MONITORING OF CORROSION OF STEEL BARS IN

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

By
Khawaja Ali
(15RB909)
Structural Engineering laboratory

A Report on Class Assignment 1

Submitted to: Associate Prof. Akira HOSODA
Course Name: Seismic and Durability Design (RB00003)

Civil Engineering Department

Yokohama National University Japan

ABSTRACT
Corrosion of steel bars embedded in reinforced concrete (RC) structures reduces the
service life and durability of structures causing early failure of structure, which costs
significantly for inspection and maintenance of deteriorating structures. Hence, monitoring of
reinforcement corrosion is of significant importance for preventing premature failure of
structures.
This report attempts to present the monitoring of reinforcement corrosion and describes the
different methods for evaluating the corrosion state of RC structures, especially cathode
protection and half-cell potential (HCP) method. This report also presents some other techniques
to protect concrete from corrosion.
The continuous monitoring of corrosion of steel in reinforced concrete structures has proved to
be a powerful tool for determining the state of corrosion in structures, estimating the expected
lifetime, determining the critical period for repair and testing the effectiveness of reconstruction
measures.
This report entails the chloride induced corrosion and different factors affecting the corrosion
rate, deterioration rate and chloride diffusion rate and further this report describes the effects and
impact of corrosion on the RC structures. This report also tells about the selection of corrosion
protection systems.

Keywords: corrosion, reinforced-concrete, cathode-protection, half-cell potential,

ii

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my course teacher Associate Prof. Akira
HOSODA who patiently provided me with a solid technical knowledge about durability design
of concrete structures and corrosion protection measures. Without his support and guidance, this
report would not become possible.
I would like to say thanks to my senior lab members and friends who helped me and supported
me in this regard.
Finally I would also like to say thanks to my parents and family members for their support and
understanding who always encouraged me to work hard and to achieve my goals throughout my
studies.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii
AKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................ iii
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ v
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
1.1

GENERAL.................................................................................................................... 1

1.2

PURPOSE..................................................................................................................... 1

1.3

BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................... 1

1.4

SCOPE .......................................................................................................................... 2

1.5

CORROSION OF REINFORCING STEEL IN CONCRETE ..................................... 2

CHAPTER 2: CHLORIDE INDUCED DETERIORATION ..................................................... 7

2.1

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHLORIDE DIFFUSION RATE ......................... 8

2.2

FACTORS INFLUENCING CORROSION RATE ..................................................... 9

2.3

FACTORS INFLUENCING DETERIORATION RATE ............................................ 9

CHAPTER 3: EFFECTS AND IMPACTS OF CORROSION ON THE RC STRUCTURES 10

3.1

RUST STAINING ...................................................................................................... 10

3.2

REDUCTION IN STRENGTH .................................................................................. 10

3.3

LOSS OF STIFFNESS ............................................................................................... 11

3.4

LOSS OF BOND ........................................................................................................ 11

3.5

BUCKLING LENGTH OF STEEL BARS ................................................................ 12

3.6

LOSS OF CONCRETE COVER ................................................................................ 12

3.7

LOSS OF SYMMETRY IN STEEL REBARS .......................................................... 13

3.8

REDUCTION IN CONFINEMENT BY REBARS ................................................... 13

3.9

INCREASED DEFLECTION .................................................................................... 13

3.10

CROSS SECTIONAL ASYMMETRY .................................................................. 13

CHAPTER 4: CORROSION MONITORING MEASURES ................................................... 14

4.1

ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS ......................................................................... 15

4.2

OTHER PROTECTIVE TECHNIQUES ................................................................... 25

iv

CHAPTER 5: SELECTION OF PROTECTION SYSTEMS ................................................... 26

CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMANDATIONS ..................... 28
6.1

SUMMARY................................................................................................................ 28

6.2

CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 28

6.3

RECOMMANDATIONS ........................................................................................... 29

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 30

LIST OF TABLES

Table1. Methods for Evaluating Corrosion in Concrete Structures .............................................. 15

Table2. Different corrosion inhibitors and protecting systems ..................................................... 25

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1.5-1 Schematic representation of corrosion mechanism for steel .......................................... 5
Fig. 1.5-2 Representation of corrosion mechanism for steel (Microcell and Macrocell) ............... 6
Fig. 2-1 Simple deterioration model, corrosion of steel in concrete ............................................... 7
Fig. 3.2-1 Effect of corrosion on bond strength ............................................................................ 11
Fig. 3.4-1 Loss of bond due to corrosion ...................................................................................... 12
Fig. 3.6-1 Loss of concrete cover and spalling ............................................................................. 12
Fig. 4.1.1-1 Typical Cathodic Protection System Setup ............................................................... 17
Fig. 4.1.2-1 Polarization Curves for Steel in Concrete(Bentur et al. 1997) .................................. 18
Fig. 4.1.2-2 Polarization Curves in Presence of Chlorides (Bentur et al. 1997) ........................... 19
Fig. 4.1.3-1 Setup of Half Cell Potential Method ......................................................................... 20
Fig. 4.1.3-2 Criteria of Corrosion According to ASTM C876...................................................... 21
Fig. 4.1.3-3 Half Cell Potential Contour ....................................................................................... 21

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL
Civil Engineering is a professional engineering that deals with design, construction and
maintenance of physical and naturally built environment including bridges, canals, dams, roads
and buildings etc. The most commonly used material in Civil Engineering discipline is concrete
in all over the world. Concrete is a weak material in tension zone but it is very strong in
compression zone. So, to enhance its tensile strength, researchers proposed to insert steel
reinforcing bars into the concrete in tension zone. By adopting this technique, people have
successfully constructed very big reinforced concrete structures in this modern era like Burj
Khalifa and Three Gorges dam etc. But reinforced concrete structures can fail due to inadequate
strength, leading to mechanical failure or due to the reduction in its durability. Corrosion and
freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar
corrodes, the oxidation products (rust) expand and tend to flake, cracking the concrete and nonbonding the rebar from the concrete.

1.2 PURPOSE
The purpose of this report is to describe the corrosion of steel reinforcing bars in concrete
and to discuss about the monitoring of corrosion of steel bars and their methodologies.

1.3 BACKGROUND
Until the late 1960s, reinforced concrete structures (bridges and buildings) performed
reasonably well, with problems such as delimitations and spalling limited to structures in coastal
areas. Deterioration of bridge reinforced concrete in Snow Belt states coincided with the increase
in the application of deicing salts in the winter months. By the late 1960s, many Snow Belt states
began to experience maintenance problems. By the mid1970s, it was recognized that the problem
was caused by the corrosion of reinforcing steel, caused by the ingress of chloride ions from
deicing salts. The benefits of deicing salt are too great for its use to be discontinued, or even
decreased, even though the cost of maintaining bridge decks is very high (Virmani and Clemena
1

1998); so methods of effectively and economically protecting concrete from corrosion damage
have received special attention since the early 1970s.

1.4 SCOPE
Since the 1970s, there have been many research projects and field studies conducted on
different methods for protecting reinforced concrete bridge structures from corrosion damage.
Good quality concrete is generally the primary protection system for any structure, but in many
situations, quality concrete must be combined with other corrosion protection methods to ensure
adequate durability. There is no one corrosion protection method that is entirely effective in all
situations. Most transportation agencies have selected a few standard methods for corrosion
protection, but these standard methods vary between agencies, and many of these agencies are
also experimenting with new methods.
This report reviews research of different methods used for the protection of reinforcing steel in
concrete structures. The methods discussed include: (1) alternative reinforcement and slab
design, consisting of epoxy-coated steel, galvanized steel, solid stainless steel, stainless steelclad, nickel-clad, titanium, copper-clad, and fiber reinforced plastic reinforcement, and steel-free
slabs; (2) barrier methods, including the use of low permeability concrete, low water/cement
ratio mix designs, the use of mineral admixtures such as silica fume, fly ash, and blast furnace
slag, overlays, waterproof membranes, sealers, and deep polymer impregnation, (3)
electrochemical methods, including cathodic protection and electrochemical chloride extraction,
and (4) corrosion inhibitors.

1.5 CORROSION OF REINFORCING STEEL IN CONCRETE

Some metals, such as gold, silver, and platinum, occur naturally in their pure form. Many
other metals, including iron, are found in their natural state as ores, natural oxides, sulfides, and
other reaction products. These metals must be derived from their ores by smelting, from which
the metal absorbs and retains the energy needed to free it from the ore. This metallic state is
unstable, however, because the metal tends to recombine with elements in the environment and
return to its natural state, losing the extra energy in the process. The process of a metal reverting
to its natural state is called oxidation, or corrosion (Virmani and Clemena 1998).
2

Steel has a natural tendency to corrode and to return to its natural state as iron ore, typically
ferric oxide, Fe2O3. The rate of steel corrosion depends on the availability of water, oxygen, and
aggressive ions, as well as the pH and temperature of the surrounding environment, and on the
internal properties of the steel, such as composition, grain structure, and entrained fabrication
stresses (Virmani and Clemena 1998).
The high pH (about 13) of concrete pore water solution results in the formation and maintenance
of a passive film (oxide layer) on the surface of the reinforcing steel (Bentur et al. 1997).
As long as the passive film on the reinforcing steel remains intact, the rate of corrosion is very
low. However, if the oxide layer is broken, oxygen will be able to react with the steel, resulting
in corrosion (Cathodic 1998). Significant corrosion does not occur for steel in concrete that is
either very dry or continuously saturated because both air and water are necessary for corrosion
to be initiated. Steel will remain corrosion resistant in concrete if the concrete cover prevents air
and water from reaching the embedded reinforcement (Jones 1996).
Dissolved chloride ions are a big contributor to corrosion in concrete because they impair the
passivity of the reinforcement and increase the active corrosion rate of steel. Oxidation is
enhanced through the formation of an iron chloride complex, which is subsequently converted to
iron oxide and chloride ions, which are then available to again combine with iron in the
reinforcement. When corrosion products are deposited, they induce tensile stresses on the
surrounding concrete, which cause cracking to occur (Jones 1996).
For corrosion to occur, an electrochemical cell must be present. A cell consists of an anode and a
cathode, separated by an electrolyte, and connected by a metallic conductor (Cathodic 1998).
The anode is the area in which oxidation occurs, or where electrons are released. The cathode is
the area where reduction occurs, where electrons are consumed (Jones 1996). The electrolyte is
generally an aqueous solution that can carry ions, such as salt water, or, in concrete, alkaline pore
solution (Cathodes 1998). According to Bentur et al. (1997), Variations in chemical activity
from place to place are associated with corresponding differences in electrical potential; it is
these electrical potential differences which are the actual driving forces for the corrosion
reactions. Steel, in reinforced concrete, acts as a cathode when it is in the passive state. When
the passive layer is lost, either uniformly by a reduction in the pH of the concrete due to
3

carbonation, or by local breakdown due to chloride ions, parts of the steel act as an anode and
start to corrode. Ferrous ions, Fe2+, are lost into the solution, which frees up electrons in the
steel and makes the potential more negative. Potential differences between cathodic and anodic
sites within a structure cause current to flow in the pore solution of the concrete, and through the
metal reinforcement (Polder 1998).
When oxygen is present, as is usually the case, the oxidation and reduction reactions at the steelconcrete interface are, respectively,
2 Fe 2 Fe2+ + 4 e-

(1-1)

O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e- 4 OH-

(1-2)

Eq. (1-1) is the anodic reaction. Iron is oxidized, releasing electrons and ferrous ions, which
dissolve in the solution surrounding the steel. The electrons are deposited on the steel surface,
lowering its potential.
Eq. (1-2) is the cathodic, or reduction, reaction. Electrons released by Eq. (1-1), at the anode,
flow towards higher potential (cathodic) sites, where they combine with water and oxygen
molecules to form hydroxyl ions. The corrosion reaction will only continue if there is a cathodic
reaction to accept released electrons, so these corrosion reactions can be stopped if oxygen and
water are not available at the cathodic sites on the steel (Bentur et al. 1997).
During the corrosion process, current flows in a closed loop. In addition to electrons flowing
through the steel, an external current is carried through the pore solution of the concrete by the
movement of charged ions to complete a closed loop. The external current consists of negatively
charged hydroxyl ions moving from the cathode to the anode, and positively charged ferrous ions
moving from the anode to the cathode. Because this current flow is required to complete the
loop, the corrosion reaction will be slowed considerably if the pores in the concrete are dry or are
not interconnected very well (Bentur et al. 1997).
Although it is the cause of most corrosion damage in concrete, rust is only a byproduct of the
corrosion process, and does not necessarily accumulate where the corrosion occurs (Bentur et al.
1997). Rust is formed according to the following reactions:

Fe2+ + 2 OH- Fe(OH)2

(1-3)

4 Fe(OH)2 + 2 H2O + O2 4 Fe(OH)3

(1-4)

2 Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 + 3 H2O

(1-5)

When the moving ferrous ions and hydroxide ions meet, they react to form ferrous hydroxide
Fe(OH)2 [Eq. (1-3)]. If moisture and oxygen are present, the ferrous hydroxide is then further
oxidized to form ferric oxide, or rust [Eq. (1-4) and (1-5)] (Virmani and Clemena 1998).

Fig. 1.5-1 Schematic representation of corrosion mechanism for steel

In any electrochemical cell, corrosion is driven by a potential, or voltage, difference between the
anode and the cathode. Voltage differences in reinforced concrete may be created either by
differences in the surface of the steel bars or by differences in the electrolyte. Steel is a
heterogeneous material, with a patchwork of sites of slightly different potentials on the surface.
Potential differences great enough to drive corrosion can be found in areas of residual stress, and
even in places where there are scratches on a bar. The electrolyte, or concrete pore solution,
surrounding the steel reinforcement may have different concentrations of chloride ions, oxygen,
moisture, and hydroxyl ions. These differences can set up microscopic electrochemical cells
(microcells), where both the anode and the cathode exist on the same bar. Microcells occur most
often in the upper mat of reinforcing, while macroscopic electrochemical cells (macrocells) can
be set up by potential differences between two bars in the same mat or between the top and
bottom mat of reinforcement in a bridge deck [Fig 1.5-2]. Macrocells between the reinforcement
mats are common in reinforced concrete bridge decks because the upper mat of reinforcement is
5

generally exposed to a significantly higher chloride and moisture content than the bottom mat
(Virmani and Clemena 1998).

Fig. 1.5-2 Representation of corrosion mechanism for steel (Microcell and Macrocell)

CHAPTER 2
CHLORIDE INDUCED DETERIORATION

When steel embedded in concrete corrodes, the increase in volume from metallic steel to
corrosion product produces an expansive force, which can rupture the concrete. After a crack has
been formed in this way, the steel corrodes even more rapidly, leading ultimately to complete
failure of the structural member involved. Therefore premature deterioration of reinforced
concrete structures due to corrosion of the reinforcing steel is a concern worldwide.
There are four stages of chloride induced deterioration in reinforced concrete are:

Chloride contamination and chloride initiation

Cracking occurs corrosion-induced tensile stresses increase the tensile strength of

concrete

Delaminating occurs when cracks are parallel to roadway surface and results in fracture
plane

Spalling when inclined cracks reach the roadway surface, freeze thaw cycles cause the
delaminated portion to break away.

A simple model for corrosion of steel in concrete is shown [Fig 2-1]. This service life model for
reinforced concrete structures has two stages initiation and propagation. This model depicts the
time to corrosion initiation and subsequent deterioration rate.

Fig. 2-1 Simple deterioration model, corrosion of steel in concrete

7

Some structures have been found to follow this model with reasonable accuracy. The initiation
time is the length of time until depassivation of the steel reinforcing bars and the initiation of
corrosion has occurred. The corrosion rate is controlled by some anti corrosion techniques. At
some points, cracking and spalling occur and structure reach at the end of its service life and is
replaced. Several important factors are considerable in order to qualify the deterioration rate: the
concrete cover, carbonation depth, chloride concentration, corrosion rate, concrete resistivity and
environmental factors.
The three principle rate phenomena that control corrosion induced deterioration of reinforced
concrete bridge components are the chloride diffusion corrosion and deterioration rates. The
chloride diffusion rate is the rate at which chloride ions diffuse through the concrete cover. The
corrosion rate is the rate at which the corrosion process progresses after depassivation of the steel
reinforcing bars has occurred. The deterioration rate is the rate at which concrete distress
(cracking, delaminating, and spalling) progresses. The deterioration rate will determine the
length of time before repair or replacement of a deteriorated concrete bridge component is
required.

2.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHLORIDE DIFFUSION RATE

The main factor that controls the diffusion of chloride ions in concrete is concrete
permeability. Concrete permeability can be reduced by:

Reducing the water cement ratio of the concrete

Adding pozzolanic and pozzolanic/cementitious materials to the concrete

Adding polymer modifiers to the concrete

Aggregate gradation

The prediction/calculation of chloride penetration into concrete is generally done using Ficks
Second Law. However, the application of Fick;s Second Law to predict chloride penetration
yields results that are very conservative. This is mainly due to the description of the concrete as a
homogeneous medium to model the transport of dissolved ions. In addition, the prediction of
chloride ion penetration using diffusivity may be uncertain as the assumption of constant
chloride ion diffusivity is seldom seen in real structures.
8

2.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING CORROSION RATE

Once a sufficient amount of chlorides has reached the steel reinforcing bars to depassivate
the bars and initiate corrosion, factors influencing the corrosion rate of steel reinforcing bars
embedded in concrete include:

Availability of water and oxygen

Ration of the steel surface area at the anode to that at the cathode

Amount of chloride ions in the pore water

Resistivity of the concrete

Temperature

Relative humidity

Concrete microstructure

The availability of oxygen is a function of its rate of diffusion through the concrete which is
affected by how saturated the concrete is with water. When totally submerged the diffusion rate
is slowed because the oxygen must diffuse through the pore water. When the concrete is dry, the
oxygen can freely move through the pores. Alternating wet-dry cycles accelerates the corrosion
process. Wet concrete has a lower resistivity than dry concrete due to the presence of water as an
electrolyte.

2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING DETERIORATION RATE

To date, not much research has been done in this area. The main focus has been on the
depth of the concrete cover and permeability. High strength concretes generally have low water
cement ratios, low porosity, and a relatively high modulus of elasticity. Because of its low
porosity, high strength concrete may have less ability to absorb corrosion products. Concretes
with lower modulus may deflect without cracking, while in concretes with a higher modulus;
stresses may build up and cause fracturing. On the other hand, higher strength concretes
generally have lower permeability and therefore it take longer for chlorides to accumulate at the
reinforcement level compared lower strength concretes.

CHAPTER 3
EFFECTS AND IMPACTS OF CORROSION
ON THE RC STRUCTURES
Corrosion of reinforcement is the principal cause of deterioration of concrete elements. The
deteriorating effects of corrosion are evident in the loss of stiffness of strength, and rust stains
that the structure will experience. Regardless of the source of the corrosive process, whether it
was a result of carbonization, chloride ions, oxygen penetration, insufficient cover, or any other
numerous causes, the impact of corrosion on the concrete member is similar. Corrosion may
affect residual strength in several ways such as section loss of reinforcement, reduction in the
concrete cross section due to corrosion induced cracking and spalling, loss of bond strength, etc.

3.1 RUST STAINING

When the corrosion process take place, the oxidation reaction takes place at the anode.
This reaction produces the product known as rust. Rust is brown or dark colored and will strain
the surrounding concrete. The brown strains are visible on the exterior surface of the concrete
where cracks have formed and the rust has reached our through the crack, often by means of
water penetration into the crack.

3.2 REDUCTION IN STRENGTH

A reduction of strength in a reinforced concrete member can result from relatively less
amounts of corrosion depending on the concrete cover, reinforcement bar size, etc. the rust by
product that is formed is the result of a breakdown or oxidation of the steel at the anode and
thereby reduces the cross sectional area of the steel. From a design stand point, a member
having less reinforcement, whether in terms of smaller bars or a smaller amount of total
reinforcement, the member will have a smaller load carrying capacity. Therefore, the reduction
of area of steel in a member will in turn decrease the strength of the member in terms of its load
carrying capacity.
The loss of bond strength between the concrete and steel may further contribute to the loss of
strength of the member. The breakdown of the passive layer on the surface of the steel leads to
the breakdown of the bond strength between the two materials. When the bond between the two
10

materials is o longer present, the materials fail to act in a composite manner. The steel will tend
to slip within the member, and tension forces in the concrete will not be transferred to the steel.
Therefore, the concrete member will experience a reduction in strength (Verbeck, 1987).

Fig. 3.2-1 Effect of corrosion on bond strength

3.3 LOSS OF STIFFNESS

As corrosion occurs in a concrete member, the corrosion by products, such as rust,
begin to build up around the steel reinforcement. The rust occupies a volume to 12 times greater
than the volume of the original steel bar. This increase in volume causes significant tensile
stresses on the concrete surrounding the reinforcement. When these stresses exceed the tensile
strength of the concrete, cracking and therefore loss of stiffness will occur. A loss of stiffness in
a concrete member will experience greater cracking and deflection.

3.4 LOSS OF BOND

Corrosion of reinforcing bar can greatly influence the bond strength between deformed
bars and concrete. Rust created by the accumulated corrosion products on the bar surface may
effectively reduce the friction component of the bond strength. In addition, the deterioration of
the ribs of the deformed bars causes a significant reduction of the interlocking forces between the
ribs of the bars and the surrounding concrete keys. This deteriorates the primary mechanism of
the bond strength between deformed bars and concrete and hence, the bond strength decreases

11

significantly. Results indicate that it is bond which suffers the most rapid degradation as s result
of corrosion and which therefore has a serious potential to reduce structural safety.

Fig. 3.4-1 Loss of bond due to corrosion

3.5 BUCKLING LENGTH OF STEEL BARS

Axial load carrying capacity of a column deceases with reduction in cross-sectional area
of reinforcement. If the length of corroded reinforcement exceeds a critical length, it may buckle
before yielding. Several researchers reported that the inelastic buckling behavior of a reinforcing
bar was very sensitive to unsupported bar length-to-bar diameter ratio. It was observed that load
carrying capacity and ductility decreased as the L/d ratio increased.

3.6 LOSS OF CONCRETE COVER

The accumulated corrosion products on the bar surface cause longitudinal cracking of the
concrete cover. Loss of concrete cover implies loss of confinement and a reduction in bond
strength at the interfacial zone between the two materials. When the concrete cover no longer
provides confinement to the bars, bond strength is significantly reduced and becomes negligible.

Fig. 3.6-1 Loss of concrete cover and spalling

12

3.7 LOSS OF SYMMETRY IN STEEL REBARS

Most reinforced concrete columns are symmetrically reinforced about the axis of bending.
However, for deteriorated reinforced columns, non-uniform cross-section loss of steel bars leads
to large eccentricity and moment, and the concrete column becomes unsymmetrical.

3.8 REDUCTION IN CONFINEMENT BY REBARS

Bond strength between rebars and concrete decreases with reduction in confinement by
rebars. In seismic regions, the effect of confinement reinforcement to reduce to bond
deterioration under cyclic loading enhances the energy absorption and dissipation capabilities.
Result indicated that increasing the corrosion to higher levels led to and increasing reduction in
bond strength and confinement.

3.9 INCREASED DEFLECTION

Stiffness of the concrete element decreases because the expensive products of reinforcement
corrosion cause cracking and spalling of concrete cover. Less stiff element exhibits higher
deflection. This situation may lead to serviceability failure of the structure.

3.10

CROSS SECTIONAL ASYMMETRY

Almost all reinforced concrete members are symmetrical about x-x and y-y axis. However,
the section becomes unsymmetrical after deterioration (i.e., loss of concrete leaves the section
unsymmetrical). Cross sectional asymmetry leads to large eccentricity and moment on the
deteriorated column.

13

CHAPTER 4
CORROSION MONITORING MEASURES

Corrosioninduced deterioration of reinforced concrete structures occurs when the

environmental loading on the structure is greater than the ability of the structure to resist the
environmental loading (environmental resistance). One can either decrease the loading or
increase the resistance or do both things simultaneously. The main deterioration mechanisms
(chloride-induced corrosion of rebar) focus on the reinforcement and its protection.
The factors that influence the corrosion of steel reinforcing bars embedded in concrete are the
amount of chloride ions at the steel level, the resistivity of the concrete, temperature, relative
humidity, and the concrete microstructure. In general, by controlling these factors to an
acceptable level, the corrosion of the steel reinforcing bars and resulting concrete deterioration
can be minimized. This is the first step in most corrosion-control strategies in addition to other
suitable corrosion-protection systems. Corrosion-control methods or systems are classified as
mechanical or electrochemical.
Several methods for detecting corrosion activity discussed by authors have been presented in
following [Table 4.0-0].
Table1. Methods for Evaluating Corrosion in Concrete Structures
Sr.No
1

Method

Advantages
Limitations
Measures half-cell
Galvanostatic
potential and
Un stabilized
pulse method electrical resistance
readings
simultaneously
Rapid and requires Measurements
Linear
only localized
are affected
polarization
damage, more
by
resistance
detailed
temperature
information
and humidity

Time domain
reflectometry

More robust, easy,

and locates
corrosion and
identifies extent of
damage

Less sensitive

14

Principles
Based on the polarization of rebar
by means of small constant current

Electrical conductivity of fluid can

be related to its corrosiveness
By applying a sensor wire alongside
of the reinforcement a transmission
line is created. Physical defects of
the reinforcement will change the
electromagnetic properties of the
line

Ultra sonic
guided waves

Identify location
and magnitude of
corrosion

Not very
reliable

Based on propagation of ultrasonic

waves

X-diffraction
and atomic
absorption

Simple and reliable

Hazardous

Intensity of X-ray beams reduces

while passing through a material

Simple, portable,
results in the form
of equipotential
contours

Needs
preparation,
saturation
required, not
very accurate,
and time
consuming

Electrical potential of rebars is

measured relative to half-cell and
indicates probability of corrosion

Half-Cell
potential

4.1 ELECTROCHEMICAL METHODS

Electrochemical methods include cathodic protection and electrochemical chloride
extraction. Both of these methods have the ability to stop corrosion in chloride contaminated
concrete and are most often used as rehabilitation methods, although cathodic protection is also
be used for structures.
4.1.1 Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection was not applied to reinforced concrete structures until it was used to
protect a reinforced concrete bridge deck in 1973. At first, cathodic protection was used mainly
to prevent further corrosion after repair of damaged structures, but recently, cathodic protection
has been incorporated in new construction in an effort to prevent corrosion from starting.
According to Jackson (1982), The only rehabilitation technique that has proven the stop
corrosion in salt-contaminated bridge decks regardless of the chloride content of the concrete is
cathodic protection.
An advantage of using cathodic protection as a repair method for reinforced concrete bridges is
that only spalls and detached concrete need to be repaired. Chloride contaminated concrete that
is still sound can remain in place because the cathodic protection system will prevent further
corrosion, and, in fact, reduce the concentration of chloride ions adjacent to the protected
reinforcing bars. This can significantly reduce repair costs.

15

Cathodic protection has been applied to over 20 structures in The Netherlands. It has been
successful in stopping reinforcement corrosion in each case, even when other repair methods
have failed.
For cathodic protection to be successful, repair materials must have similar electrical resistivity
to the concrete in the structure, the current must be uniformly distributed throughout the
structure, and the system must be regularly monitored and inspected to ensure that polarization is
in the desired range.
Components of a Cathodic Protection System:
A cathodic protection system for reinforced concrete consists of a number of basic components,
including the reinforcement to be protected, an anode, a power source, concrete surrounding the
steel, a monitoring system, and cabling to carry the system power and monitoring signals. Each
cathodic protection system contains two types of anodes. The primary anode, or anode
conductor, acts as a contact point and a power supply line for the secondary anode. The
secondary anode, usually referred to as the anode, is the material that distributes the current
over the surface of the structure.
Generally, for existing structures, the deteriorated surface of the concrete is repaired, and the
anode is placed on top of the new surface. The positive terminal of the power source is connected
to the anode, and the negative terminal is connected to the reinforcement, which becomes the
cathode. A small amount of direct current (DC) is then applied, causing current to flow through
the electrolyte from the anode to the reinforcement, making the reinforcement become cathodic
in relation to the anode. The electrolyte is generally the pore water in the concrete, which
contains alkalis that allow the transfer of current from the anode to the reinforcement.
[Fig. 4.1.1-1] shows the basic setup for a typical cathodic protection system. Oxygen and
moisture must be present in the concrete for the cathodic protection system to work. The anode
should be designed to resist deterioration while acting to protect the reinforcement.

16

Fig. 4.1.1-1 Typical Cathodic Protection System Setup

Cathodic protection can effectively stop corrosion in contaminated reinforced concrete structures
and can reduce the concentration of chloride ions at the surface of protected reinforcement.
Cathodic protection can be applied effectively and safely to prestressed concrete bridge
members. However, if the resistivity of the concrete is not uniform, it may be difficult to obtain
sufficient protection at locations where resistivity is high without generating hydrogen in areas of
low resistance. Cathodic protection is not recommended for prestressed concrete structures with
very diverse resistivity, which is often caused by large variations in moisture content.
When applying cathodic protection to prestressed concrete, the voltage should be kept low
enough that the potential required for hydrogen generation at the surface of the prestressing steel
(<900 mV versus SCE) is never reached. This is best done by operating the cathodic protection
system in the constant voltage mode.
4.1.2 Corrosion Potential
Electrochemical techniques are useful for evaluating the behavior of steel in concrete
because many of the methods are non-destructive and can be used to monitor corrosion over
time. Measuring the corrosion potential is the easiest electrochemical technique for monitoring
corrosion in a structure (Bentur et al. 1997).
Corrosion potential represents the potential which the rates of anode and cathode possess are in
equilibrium under a given condition. The potential can be assessed by simply measuring the
voltage difference between a reference electrode and the steel.
17

Corrosion potential depends on activity at the anode and the cathode, and the electrochemical
reaction can be described by curves of potential versus the log of current density (E versus log I).
[Fig. 4.1.2-1] shows the anodic and cathodic polarization curves for steel in an alkaline
environment (Bentur et al. 1997).
On the anodic polarization curve, when the potential is very negative (active potential), the
corrosion rate increases rapidly with an increase in potential (point 1 to 2), and then drops
quickly when the potential gets high enough for the formation of ferric oxide, which passivates
the steel surface (point 2 to 3). This is known as the primary passivation potential. After the
passivation potential is reached, corrosion remains negligible over a wide range of potentials
(points 3 to 4). This is the passive region, above which, water is broken down to produce oxygen,
passivity is lost, and severe corrosion begins to take place (point 5). The cathodic polarization
curve shows that the rate or the cathodic reaction (producing OH-) decreases with an increase in
potential. The corrosion potential (Ecorr) is the potential at which the anodic and cathodic
reactions are in balance (the currents for the reactions are equal). The current at Ecorr is defined
as the corrosion current (Icorr). In non-carbonated, chloride free concrete, the intersection of the
two curves is in the passive zone.
However, chlorides in the concrete will cause pitting to be initiated and corrosion will occur at
lower potentials [Fig. 4.1.2-2] (Bentur et al. 1997).

Fig. 4.1.2-1 Polarization Curves for Steel in Concrete (Bentur et al. 1997)

18

Fig. 4.1.2-2 Polarization Curves in Presence of Chlorides (Bentur et al. 1997)

The most common method to determine the corrosion potential of steel in reinforced concrete
without having to destroy the structure or the specimen is to take half-cell measurements. Halfcell measurements compare the potential of the reinforcement with that of a reference electrode
exposed to the same environment. Reference electrodes are made out of materials with behavior
that is basically independent of the surrounding environment (Bentur et al. 1997). In the field,
half-cell measurements are usually taken using a copper-copper sulfate (CSE) electrode, and are
fairly accurate when proper pre-wetting of the concrete is used (ACI 222 1996).
Although potential measurements are not uniquely related to corrosion, they can provide a good
indication as to whether corrosion is active in a particular area. Typically, on bridge decks,
potential readings are taken in a grid with a spacing of about 1 m. These readings are used to
create a potential contour map. Regions that have more negative potentials than adjacent regions
and regions where the contour lines are the densest are areas that should be investigated further
(Bentur et al. 1997).
4.1.3 Half-Cell Potential Method
Detection and evaluation of probability of corrosion in RC structures are essential. Proper
corrosion monitoring of the concrete structures has been required for planning maintenance and
replacement of the concrete structures. The most appropriate repair strategy can be selected for a
distressed concrete structure by determining the corrosion status of reinforcing bars. Repair of
concrete structures without understanding the root cause of failure may be unsuccessful. If a

19

cracked concrete patched without any treatment to the corroded steel, corrosion will likely
continue and result in failure of patchwork.
There are several methods available for detecting and evaluating the corrosion in reinforcement
steel. However, half-cell potential has been recognized by many researchers as the main method
to detect the corrosion activity in RC structures. In this method potential difference is measured
between steel reinforcement and an external electrode with a voltmeter. The half-cell consists of
a metal rod immersed in a solution of its own (Cu/CuSO4 or Ag/AgCl). The metal rod is
connected with reinforcement steel by a voltmeter as shown in [Figure 4.1.3-1].

Fig. 4.1.3-1 Setup of Half Cell Potential Method

Some surface preparations including wetting to ensure good electrical connection are necessary.
The main application of this method is in situ. External electrode and steel reinforcement are
connected through a wet concrete cover as shown in [Fig. 4.1.3-1]. Interpretation of results of
half-cell potential measurement for reinforced concrete structures required high skills and
experience, as this only provides information regarding the probability of corrosion instead of
rate and nature of corrosion. Availability of oxygen, cover thickness, and concrete resistivity are
few factors influencing the results of half-cell potential test.
This method evaluates the potential difference on the exposed surface of concrete structures. The
potential can be measured at any point on the surface or average of several measurements taken
from different points on the same surface may be considered for evaluating the probability of
corrosion. More negative value of measured half-cell potential indicates more probability of
corrosion, as indicated in [Fig. 4.1.3-2] according to ASTM C876 for Cu/CuSO4 half-cell.

20

Fig. 4.1.3-2 Criteria of Corrosion According to ASTM C876

This half-cell potential is also known as open circuit potential and is measured at several distinct
points over a given area to be surveyed. Measured half-cell potential values can be used to plot a
potential contour for the surface of reinforced concrete structure and this potential contour map
as shown in [Fig. 4.1.3-3 ]can be used to evaluate the probability of corrosion at different points
on the surface of the concrete structures. Portions of the structures likelihood of high corrosion
activity can be obtained and identified by their high negative potentials

Fig. 4.1.3-3 Half Cell Potential Contour

Manually measuring potential values at different points on a large structure is tedious work.
Therefore, automatic evaluating method is required. Half-cell potential measurements are widely
used in structural engineering to assess the likelihood of corrosion. HCP measurements are found
to be associated with several practical limitations such as (1) establishing connection with
reinforcement, especially in structures with large concrete cover, (2) properly wetting the
concrete cover for establishing proper connection between reference electrode and
reinforcement, and (3) availability of oxygen, cover thickness, and concrete resistivity which can
influence the results of half-cell potential test.
Half-cell potential method cannot provide reliable results with epoxy coated reinforcement or
with coated concrete surfaces. Moist or wetting condition of concrete can influence the results of
21

half-cell potential method, or it is important to assure the sufficient wetting of concrete to

complete the setup for valid half-cell potential measurement.
4.1.4 Electrochemical chloride extraction
A common repair method for chloride contaminated concrete structures is to remove and
replace all of the contaminated concrete from around the reinforcement. There are several
disadvantages to this method. Partial replacement of the concrete can lead to changes in the
strength of the structure and set up potential differences in the reinforcement, which can increase
the rate of corrosion. Removal of the old concrete can also cause damage to the reinforcement
and expose workers to dust and noise. Electrochemical chloride extraction (also called
desalination) has been developed as an alternative repair method in which chloride ions are
pulled out of contaminated concrete, allowing the concrete to stay in place.
Description:
Electrochemical chloride removal is the process of removing chloride ions from contaminated
concrete by electrochemical means (Virmani and Clemena 1998). This method was first studied
in the mid-1970s by the Kansas Department of Transportation. However, electrochemical
chloride removal methods were not implemented at that time because the high levels of current
that were used in the early studies were found to increase the permeability of the concrete,
decrease the concrete-to-steel bond, and cause cracking in the concrete. More recent studies have
shown that electrochemical chloride removal can be applied effectively at current levels on the
concrete surface below 5 A/m2, for which no adverse effects on the concrete are observed. These
treatments removed 20 to 50% of the chloride ions from the concrete, and redistributed the rest
away from the reinforcement.
Electrochemical chloride extraction is similar to cathodic protection. The reinforcement is
connected to the negative pole of a DC power source, while a temporary external anode, placed
within an electrolyte covering the concrete surface, is connected to the positive pole. Current is
run through the reinforcement to the anode, creating an electrical field in which chloride ions are
pulled away from the reinforcement and towards the electrolyte where they are absorbed for
removal. The chloride ions move through the concrete by migration at the relatively high current
densities that are applied to achieve electrochemical chloride removal [1 A/m2 of concrete
22

surface (typically 0.4 to 2.0 A/m2 of reinforcement) versus a range of 0.0001 to 0.05 A/m2 of
reinforcement for cathodic protection].
The rate of removal of chloride ions depends on the current flow, which varies with both the
condition of the concrete and the location of the reinforcement. Chloride ions migrate faster in
the zone directly between the reinforcement and the anode, and migrate progressively slower as
the distance from that band increases. Therefore, chloride migration is slowest within the cover
region at the midpoint between reinforcing bars, and relatively little chloride is removed from the
concrete beneath the reinforcement.
Electrochemical chloride extraction does have some limitations. It can only be used in cases
where there is little damage (spalls and delamination) to the concrete surface, and where the
corrosion of the reinforcement does not yet affect the safety of the structure. Spalls and cracks
need to be repaired conventionally or sealed prior to the application of electrochemical chloride
extraction to prevent the electrolyte from coming into contact with the reinforcement and causing
a short circuit.
4.1.5 Corrosion Inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that can slow down or prevent corrosion of reinforcing
steel in concrete. Inhibitors have shown promise as methods for protecting reinforced concrete
from corrosion damage (Virmani and Clemena 1998). A common inhibitor used today, calcium
nitrite, was developed to be used in concrete as a noncorrosive set accelerator.
Calcium nitrite is also used during repair of corrosion-damaged structures. When concrete is
removed, calcium nitrite is applied directly to the exposed reinforcing steel and concrete, as well
as being used in the replacement concrete. Calcium nitrite reduces corrosion in the presence of
chlorides by competing with the chloride ions reacting with the steel, stabilizing the passive film
and increasing the concentration of chloride ions in the concrete by the following reaction:
2Fe2+ + 2OH - + 2 NO2 - 2 NO + Fe2O3 + H2O

(4.1.5-1)

Today, corrosion inhibitors are often used in conjunction with other corrosion protection
systems, such as epoxy coated steel. In places that have experienced problems with epoxy-coated
steel, inhibitors are used as an alternate corrosion protection system. Inhibitors are also used in
23

prestressed concrete applications, where epoxy-coated steel is not often used. Corrosion
inhibitors are added to the grout used to fill post-tension ducts (Virmani and Clemena 1998).
Corrosion inhibiting admixtures are unique among the methods to protect reinforced concrete
from corrosion damage due to the fact that their protection mechanism becomes an integral part
of the concrete matrix (Berke et al. 1988). A corrosion inhibitor is defined as a substance that
will prevent or minimize corrosion. Most inhibitors act by chemically stabilizing the steel
surface, although some also act to reduce the permeability of the concrete. Corrosion inhibitors
are generally used as admixtures in concrete for new construction, but they can also be used for
repairs by being admixed into concrete for patches, sprayed or painted onto the surface of the
concrete or applied by saturation treatment (Virmani and Clemena 1998).
Corrosion inhibitors are typically divided into three categories: anodic inhibitors, cathodic
inhibitors, and organic inhibitors. Anodic inhibitors, made up of chromates, nitrites, molybdates,
alkali phosphates, silicates, and carbonates, act by minimizing the anodic part of the corrosion
reaction. These inhibitors form an insoluble protective film on anodic surfaces to passivate the
steel. Some anodic inhibitors, such as nitrites, can cause accelerated corrosion and pitting if they
are not used in large enough quantities. Cathodic inhibitors, consisting of zinc, salts of antimony,
magnesium, manganese, and nickel, form an insoluble film on the cathodic surfaces of the steel.
They are usually less effective than anodic inhibitors, but are also safer. Organic corrosion
inhibitors have been used in the oil and gas industries for years, but they were not developed for
use in reinforced concrete until the early 1990s. Organic inhibitors can also act as pore blockers,
reducing the permeability of the concrete.
Research has shown that the corrosion inhibitor calcium nitrite can extend the service life of
concrete structures. However, the tendency of calcium nitrite to act as a set accelerator should be
taken into account in the design process. Because calcium nitrite reduces corrosion by
chemically reacting with the steel, the effectiveness of calcium nitrite is dependent on the ratio of
chloride-to-nitrite ions, which should be kept below 1.0 for the life of the structure. Enough
calcium nitrite must be added to the concrete mix to account for the fact that calcium nitrite is
water soluble and will leach out of the concrete over time and the fact that chloride ion
concentrations will generally increase over time.

24

4.2 OTHER PROTECTIVE TECHNIQUES

To increase the service life of RC structures, it is required to protect reinforcing steel
completely from being corroded. Several other chemical and mechanical methods are developed
to prevent concrete structures from corrosion by retarding the corrosion rate and by controlling
corrosion through reducing permeability of concrete and reducing the ingress of harmful ions
such as oxygen and moisture, and some protective systems have been used in the form of
coating. Different corrosion inhibitors and protecting systems have been discussed in the
following Table2:
Table2. Different Corrosion inhibitors and protecting system
Sr.No
1

2
3
4
5

8
9
10

Protective Techniques
References
Fly ash increased the corrosion resistance of concrete by
reducing porosity of concrete porosity, which decreases
Xu et al., 2012 [26]
penetration rate of harmful ions.
Super-plasticizers and mineral admixtures like fly ash,
Maslehuddin et al.,
granulated blast furnace slag, and pozzolanic materials reduce
1992 [27]
the corrosion rate.
Use of low-nickel stainless steel rebars reduces corrosion rate
Criado et al., 2011 [28]
by providing high alkaline concrete pore solution
Calcium nitrite based corrosion inhibitor reduces the
Sideris and Savva,
carbonation depth
2005 [30]
Calcium nitrite based inhibitor improves the chloride threshold
Ann et al., 2006 [31]
value.
Al-Dulaijan et al., 2012
Fusion bonded epoxy coated (FBEC) steel bars are beneficial
[34]
in decreasing corrosion
Darwin and
Scantlebury, 2002 [35]
Use of double combination of calcium nitrite and ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS),and triple combination
Civjan et al., 2005 [38]
of calcium nitrite, silica fume, and fly ash/GGBFS protect
concrete exposed to severe corrosive environments.
ZnO reduces the concrete porosity and chloride content at de Rincon et al., 2002
rebar level and reduces the corrosion
[40]
CFRP laminates reduce the expansion caused by corrosion and Badawai and Soudki,
also control the corrosion rate by decreasing the loss of mass.
2005 [42]
By providing high chromium steel, corrosion rate can be Nachiappan and Cho,
decreased.
2005 [41]

25

CHAPTER 5
SELECTION OF PROTECTION SYSTEMS
The proper corrosion-protection strategy will vary from structure to structure. Some factors
to be considered during the design of a structure include:

Intended design life of the structure

Effects of corrosion and corrosion-induced deterioration. This includes the costs due to
closure (either permanent or temporary) for repair. Bridges on major roads are more
critical than bridges on local roads.

Quality of workmanship in construction the quality of construction entails good

consolidation, proper rebar placement, sufficient concrete cover over the steel reinforcing
bars, and other measures.

Possible rehabilitation methods the design of structures should include provisions for
the possible future rehabilitation of corrosion-induced deterioration.

Initial costs may need to consider more than just initial costs (i.e., life-cycle costs). As
the rehabilitation and replacement costs increase, corrosion-control measures become
more cost effective.

Multiple protections strategies may be cost effective for long-term corrosion protection. One
such strategy is the use of epoxy-coated rebar in combination with a durable concrete containing
corrosion inhibitors, having a low permeability, and adequate concrete cover. Silica fume and fly
ash can be added to the concrete reduce permeability and provide additional corrosion control.
However, there is a need to balance the costs of the additional control measure against how much
additional service life can be expected as a result of the added control measures. The additional
costs can usually be justified based on a life-cycle cost analysis.
Some factors to be considered when choosing a corrosion-control measure include

Reliability and effectiveness of the measure

Risk of unintended side effects

Possibility of future installation of other control measures

Life expectancy of the measure

26

How aggressive environment is where the structures will be located

Corrosion protection strategies for steel reinforcing bars embedded in concrete can be grouped
into four general categories: design, concrete, corrosion inhibitors and reinforcement type.
The design category includes such items as:

Concrete cover

Maximum allowable crack width in service

Reinforcement distribution

Rigid overlays (silica fume concrete, polymer concrete)

The concrete category includes such items as:

Water cement ratio

Pozzolans (silica fume, fly ash, slag)

Epoxy, polymer admixtures

Cement type

Aggregate gradation

The inhibitors category includes such items as:

Organic corrosion inhibitors

Inorganic corrosion inhibitors

Mixed corrosion inhibitors

The reinforcement category includes such items as:

Epoxy coated bars

Galvanized coated bars

Nickel clad bars

Stainless steel clad bars

Corrosion resistant alloyed bars

Non-metallic bars

27

CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMANDATIONS

6.1 SUMMARY
Corrosion of reinforcing steel bars in RC structures is a significant economic and safety
problem and due to this problem, structures deteriorate without attaining their design life. So this
report explains the causes and monitoring of corrosion in steel bars in RC structures and different
methods to prevent the corrosion so that structures may achieve their full design life effectively.
The method discussed in this report includes the electrochemical methods which is very useful
method now-a-days in construction industry. Electrochemical methods use the current and
external anode to protect the reinforcement and even when chloride concentration is above the
threshold chloride concentration. Similarly, Corrosion inhibitors are also being used for
protecting the structures from corrosion attacks. Corrosion inhibitors raise the threshold chloride
concentration level, by reducing the permeability of concrete or by doing both things.
There are so many other methods including mechanical methods, using FRP sheets etc. to protect
the structure from deteriorations and attaining full design life which is very important for safety
and economic point of view.

6.2 CONCLUSION
Many different methods have been used to improve the durability of reinforced concrete
structures. Some methods have shown very good performance than the others but there is no one
perfect method with every type of application for every kind of problem related to corrosion of
structures.
In some cases, simple ensuring adequate concrete cover over the steel reinforcing bars and using
good quality concrete with appropriate water to cement ratio has been sufficient, but on the
structures exposed to very corrosive environment like in sea and coastal regions, further
protections are generally required.
The most common corrosion protection method now a days is the use of epoxy coated steel
reinforcing bars in the structures and it is also a cost-effective method.
28

Electrochemical methods are very good and efficient in protecting the bridges decks when
chloride concentration level is above the threshold value of chloride concentration. Cathodic
protection methods can be installed in bridge decks and substructure members. They have been
successfully at stopping corrosion, even in severely contaminated structures. However, these
systems require regular maintenance which may be expensive sometimes. Cathodic protection
method is not recommended for pre stressed concrete structures with highly variable resistivity,
which is often by large variations in moisture content. Electrochemical extraction method has
also been used to remove a significant fraction of chloride ions from contaminated structures.
Corrosion inhibitors are also being used to protect against corrosion in chloride contaminated
concrete. Research has shown that corrosion inhibitor calcium nitrite can extend the service life
of concrete structure. Moreover, there are several other good methods which can be used.

6.3 RECOMMANDATIONS
It is recommended that corrosion protection systems mentioned in this report should be
compared by the cost and quantitative analysis.
Further analysis should be performed on silica fumes overlays to confirm the reliable results in
context of corrosion protection. Progressive trials should be performed on stainless steel-clad
reinforcement in concrete structures. And field studies should be performed to confirm the
promises of laboratory results.
Structural concrete, as a whole and as individual parts, must be designed to work together in an
effective composite action. It must be durable under the exposure to sea and air. Emphasis must
be placed in design and construction on quality assurance to assure a long life of the structure
with minimum maintenance.

29

REFERENCES

ACI committee 222 (1996). Corrosion of metals in concrete ACI 222R-96, Manual of
concrete Practice, Vol. 1.

Cathodic protection of steel in concrete, (1998). Ed. P. M. Chess, E and FN Spon, New
York, NY

Corrosion Protection of Existing Concrete Structures, D. B jegovic and V. U krainczyk

Faculty Of Civil Engineering, University Kaciceva26, Zagreb, Croatia

Evaluation of Corrosion Protection Methods for Reinforced Concrete Highway Structures

by L. Kepler Darwin Locke, Jr. A Report on Research Sponsored by The Kansas
Department of Transportation K-Tran Project No. Ku-99-6

Monitoring of Corrosion of Reinforced Concrete Structures by Sanjeev Kumar Verma,

Sudhir Singh Bhadauria, and Saleem Akhtar, Hindawi Publishing Corporation, The
Scientic World Journal, Volume 2014, Article ID 957904, 9 pages

D. Bjegovic, D. Mikulic, and D. Sekulic, Non Destructive Corrosion Rate Monitoring

for Reinforced Concrete Structures in Proceedings of the 15th World Conference on
Non-Destructive Testing (WCNDT00), Roma, Italy, 2000.

Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete Structures by H Bhni, Formerly Swiss Federal

Institute of Technology, Switzerland

Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete (Monitoring, Prevention and Rehabilitation

Techniques) by M Raupach, Aachen University, Germany and B Elsener, Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology, Switzerland

Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete by V. M. Malhotra, Nicholas J. Carino

(Second Edition)

Corrosion in Reinforced Concrete Structures edited by Hans Bhn - chapter 2

http://www.researchgate.net/publication/260371978_Monitoring_Corrosion_of_Steel_Ba
rs_in_Reinforced_Concrete_Structures

Virmani, Y.P. and Clemena, G.G. (1998). Corrosion Protection: Concrete Bridges.
Report No. FHWA-RD-98-088. Federal Highway Administration. Washington, DC

Bentur, A.; Diamond, S.; and Berke, N. S., 1997, Steel Corrosion in Concrete, E&FN
Spon, New York, 133 pp.
30