Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology Vol. 7, No.

3, 287-296, October 2009 / Copyright 2009 Japan Concrete Institute

287

Invited paper

Seismic Damage of and Seismic Rehabilitation Techniques for Railway

Reinforced Concrete Structures
Tadayoshi Ishibashi1 and Daisuke Tsukishima2
Received 6 June 2009, revised 20 August 2009

Abstract
The Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake in 1978 was the first earthquake to cause serious damage to railway concrete structures
in Japan. This was followed by the South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake in 1995, which caused shear failure of columns of
RC viaducts carrying the Shinkansen (Bullet Train) and old railroad lines predating the 1983 seismic design standard. As
the result of various concrete structures sustaining extensive damage never experienced before, the seismic design standard was greatly revised, and the seismic rehabilitation of existing structures was started on a full scale.
Basic concept of seismic rehabilitation is to prevent shear failure of columns that led to the collapse of RC viaducts and
bridges catastrophically occurred in whole structural frame during the past large earthquakes. To enhance the seismic
capacity of the whole structural frame, increase in ductility of each column through seismic rehabilitation capable of
absorbing seismic energy is needed.
As the space under many railway viaducts is used by stations and shops, negotiations regarding the relocation of businesses, the removal of large obstacles such as heavy machinery, and the development of valid seismic rehabilitation
methods to reinforce a large number of massive columns were called for. At present, we are trying to enhance seismic
capacity as much as possible for new structures in order to prevent serious damage and enable early restoration.

1. Introduction

2. Seismic damage of railway RC structure

The Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake in 1978 was the first

earthquake to cause serious damage to railway concrete
structures in Japan. As a result, the seismic design standard was revised in 1983. However, as the revision of the
seismic design standard was not retroactively applied to
existing structures, these structures did not undergo
seismic rehabilitation. Afterwards, the South Hyogo
Prefecture Earthquake occurred in 1995 and columns of
RC viaducts carrying Shinkansen and old railroad lines
constructed with pre-1983 seismic design standards
suffered shear failure. As the result of various concrete
structures sustaining extensive damage never experienced before, the seismic design standard was greatly
revised, and the seismic rehabilitation of existing structures was started on a full scale. The subsequent occurrence of several severe earthquakes further underlined
the urgency and importance of the seismic rehabilitation
of existing railway structures to secure the safety of
railway transportation (Table 1). This paper describes
the damage to railway RC structures caused by earthquakes in Japan and various seismic rehabilitation
methods developed in the process of advancing seismic
rehabilitation.

The Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake in 1978 caused shoe

damage at many railway facilities such as RC viaducts
and RC piers (Fig. 1). In response, restrainer cables have
been installed in bridge movement joints and brackets
have been attached to abutments on all railway lines in
Japan. However, before the South Hyogo Prefecture
Earthquake in 1995, no seismic rehabilitation for RC
structures had been conducted except for measures providing against the Tokai Earthquake. In the 1980s, an RC
viaduct for the Shinkansen in the Shizuoka area was
reinforced with steel plate jacketing and a connecting
adjacent viaduct with prestressing cable.
Due to the South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake in
1995, many columns of RC viaducts suffered shear failure (Fig. 2). As a result, the beams and bridges that hold
up railway tracks suffered serious damage. The failure
mode of these damaged structures became shear failure
before yielding of the longitudinal reinforcement of
column members. Fortunately, as the earthquake occurred in the early morning, accidents involving trains
falling from RC viaducts and bridges did not occur.
Following this earthquake, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport instructed rail operators to conduct seismic rehabilitation to prevent shear failure of
columns. Thus seismic rehabilitation of existing RC
railway structures that were constructed based on the old
design standard officially started. At first, the target area
of seismic rehabilitation was limited to overcrowded
lines in the Sendai, Kanto, Tokai, Kinki, and Sanyo areas
and around active faults in view of the active fault size
and the influence of a damaging earthquake on human

Head, Structural Engineering Center, East Japan

Railway Company, Tokyo, Japan
2
Structural Engineering Center, East Japan Railway
Company, Tokyo, Japan
E-mail:tsukishima@jreast.co.jp

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Table 1 Main occurrences of domestic seismic damage (since South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake in 1995).
Year

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

South Hyogo Prefecture

Earthquake in 1995 (M7.3)
Main
occurence
s of
domestic
seismic
damage

Western Tottori Prefecture

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Sanriku Minami

Noto Hanto

Earthquake in 2003 (M7.1)

Niigata Chuetsu

Earthquake in 2007 (M6.9)

Iwate-Miyagi Nairiku

Earthquake in 2000 (M7.3)

Earthquake in 2008 (M7.2)

Earthquake in 2004 (M6.8)

Geiyo Earthquake

North Miyagi

Niigataken Chuetsu-Oki

in 2001 (M6.7)

Earthquake in 2003 (M6.2)

Earthquake in 2007 (M6.8)

Tokachioki

West Fukuoka

Earthquake in 2003 (M8.0)

Earthquakein 2005 (M7.0)

life and living, and the regional economy (Fig. 3). Then,
following the occurrence of a series of serious earthquakes that damaged concrete structures after the South
Hyogo Prefecture earthquake of 1995, seismic rehabilitation of existing structures was conducted nationwide.
For example, soon after the South Hyogo Prefecture
earthquake in 1995 occurred, East Japan Railway Co.
began conducting seismic rehabilitation of RC railway
structures on a preferential basis in areas that have
overcrowded lines in the Sendai and South Kanto areas
and active faults with a high probability of earthquakes.
Then, in 2003, the Sanriku Minami Earthquake occurred in an area where seismic rehabilitation was not
planned. Since this earthquake damaged RC viaducts of
the Tohoku Shinkansen, it was decided to reinforce all
Shinkansen lines regardless of the area. As the rehabilitation plan was underway, the Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake of 2004 (Fig. 4) and the Niigata Chuetsu-oki
Earthquake of 2007 occurred. The Niigata Chuetsu
Earthquake caused damage at the cut-off section of the
river pier. As a result, seismic rehabilitation needed to be
accelerated. However, the space under many railway
viaducts is used for stations, shops, and other buildings.
Thus seismic rehabilitation poses a number of challenges,
including the relocation of shops and the removal of
heavy machinery and other obstacles, which have to be
overcome in order to allow the reinforcement of a large
number of columns.

3. Seismic rehabilitation technique

Comment

North Coast Iwate

Earthquake in 2008 (M6.8)

shear failure of column members caused by large earthquakes resulting in the collapse of RC viaducts and
bridges, which are catastrophes that have occurred in
past earthquakes. To enhance the seismic capacity of the
whole structural frame, the aim is to increase the ductility
capacity of column members through seismic rehabilitation in order to allow better absorption of earthquake
energy, but enhancing the flexural strength of the column
members is not properly done. The reason for this is that
if the flexural strength of the column members damaged
by an earthquake is enhanced, future earthquake damage
may occur in beam members and foundation members.
Since repair and strengthening of beams and foundation
members is more difficult than for column members, it is
considered important to restrict damage after seismic
rehabilitation to column members.
3.2 Main seismic rehabilitation methods for RC
viaducts
In almost all RC railway viaducts, the space under the
viaduct is used by stations, shops, and other buildings.
Therefore seismic rehabilitation must deal with various
obstructions such as partition walls and equipment. In
this case, the construction site is a confined space, which
means restrictions on the use of large construction
equipment such as cranes. Often, construction schedule
restrictions also apply, so that a suitable method designed
taking into account the various conditions at each site
must be adopted. The main seismic rehabilitation methods are outlined below.

3.1 Basic concept

The basic concept of seismic rehabilitation is to prevent

Fig. 1 Damages to bearings during the Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake in

1978.

Fig. 2 Shear failure at viaduct piers during the

South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake in 1995.

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289

List of epicenters of various earthquakes

Miyagi Prefecture Earthquake South Hyogo Prefecture Earthquake Sanriku Minami Earthquake
Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake Niigataken Chuetsu-Oki Earthquake
Fig. 3. Epicenter of various earthquakes and target areas of seismic rehabilitation. Thicker lines are Shinkansen railways
and thinner lines are local ones. Small open circles represent main station in the area.

Fig.4 Damages to piers during the Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake in 2004.

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(1) Steel plate jacketing method (Ishibashi et al.

2004, Fig. 5)
This method is the most common seismic rehabilitation
technique used for railway RC viaduct columns. Jacketing with steel plate 6 to 14mm thick enhances the shear
strength and ductility capacity of RC viaduct columns.
After jacketing, the gap between the steel plate and existing column is grouted with non-shrink mortar, etc..
Although the joint method with site welding is common
for steel plate joints, indented joints are used to ensure
construction quality.
A method using assembled steel plate panels has also
been developed (Fig. 6). This method consists in assembling precast panels with projections by using perforated connect plates around an existing column. Then,
after securing these members by rivets, the gap between
the steel plates and the existing column is grouted with
non-shrink mortar. Besides enabling manual assembly,
this method also has the merits of low noise and vibration
levels, which makes it suitable for work under viaducts
where there are shops or other buildings. In addition, as
this method employs factory-made products, consistent
quality is ensured and design aspects can be concentrated.
(2) Other jacketing methods (American Concrete Institute 2008, Fig. 7)
In the case of rehabilitation work in a confined construction site such as a space under a viaduct that has
shops or other buildings and is near other buildings, use
of the steel plate jacketing method, which requires the
use of large construction equipment such as cranes, is
difficult. Therefore, various other jacketing methods
including ones that apply fiber-reinforced plastics (carbon fiber, aramid fiber, etc.) sheets, other ones that spray
glass fiber and epoxy resin directly to the member faces
with a spray gun or combine sprayed mortar with reinforcing bars, and still other methods that use precast
concrete panels, have been developed.
(3) Rib-bar and rib-plate method (Ishibashi et al.
2004.)
The rib-bar method was developed to enhance shear
strength and ductility capacity by reinforcing bars anchored with supporting members arranged at each corner
of RC viaduct columns (Fig. 8, Fig. 9). This method
eliminates the need to remove partition walls and enables
manual assembly in confined construction sites such as
areas under viaducts that have shops or other buildings
and facilities.
Another method, the rib-plate method, which reinforces RC viaduct columns with steel plate bands with
indented joints, was also developed for the same purpose
as the rib-bar method (Fig. 10, Fig. 11). The indented
joints make this method easy to use, and as the bands are
easy to fabricate, this method can be easily applied to
columns with various cross-section shapes.

Fig. 5 Steel plate jacketing.

Fig. 6 Assembled steel plate panels.

Fig. 7 Method using FRP sheets.

(4) Thin plates attachment method (Association

of Railway Advanced Construction Technology
2008, Fig. 12)
This method was developed to enhance the shear strength
and ductility capacity of RC viaduct columns by attach-

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ing thin plates about 0.8 mm thick by adhesion bond. The

purpose of this method is the same as that of the rib-bar
and rib-plate methods. This method has the advantage
that following column reinforcement, the increase in
member section thickness is only 20 to 30 mm, compared
to 40 to 50 mm for the jacketing steel plate method. This
minimizes space reduction for shops and other buildings
under viaducts.
(5) Method using concrete segment and steel
strand wire (Okamoto et al. 2006)
This method, which consists in attaching four
washboard-shaped precast concrete segments to the
member faces and banding them with galvanized spiral
strand wire was developed for the same purpose as the
previously described methods (Fig. 13). Advantages of
this method include the use of factory-made reinforcing
products enabling stability and easy control in quality,
and visual inspections of existing column corners leading
to rapid and easy emergency checkup at daily or

post-earthquake operations.
(6) Single-face method (Ishibashi et al. 2004, Fig.
14, Fig. 15)
This method, which uses a steel plate and reinforcing
bars, is applied to only one face of the RC column for the
same purpose as the previously described methods. This
method is suitable when only one face of RC viaduct
columns is exposed due to adjacent shops, storage sheds,
etc., under a RC viaduct. This method eliminates the
need to remove shops and suspend business during rehabilitation work.
(7) Method using steel damper and braces
(Shimada et al. 2005, Fig. 16)
This method uses steel dampers and braces to reinforce
mainly building frames. The role of the steel braces is to
control deformation of the RC viaduct columns, while
the role of the damper placed at the center is to absorb
energy. In cases when it is impossible to apply a jacketing

Supporting member

Reinforcing bar
Fig. 8 Conceptual diagram of rib-bar method.

Fig. 9 End of rib-bar retrofit.

Indented joint

Steel plate band

Fig.10 Conceptual figure of rib-plate method.

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Fig. 11 End of rib-plate retrofit.

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method owing to the presence of walls, etc., a pair of

steel dampers and their respective braces can be placed
inside the RC viaduct in the track direction and the direction perpendicular to the track, respectively, for
seismic rehabilitation.
3.3 Main seismic rehabilitation methods for RC
piers
RC piers can also be reinforced using a number of
methods for seismic rehabilitation. RC piers have a
cut-off in their main longitudinal reinforcements. This
cut-off area is a weak point of RC pier when an earthquake occurs. The cross section of RC piers is larger than
that of RC viaduct columns. Wall type piers and piers
with an elliptic cross section have different cross sections
in the track direction and the direction perpendicular to
the track, making it impossible to adopt the same seismic
rehabilitation methods as for RC viaducts.
Therefore, concrete or steel jacketing is used to increase the flexural and shear strength of the cut-off area
to protect this area from damage. So the seismic rehabilitation concept is based on enhancing the shear
strength and ductility capacity of piers to avoid shear

failure and absorb the energy generated by earthquakes

through ductility capacity. Further, the concept that prevents the flexural strength of RC piers from increasing
and suppresses the influence on other structural members
is the same as for RC viaducts. The main seismic rehabilitation methods are outlined below.
(1) Reinforced concrete jacketing method (Fig.
17)
Reinforced concrete jacketing for RC piers increases
shear and flexural strength around the cut-off area and
enhances the shear strength of RC pier as the whole and
the ductility capacity of the pier base. This method can be
used to reinforce the area around the cut-off, the base of
the pier, and other areas in need of seismic rehabilitation
depending on the seismic capacity of the existing RC pier.
As a result, it is possible to end seismic rehabilitation
after reinforcing only the area around the cut-off. The
jacketing thickness is on the order of 200 mm. Furthermore, for the seismic rehabilitation of RC piers situated
in valleys in mountain areas and near houses or along a
road, a construction method using elevating scaffolds for
workability and safety has been developed. (Association

Thin
plates

Fig. 12 Conceptual diagram of thin plates attachment

method.

Fig. 13 Using Concrete segment and Steel strand wire

method.

Existing column
Steel plate

Wall

Reinforcing bar
Fig. 14 Conceptual figure of single-face method.

Fig. 15 End of retrofit.

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Fig. 16 Method using steel damper and braces.

Fig. 17 Method using RC jacketing.

of Railway Advanced Construction Technology. 2008,

Fig 18, 19)
(2) Steel plate jacketing method (American
Concrete Institute 2008; Tamai et al. 1999.)
Steel plate jacketing for RC piers increases the shear and
flexural strength around the area of the cut-off and enhances the shear strength of RC pier as the whole as well
as the ductility capacity of the pier base. The thickness
including the steel plate is 40 to 50 mm. Since the increase of the cross section after seismic rehabilitation by
steel plate jacketing is smaller than RC jacketing, this
method can be applied to constrained site conditions.
And similarly to RC jacketing, it is possible to end
seismic rehabilitation after reinforcing only the area
around the cut-off, and depending on the type of pier, the
base of RC pier can be confined for enhancing ductility
after seismic rehabilitation.

Fig. 18 Example of RC pier in valley.

(3) FRP sheet jacketing method (American

Concrete Institute 2008)
A fiber reinforced plastics (carbon fiber, aramid fiber,
etc.) sheets jacketing method has been developed and is
used for RC piers. A method that uses fiber reinforced
sheets pre-impregnated with ultraviolet curable resin for
jacketing has also been developed. As FRP sheets are
lightweight, they are easily carried to the construction
site. As the resin becomes hard with ultraviolet, the
sheets do not have to be impregnated with a curative
agent, contributing to shorter construction time.
(4) Method using concrete filled tube (Association of Railway Advanced Construction Technology 2008, Fig. 20, 21)
After removing any sediment inside steel tubes inserted
into the ground, concrete is cast into the tubes. The concrete filled tubes then serve as strut members supporting
an cantilever concrete block attached to the RC pier. As a
result, this structure mainly enhances the ductility capacity of the pier base.
Compared to the jacketing method with reinforced

Fig. 19 Elevating scaffold.

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concrete and steel plate after sediment excavation, this

method reduces construction cost since large sediment
excavation and temporary works are not needed for this
method.
(5) Method using steel sheet pile (Association
of Railway Advanced Construction Technology
2008, Fig. 22)
After removing any sediment inside a steel sheet pile
inserted into the ground around an RC pier, mortar
casting is conducted into the space between the RC pier
and the steel sheet pile to enhance the shear strength and
ductility capacity of the RC pier. Since steel sheet plates
are used as reinforced members for RC piers, temporary
works need not be constructed in rivers, which significantly cuts down construction cost.

4. Considerations for the design of new

structures
Next, we refer to matters that should be considered for
new structures based on consideration of seismic damage
and restoration. Figure 23 shows an example of the
elasticity acceleration response spectrum applied to the
current seismic design standard. The basis of the design

is that the response displacement calculated by elastoplasticity response analysis is below the ductility capacity of the structure. However, as the evolution of the
seismic design standard shows, the demanded seismic
capacity has grown with each new occurrence of earthquake damage. Given this fact, there is a good possibility
that the seismic design standard will again change in the
future. Therefore, if construction costs remain unchanged, enhancing the seismic capacity as much as
possible is desirable. Enhancing the strength of a structure requires reinforcement of all the members including
the foundation. However, the cost of construction would
increases excessively as a result. On the other hand,
enhancing the ductility capacity of the structure can be
done by reinforcing only the plastic hinge part, for a
minimal increase in construction cost. Therefore, the
reinforcement arrangement for enhancing the ductility
capacity should be designed in the plastic hinge zone.
To this end, regardless of the level of ductility capacity required for the design, spiral reinforcement is arranged inside the longitudinal reinforcements in the 1D
area of the column of a new RC viaduct (D is the height
of the cross section of the column) (Fig. 24, 25). Figures
26 and 27 show the situation of the cyclic loading experiment and the relationship between the load and dis-

Existing pier
Concrete block

CFT (strut member)

Existing pier
RC or steel plate
jacketing

Water level
Ground level

Fig. 21 Conceptual diagram of concrete. filled tube

method.
Response acceleration spectrum (gal)

Fig. 20 Method using concrete filled tube.

Period (s)

Steel sheet pile

Fig. 22 Conceptual diagram of steel sheet pile method.

Fig. 23 Example of elasticity acceleration response

spectrum (Gn shows ground classification (ground difference)).

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1D
section
D

inside spiral reinforcement

placement of a column with spiral reinforcement inside

the longitudinal reinforcements. The placement of inside
spiral reinforcement enhances the ductility capacity
greatly compared to when sufficient hoop reinforcements
are provided (Kanno et al. 2009). The fact that the internal concrete in the plastic hinge zone breaks up outward through being freed from binding force by buckling
of the longitudinal reinforcements and associate break of
tie hoops causes rapid impairment of the flexural capacity of the column and settling down of the column (Sato
and Ko 2008). Thus providing spiral reinforcement inside the longitudinal reinforcements shackles the internal
concrete inside the longitudinal reinforcements, preventing the collapse of the internal concrete and enhancing the ductility capacity greatly.
Since it involves the construction of new structures, it
is important for seismic design to enhance the seismic
capacity as much as possible. It does not suffice for the
response displacement calculated by response analysis to
be lower than the acceptable value; since the plasticity
rotation capacity in the plastic hinge zone can be greatly
boosted without an increase in cost, this bears consideration during actual design. Although restoration is
extremely onerous after a structure collapses, the amount
of displacement has little influence on the difficulty of
restoration as long as the structure has not collapsed.
Thus it is important to enhance the ductility capacity of
columns as much as possible in order to prevent the
collapse of a structure. Such consideration prevents serious damage and enables early restoration in addition to
significantly boosting safety, even in the event of an
earthquake that is larger than predicted.

5. Conclusion
Seismic design and rehabilitation techniques evolve
along with earthquake occurrences. In other words, the
experience of a number of earthquakes drives the development of various new technologies and techniques

Fig 25 Example of RC viaduct fitted with inside spiral

reinforcement.

Fig. 26 Situation of cyclic loading experiment (after loading up to 20y).

2
1.5

Strength ratio P/Pyeild

Fig. 24 Example of arrangement of spiral reinforcement

inside longitudinal reinforcements.

1
0.5
0
-30

-20

10

-10

20

30

-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2

plasticity rate /yeild

The colum
hoop
reinforcement
outside
thelongitudinal
axial reinforcements
Column
withwith
hoop
reinforcements
outside
of the
reinforcements
Column
with
a spiral
ofthe
the axial
longitudinal
reinforcements
The
colum
with
spiralreinforcement
reinforcementinside
inside
reinforcements

Fig. 27 Example of relationship between strength ratio

and plasticity rate during cyclic loading.

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for seismic design and seismic retrofitting and the systematic seismic rehabilitation of existing structures. The
authors hope that the various technologies and techniques introduced here will prove helpful for everyone.
References
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approved
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relations.
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http://www.jsce.or.jp/committee/kyodai-jishin/index.s

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Kanno, T., Ishibashi, T., Kino, J. and Kobayashi, K.
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