Marked alterations in arousal and reactivity associated with the traumatic


event(s), beginning or worsening after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as
evidenced by two (or more) of the following:
1. Irritable behavior and angry outbursts (with little or no provocation)
typically expressed as verbal or physical aggression toward people or
objects.
2. Reckless or self-destructive behavior.
3. Hypervigilance.
4. Exaggerated startle response.
5. Problems with concentration.
6. Sleep disturbance (e.g., difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless
sleep.

F.

Duration of the disturbance (Criteria B, C, D, and E) is more than 1 month.

G.

The disturbance causes clinically significant distress or impairment in social


occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

H.

The disturbance is not attributable to the physiological effects of a


substance (e.g., medication, alcohol) or another medical condition.

Specify whether:
With dissociative symptoms: The individuals symptoms meet the criteria
for posttraumatic stress disorder, and in addition, in response to the
stressor, the individual experiences persistent or recurrent symptoms of
either of the following:
1. Depersonalization: Persistent or recurrent experiences of feeling
detached from, as if one were an outside observer of, ones mental
processes or body (e.g., feeling as though one were in a dream; feeling
a sense of unreality of self or body or of time moving slowly.)
2. Derealization: Persistent or recurrent experiences of unreality of
surroundings (e.g., the world around the individual is experienced as
unreal, dreamlike, distant, or distorted.)
Note: To use this subtype, the dissociative symptoms must not be
49

attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., blackouts,


behavior during alcohol intoxication) or another medical condition (e.g.,
complex partial seizures).
Specify if:
With delayed expression: If the full diagnostic criteria are not met until at
least 6 months after the event (although the onset and expression of some
symptoms may be immediate).
(APA, 2013, pp. 271-272)

Anxiety is part of human existence and it is often a normal adaptive and positive
response. Anxiety can also serve as a drive that leads to functional behaviour, for
example, preparing the body for the fight-or-flight response. Most people feel
anxiety sometimes, while others feel anxiety most of the time.
Making a psychological diagnosis when anxiety is evident is not always as clearcut as theory would have us believe. Anxiety features not only in the anxiety
disorders, but in many other psychological disorders as well. Consider for example
a mood disorder involving a major depressive episode where, according to the
DSM-5 classification system (APA, 2013), frequently presented symptoms involve
anxiety, phobias and even panic attacks (which might even occur in a pattern that
meets the criteria for a full blown panic disorder). In children the presence of
separation anxiety is often a feature of a major depressive episode. Other
pathological behaviours that have a high correlation with the experience of anxiety
are substance-related disorders, especially Alcohol Use Disorder. (You might find
it useful to refer to the theme on substance-related disorders.) It is, however, not
always clear which one of these abnormal behaviours was the cause and which
the result.
Another difficulty with identifying a disorder is that the symptoms of various
disorders overlap. For instance many individuals who have experienced a panic
attack may subsequently develop phobic avoidance behaviour or individuals with
obsessive thoughts might also be considered chronic worriers.
The question that needs to be asked is: When is a trauma- or stressor-related
response abnormal?
A trauma- or stressor-related response is considered to be abnormal if it leads to
negative consequences (e.g. poor job-performance, social withdrawal, anhedonia).
Include the following points in your exploration of this theme
In trauma- and stressor-related disorders exposure to a traumatic or stressful
event is listed as the major diagnostic criterion. Anxiety, dissociation, or
obsessive-compulsive responses may also be part of the psychological distress
response to experiencing a traumatic event.
Familiarise yourself with the following:

50

The impact of these disorders on human functioning.

PYC4802/101

You may want to study this theme in relation to the other themes in this
module e.g. mood disorders, substance related disorders and Borderline
Personality Disorder.

Acute Stress Disorder (ASD) and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) are the
two disorders that have special relevance to our country with its high rates of
violence and crime. These disorders are extreme psychological reactions to an
intensely traumatic or violent event such as assault, sexual assault, natural
disasters, accidents and wartime trauma.
In working through this theme you need to pay attention to the following issues:
theories as to why some people who experience a traumatic event
develop ASD or PTSD, whereas others who experience the same event
do not

factors that seem to predispose individuals towards developing


ASD/PTSD, factors operating simultaneously with the traumatic event,
and factors operating after the trauma that might have an influence on
prognosis

the occurrence of vicariously acquired PTSD, especially by children


observing domestic violence
the influence that the specific life-stage of the individual suffering from
PTSD has on the manner in which this disorder will manifest
the difficulty in differentiating between ASD/PTSD and other pre-morbid
and co-morbid psychological disorders.
Another issue worth addressing is the role of anxiety disorders, obsessivecompulsive and related disorders, and dissociative disorders as possible
aetiological factors in the development of ASD/PTSD. The aetiology and
manifestation of these disorders are closely related to the presence and role of
anxiety, which can play a part in the development of ASD/PTSD.
Here you need to concentrate on the following:

the clinical manifestation and aetiology of anxiety disorders, obsessivecompulsive and related disorders, and dissociative disorders

the relationship between the anxiety disorders and other disorders in


which anxiety features strongly and the resultant difficulty in making a
clear-cut diagnosis of ASD/PTSD based on the manifestation of
symptoms

the role of anxiety in the individual anxiety disorders as well as in the


relevant dissociative, mood and substance-related disorders

51

the relationship between anxiety disorders as well as dissociative, mood


and substance-related disorders and the possible underlying presence of
PTSD.

Study chapter 4 of your prescribed book by keeping in mind that ASD/PTSD are
no longer a part of the Anxiety Disorders. They are now officially classified as
Trauma- and Stress-Related Disorders.
Prescribed Reading
Book
Burke, A. (Ed.). (2012). Abnormal Psychology: A South African Perspective (2nd
ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
Recommended Reading
Journal articles (Refer to the list of e-Reserves)
Averill, P.M. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder in older adults: A Conceptual
Review. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 14(2), 133-156.
Brown, P.J., & Wolfe, J. (1994). Substance abuse and post-traumatic stress
disorder comorbidity. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 35, 51-59.
De Silva, P. (1993). Post-traumatic stress disorder: Cross-cultural aspects.
International Review of Psychiatry, 5, 217-229.
Giel, R. (1990). Psychosocial processes in disasters. International Journal of
Mental Health, 19(1), 7-20.
Joseph, S. (1997). Understanding post-traumatic stress (pp. 51-67). West Sussex:
Wiley & Sons.
Keane, M.T., Taylor, K.L., & Penk, W.E. (1997). Differentiating post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) from major depression (MDD) and generalized anxiety
disorder (GAD). Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11(3), 317-328.
McFarlane, A.C., Atchison, M., Rafalowicz, E., & Papay, P. (1994). Physical
symptoms in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychosomatic
Research, 38(7), 715-726.
Nutt, D., Davidson, J.R.T., & Zohar, J., (Eds.) (2000). Post-traumatic stress
disorder diagnosis, management and treatment (pp. 147-161). Malden, MA:
Blackwell Science.
Rosen, G.M., (Ed.) (2004). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Issues
controversies (pp.147-161). West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons.

52

and

PYC4802/101
Additional Reading
Journal Articles
Burger, L., Van Staden, F., & Nieuwoudt, J. (1989). The Free State floods: A case
study. South African Journal of Psychology, 19(4), 205-209.
Dobson, K.S. (1985). The relationship between anxiety and depression. Clinical
Psychology Review, 5, 307-324.
Connors, M.E. (1994). Symptom formation: An integrative self psychological
perspective. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 11(4), 509-523.
Dohrenwend, B.P. (2000). The role of adversity and stress in psychopathology:
Some evidence and its implications for theory and research. The Journal of
Health and Social Behavior, 41,1-19.
Green, B.L., & Lindy, J.D. (1994). Post-traumatic stress disorder in victims of
disasters. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17(2), 301-309.
Kume, G.D. (2006). Posttraumatic stress: New research (pp. 23-80). New York:
Nova Science.
Meichenbaum, D. (1994). Treating post-traumatic stress disorder: A handbook and
Practice Manual for Therapy (pp. 14-257). New York: Wiley & Sons.
Miller, T.W. (1995). Stress adaption in children: Theoretical models. Journal of
Contemporary Psychotherapy, 25(1), 5-14.
Perrin, S., Smith, P., & Yule, W. (2000). Practitioner Review: The assessment and
treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Journal
of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(3), 277-289.
Stevens, J.L., & Goosen, J. (1995). The nature of post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) in the gold mine industry: A pilot study. Paper presented at the first
Annual Congress of the Psychological Society of South Africa. University of
Natal-Pietermaritzburg.
Turnbull, J.M. (1989). Anxiety and physical illness in the elderly. Journal of Clinical
Psychiatry, 50(11), 40-45.
End of Theme 2

53

THEME 03
Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
Introduction to the theme
The aim of this theme is to present an overarching context (epistemological,
neurological, social, interpersonal, and personal) within which Substance-Related
and Addictive Disorders occur. This theme therefore identifies and defines the
addiction syndrome, and examines the physiological, psychological and social
variables considered in making a diagnosis.
Objectives
To assess accurately those individuals regarded as having a SubstanceRelated or Addictive Disorder.

To understand the use of the DSM in the process of diagnosis.

To understand the role of an individual's support system in his/her


treatment.

Focus points

54

Define Substance Use Disorder and describe the social, physical and
psychological signs and symptoms associated with Substance-Related and
Addictive Disorders. The notions of causality are fundamental in assessment. The drinking patterns that lead to Alcohol-Related and Addictive
Disorders, for instance, are diverse but all can be considered from four
interconnecting aspects: sociocultural, behavioural/psychological, physical,
and spiritual.

Define Substance Dependence and describe its social, physical and


psychological signs and symptoms. Physiological, psychological and
sociocultural variants are all important effects of chemical dependency on
the life of the individual.

Consider the concept of Substance Use Disorder as a disease, and


define Alcohol Use Disorder (alcoholism). It is important to distinguish
between a problem drinker and an alcoholic.

Define co-morbidity.

Theories offer behavioural scientists a general conceptual framework for


understanding individuals in a wide range of situations. Assess the literature
concerning the origins of Alcohol Use Disorder.

Study the concept of co-dependency in couples who are diagnosed with an


Alcohol-Related and Addictive Disorder.

PYC4802/101
There are two types of bias common among practitioners in their approach to
social problems, namely the bias toward intrapersonal qualities and a bias toward
extraneous or situational factors. The former or psychodynamic orientation to
Alcohol-Related and Addictive Disorder is considered risky in so far as the client's
relapse is concerned and not very conducive to recovery. At the other extreme, the
situational bias may furnish the client with just the rationale needed to drink some
more. The ecological-interactionist perspective offers a framework that focuses
directly and continuously upon the specific aspects of the unique social setting and
the individual's dynamic role within it. The development of the ecological therapies,
for example, has given to alcohol-related therapy tools to launch a multi-effort
attack on both the intrapsychic and interpersonal components of the alcoholrelated and addictive syndrome.
The multidimensional nature of Alcohol-Related and other Addictive Disorders
dictates that the biological dynamics, the individual's peculiar style of cognitive
functioning and the sociocultural aspects of the individual should be considered.
Explore, therefore, the biological realm, the psychological dimension and the
social dynamics pertaining to Substance-Related Disorders, when you focus on
the effects of any Addictive Disorder on family dynamics, and the major
characteristics of co-dependency.
Study
Study chapter 10 of your prescribed book, the prescribed and recommended
journal articles, and the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Alcohol Use Disorder
presented below.

DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Alcohol Use Disorder


(APA, 2013, pp.490-491)

A problematic pattern of alcohol use leading to clinically significant


impairment or distress, as manifested by 2 (or more) of the following,
occurring within a 12-month period:
1. Alcohol is often taken in larger amounts or over a longer period than was
intended.
2. There is a persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control
alcohol use.
3. A great deal of time is spent in activities necessary to obtain alcohol,use
alcohol, o recover from the effects.
4. Craving,or a strong desire or urge to use alcohol.
5. Recurrent alcohol use resulting in a failure to fulfil major role obligations
at work, school, or home.
6. Continued alcohol use despite having persistent or recurrent social or
interpersonal problems caused or exacerbated by the effects of alcohol.
7. Important Social, occupational,or recreational activities are given up or
reduced because of alcohol use.
8. Recurrent alcohol use in situations in which it is physically hazardous.
55

9. Alcohol use is continued despite knowledge of having a persistent or


recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been
caused or exacerbated by alcohol.
10. Tolerance, as defined by either of the following:
a. A need for markedly increased amounts of alcohol to achieve
intoxication or desired effect.
b. A markedly diminished effect with continued use of the same amount
of alcohol (Note: Tolerance is not counted for those taking
medications under medical supervision such as analgesics,
antidepressants, ant-anxiety medications or beta-blockers.)
11. Withdrawal, as manifested by either of the following:
a. The characteristic withdrawal syndrome for alcohol (refer to Criteria
A and B of the criteria set for alcohol withdrawal, pp. 499-500).
b. Alcohol (or a closely related substance such as a benzodiazepine) is
taken to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms.
(Note: Withdrawal is not counted for those taking medications under medical
supervision such as analgesics, antidepressants, anti-anxiety medications or
beta-blockers.)
Specify current severity:
Mild: Presence of 2-3 symptoms.
Moderate: Presence of 4 to 5 symptoms
Severe: Presence of 6 or more symptoms
(APA, 2013, pp.490-491)

Prescribed Reading
Book
Burke, A. (Ed.) (2012). Abnormal Psychology: A South African Perspective (2nd
ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press, Southern Africa.
Journal Articles (Refer to the list of e-Reserves)
Cox, R. B., Ketner, J. S., & Blow, A. J. (2013). Working with couples and
substance abuse: recommendations for clinical practice. American Journal of
Family Therapy, 41(2), 160-172.
Knudson, T. M. & Terrell, H.K. (2012). Codependency, perceived interparental
conflict, and substance abuse in the family of origin. The American Journal of
Family Therapy, 40 245257. DOI: 10.1080/01926187.2011.610725
Makovec, M. R., Sernec, K., Rus, V. S., ebaek-Travnik, Z., Tomori, M. & Ziherl,
S. (2010). Adolescent substance dependency in relation to parental substance
(ab)use. Zdrav Var, 49, 1-10. DOI 10.2478/v10152-010-0001-1
Ponder, F. T. & Slate, J. R. (2009). Family of origin addiction patterns amongst
counseling and psychology students. Published by the Forum on Public Policy
Copyright The Forum on Public Policy 2009, 1-11. All Rights Reserved.
56

PYC4802/101
Recommended Reading
Journal Articles (Refer to the list of e-Reserves)
Krestan, J. & Bepko, C. (1990). Codependency: The social reconstruction of
female experience. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 60(3), 216-232.
Morgan, J.P. (1991). What is co-dependency? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 5,
720-729.
Sheridan, M. J. (1995). A proposed intergenerational model of substance abuse,
family functioning, and abuse/neglect. Child Abuse and Neglect, 19(5), 519-530.
Sheridan, M. J. & Green, R. G. (1993). Family dynamics and individual
characteristics of adult children of alcoholics: An empirical study. Journal of
Social Service Research, 17(1/2), 73-97.
Books
Barlow, D.H., & Durand, V.M. (2009). Abnormal psychology: An integrative
approach (5th ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. (Or 4th ed.)
Davison, G.C. (2004). Abnormal psychology (9th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Davison, G.C. (2007). Abnormal psychology (10th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2008). Abnormal psychology (4th ed.). New York: McGrawHill.
Sue, D., Sue, D., & Sue, S. (2010). Understanding abnormal behaviour (9th
ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. (Or any other edition.)
Additional Reading
Books
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders: Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Arlington VA: American Psychiatric
Association
Brown, S. (1985). Treating the alcoholic. New York: Wiley.
McNee, C. A. & Di Nitto, D. M. (2012). Chemical Dependency: a systems
approach (4thed). Boston: Pearson publications.
Metzgar, L. (1988). From denial to recovery. Washington, D.C.: Josey-Bass.
Journal Articles
Gleeson, A. (1991). Family therapy and substance abuse. Australian and New
Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 12(2), 91-98.
57

Sandoz, C.J. (1991). Locus of control, emotional maturity and family dynamics
as components of recovery in recovering alcoholics. Alcoholism Treatment
Quarterly, 8(4), 17-31.
Sayre, L., Cornille, T.A., Rohrer, G., & Hicks, M.W. (1992). Family outreach
residential addiction treatment: Changes in addicts beliefs about social
support. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 9(1), 51-66.
Swaim, R.C., Oetting, E.R., Thurman, P.J., Beauvais, F., & Edwards, R.W.
(1993). American Indian adolescent drug use and socialization
characteristics: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Cross-cultural
Psychology, 24(1), 53-70.
Velleman, R. & Templeton, L. (2007). Understanding and modifying the impact of
parents substance misuse on children. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 13,
79-89.
End of Theme 03

58

PYC4802/101
Theme 04
Depressive Disorders
Adult Depression
Introduction to the theme
A mood can be defined as a sustained emotional state that lasts over a period of
time, unlike emotions which are more spontaneous and reactive to a particular
stimulus or event. According to the DSM-5 classification system (APA, 2013) a
Depressive Disorder is a mental disorder where an individual feels depressed and
outwardly displays signs/symptoms of depression for a significant duration of time.
Importantly, the individuals mood impairs social, occupational, or other important
areas of functioning. The disorder also occurs in the absence of a clearly
identifiable stressor or trigger. According to the DSM-5 classification system (APA,
2013, p. 155), depressive disorders are identified by the presence of sad, empty,
or irritable mood, accompanied by somatic and cognitive changes that significantly
affect the individuals capacity to function. All depressive disorders by definition
will include a depressive episode, while their differences lie in their duration, timing
or aetiology.
Major Depressive Disorder symptoms must occur for at least two weeks.
Objectives
You are required to obtain the prescribed and recommended literature listed below
by downloading the articles from the e-Reserves list on myUnisa. Study chapter 5
in your prescribed book as well as the journal articles by focusing on the following:
Identifying Major Depressive Disorder according to the DSM-5
classification system
Identifying the causes (aetiology) of a Major Depressive Disorder
Identifying, explaining and describing the interactions among the
various factors that play a role in the causation (aetiology) of a Major
Depressive Disorder
Note: Since the DSM-5 was only published in June 2013, the available prescribed
books and articles are based on the DSM-IV-TR. We have thus provided you with
the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Major Depressive Disorder below.

Diagnostic criteria for Major Depressive Disorder


(APA, 2013, pp.160-162)

A.

Five (or more) of the following symptoms have been present during the same
2-week period and represent a change from previous functioning; at least
one of the symptoms is either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or
pleasure.
Note: Do not include symptoms that are clearly due to another medical
condition.
59

B.

1.

Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by


either subjective report (e.g., feels sad or empty) or observation made
by others (e.g., appears tearful). Note: In children and adolescents, can
be irritable mood.

2.

Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities


most of the day, nearly every day (as indicated by either subjective
account or observation made by others).

3.

Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain (e.g., a change
of more than 5% of body weight in a month), or decrease or increase in
appetite nearly every day.
(Note: In children, consider failure to make expected weight gain.)

4.

Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day.

5.

Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every day (observable by


others, not merely subjective feelings of restlessness or being slowed
down).

6.

Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day.

7.

Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt (which


may be delusional) nearly every day (not merely self-reproach or guilt
about being sick).

8.

Diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly


every day (either by subjective account or as observed by others).

9.

Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal


ideation without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan
for committing suicide.

The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social,


occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

C.

The episode is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance or


to another medical condition.
Note: Criteria A-C represent a major depressive episode.
D.

The occurrence of the major depressive episode is not better explained by


schizoaffective disorder, schizophrenia, schizophreniform disorder,
delusional disorder, or other specified and unspecified schizophrenia
spectrum and other psychotic disorders.

E.

There has never been a manic episode or a hypomanic episode.


Note: This exclusion does not apply if all of the manic-like or hypomanic-like
episodes are substance-induced or are attributable to the physiological
effects of another medical condition.

(APA, 2013, pp.160-162)

60

PYC4802/101
Specify the following:

Whether it is a single episode or a recurrent episode.

The current severity (e.g., mild, moderate, severe, with psychotic


features, in partial remission, in full remission, unspecified).

Whether it is with anxious distress, with mixed features, with


melancholic features, with atypical features, with mood-congruent
psychotic features, with mood incongruent psychotic features, with
catatonia, with post-partum onset, with seasonal pattern.
(Adapted from: APA, 2013, pp.160-162)

Prescribed Reading
Book
Burke, A. (Ed.) (2012). Abnormal Psychology: A South African Perspective (2nd
ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press, Southern Africa.
(Chapter 5)
Journal Articles (Refer to the list of e-Reserves)
Hill, J. (2009). Developmental perspectives on adult depression. Psychoanalytic
Psychotherapy, 23(3), 200-212. DOI: 10.1080/02668730903227263
Kagee, A., & Martin, L. (2010). Symptoms of depression and anxiety among a
sample of South African patients living with HIV. AIDS Care: Psychological and
Socio-medical
Aspects
of
AIDS/HIV,
22(2),
159-165.
DOI:
10.1080/09540120903111445
McQueen, D. (2009). Depression in adults: Some basic facts. Psychoanalytic
Psychotherapy, 23(3), 225-235. DOI: 10.1080/02668730903226463
Maj, M. (2012). Development and validation of the current concept of Major
Depression. Psychopathology, 45,135146. DOI: 10.1159/000329100
Recommended Reading
Books (Refer to the recommended book list)
Barlow, D.H., & Durand, V.M. (2009). Abnormal psychology: An integrative
approach (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. (Or 4thedition.)
Davison, G.C. (2004). Abnormal psychology (9th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Davison, G.C. (2007). Abnormal psychology (10th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Kronenberger, W.G., & Meyer, R.G. (2001). The child clinician's handbook (2nd
ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2008). Abnormal Psychology (4th ed.). New York: McGrawHill.
61

Journal Articles (Refer to the list of e-Reserves)


Brookfield, S. (2011). When the black dog barks: An autoethnography of adult
learning in and on clinical depression. New Directions for Adult and Continuing
Education (132), 35-42. DOI: 10.1002/ace.
Takeuchi, M. S., Miyaoka, H., Tomoda A., Suzuki, M., Liu, Q., & Kitamura, T.
(2012). The effect of interpersonal touch during childhood on adult attachment
and depression: A neglected area of family and developmental psychology?
Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19, 109117. DOI 10.1007/s10826-0099290-x
Williams, L.M. (2002). The Seven Ps for fighting depression. Journal of Clinical
Activities, Assignments & Handouts in Psychotherapy Practice, 2(1), 51-57.
DOI: 10.1300/J182v02n01_06
Additional Reading
Book
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders: Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Arlington VA: American Psychiatric
Association

End of Theme 04

62

PYC4802/101
THEME 05
Personality Disorders
Borderline Personality Disorder
Focus
In this theme the focus falls on Personality Disorders in general as well as
the Borderline Personality Disorder in particular.
Your aim should be to grasp the difficulty in identifying Borderline
Personality Disorder.
Study
In order to achieve the above aim, you need to study the following:
Chapter 12 in the prescribed book
The prescribed journal articles (e-Reserves)
The DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for Borderline Personality Disorder below
The DSM-5 General diagnostic criteria for a Personality Disorder below
Introduction
According to the DSM-5 classification system (APA, 2013) a Personality Disorder
is an enduring pattern of inner experience and behaviour that deviates markedly
from the expectations of the individuals culture, is pervasive and inflexible, has an
onset in adolescence or early adulthood, is stable over time, and leads to distress
or impairment. The aetiology of Personality Disorders is mainly attributed to the
development of immature and distorted patterns of personality functioning which
lead to persistent maladaptive ways of perceiving, thinking, relating to others, and
interacting with the world.
The DSM-5 lists 10 Personality Disorders in three clusters. The clusters and
Personality Disorders are:

Cluster A: Odd or eccentric behaviour - (Paranoid, Schizoid and Schizotypal


Personality Disorders)
Paranoid Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of distrust and
suspiciousness such that others motives are interpreted as malevolent.
Schizoid Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of detachment
from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of acute
discomfort in close relationships, cognitive or perceptual distortions, and
eccentricities of behaviour.

Cluster B: Dramatic, emotional or erratic behaviour - (Histrionic, Narcissistic,


Antisocial and Borderline Personality Disorders)
Histrionic Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of excessive
emotionality and attention seeking.
63

Narcissistic Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of


grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy.
Antisocial Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of disregard
for, and violation of, the rights of others.
Borderline Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of instability in
interpersonal relationships, self-image, affect, and marked impulsivity.

Cluster C: Anxious and fearful behaviour - (Avoidant, Dependent and


Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorders)
Avoidant Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of social
inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative
evaluation.
Dependent Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of submissive
and clinging behaviour related to an excessive need to be taken care of.
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder is characterised by a pattern of
preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control. Personality
Disorder Not Otherwise Specified is an additional category provided for two
situations:

Below you will find the general diagnostic criteria for a Personality Disorder
according to the DSM-5 classification system.
DSM-5 General diagnostic criteria for a Personality Disorder
(APA, 2013, pp. 646-647)

An enduring pattern of inner experience and behaviour that deviates


markedly from the expectations of the individuals culture. This pattern is
manifested in two (or more) of the following areas:

B
1.

C
D
E
F
G

Cognition (i.e. ways of perceiving and interpreting self, other people,


and events).
2.
Affectivity (i.e. the range, intensity, lability, and appropriateness of
emotional response).
3.
Interpersonal functioning.
4.
Impulse control.
The enduring pattern is inflexible and pervasive across a broad range of
personal and social situations.
The enduring pattern leads to clinically significant distress or impairment in
social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.
The pattern is stable and of long duration, and its onset can be traced back
at least to adolescence or early adulthood.
The enduring pattern is not better explained as a manifestation or
consequence of another mental disorder.
The enduring pattern is not attributable to the physiological effects of a
substance (e.g. a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition
(e.g. head trauma).

(APA, 2013, p. 646-647)


Personality disorders in general severely limit an individuals approach to living.
Working and interacting in stress-producing situations allows these individuals to
only respond with their limited, rigid, and narrow range of thinking and behaviour,
64

PYC4802/101
which tends to create a tremendous amount of personal distress, disability and
health expense.
The DSM-5 classification system applies the following diagnostic criteria for
identifying Borderline Personality Disorder.
DSM-5 Diagnostic criteria for Borderline Personality Disorder
(APA, 2013, p. 663)

A pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and


affects, and marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a
variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)

Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment. (Note: Do not


include suicidal or self-mutilating behaviour covered in Criterion 5
A pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterised
by alternating between extremes of idealisation and devaluation
Identity disturbance: markedly and persistently unstable self-image or
sense of self
Impulsivity in at least two areas that are potentially self-damaging (e.g.
spending, sex, substance abuse, reckless driving, binge eating). (Note: Do
not include suicidal or self-mutilating behaviour covered in Criterion 5)
Recurrent suicidal behaviour, gestures, or threats, or self-mutilating
behaviour
Affective instability due to a marked reactivity of mood (e.g. intense
episodic dysphoria, irritability, or anxiety usually lasting a few hours and
only rarely more than a few days)
Chronic feelings of emptiness
Inappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger (e.g. frequent
displays of temper, constant anger, recurrent physical fights)
Transient, stress-related paranoid ideation or severe dissociative
symptoms.

(APA, 2013, p. 663)


In order to diagnose Personality Disorders, individuals need to be assessed with
regard to their long-term patterns of functioning over time and across different
situations. Personality traits of individuals need to be separated from other
symptoms that may have appeared after certain stressors, traumatic experiences,
and/or transient mental states, which are usually diagnosed on axis 1, (e.g. Mood
and Anxiety Disorders, Substance Intoxication). Complications may arise when
clinicians limit assessment to only one interview, since stability over time and
across situations is a critical feature for making a diagnosis of a Personality
Disorder. More than one interview and supplementing that information by other
informants is thus essential. Both sets of criteria (i.e. General diagnostic criteria for
a Personality Disorder together with at least 5 specific Diagnostic criteria, for
example, for Borderline Personality Disorder) need to be taken into consideration
for fulfilling the conditions for making a diagnosis of Borderline Personality
Disorder.
65

The possibility of identifying a Personality Disorder requires that these relatively


stable traits across time and situations are present since at least adolescence and
become manifest as complying with most criteria by early adulthood, since
diagnosing Personality Disorders is only possible after the age of 18.
Although Personality Disorders have always been considered difficult to treat,
recent evidence based therapies proved to be highly successful in treating
individuals diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder. Interestingly these
therapies were successful if they had a reasonable intellectual foundation and
were carried out by reasonable people in a reasonably consistent manner.
Prescribed Book
Burke, A. (Ed.). (2012). Abnormal Psychology: A South African Perspective (2nd
ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press Southern Africa.
(Chapter 12)
Prescribed Journal Articles (Refer to the list of e-Reserves)
Goodman, M., Hazlett, E.A., New, A.S., Koenigsberg, H.W., & Siever, L. (2009).
Quieting the affective storm of Borderline Personality Disorder. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 522-528.
Gunderson, J.G. (2009). Borderline Personality Disorder: Ontogeny of a diagnosis.
American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 530-539.
Hoffman, P.D. (2007). Borderline Personality Disorder: A most misunderstood
illness. National Education Alliance for Borderline Personality Disorder, NAMI
Advocate, Winter 2007.
Kernberg, O.F., & Michels, R. (2009). Borderline Personality Disorder. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 505-508.
Meyerson D. (2009). Is Borderline Personality Disorder under diagnosed? APA
2009, in C. Phend. (2009). APA: Borderline Personality Disorder often missed
first time around. Medpage Today.
Oldham, J.M. (2009). Borderline Personality Disorder comes of age. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 509-511.
End of Theme 05
End of Examination Preparation

66

PYC4802/101
11

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Q:
A:

How long should Assignment 03 be?


12 pages without the cover page, table of contents, and the list references

Q:
A:

What must we study for the examination?


Themes 2, 3, 4, and 5.

Q:

Are we going to receive guidelines for the examinations in another tutorial


letter?
No. The guidelines are in this tutorial letter.

A:
Q:
A:

Do you have any special advice for us for the examination?


Yes. Study the themes well.
Take note of the focus points, outcomes and aims.
Study the diagnostic criteria.
In the examiniation:
Analyse the examination question before you attempt to answer it.
Answer the examination question comprehensively.

Q:
A:

How many questions are we going to get in the exam?


4 compulsory questions.

Q:
A:

Where can I get help with regard to study methods?


The my Studies @ Unisa brochure contains an A-Z guide of the most
relevant study information.

Q:

I do not want to waste my time by studying irrelevant information. Could you


please clarify for me exactly what I need to study for the examination?
The course content for the examination is contained and limited to 4
themes. The prescribed literature (book and journal articles) needs to be
studied, understood, thought about and integrated. A synthesised relevant
answer to the question needs to be presented.

A:

12

CONCLUSION

May you find the information you need, the understanding you require, and the
insight you have been waiting for with regard to acquiring an appreciation of the
complexity of conceptualising mental health and abnormal behaviour.
Good luck with your studies and SUCCESS in the examination!
Your PYC4802/PSY481U Team

67

Вам также может понравиться