International Marketing Review

International advertising strategy: the standardisation question in manager studies:

Patterns in four decades of past research and directions for future knowledge
advancement
Fernando Fastoso Jeryl Whitelock

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Fernando Fastoso Jeryl Whitelock, (2007),"International advertising strategy: the standardisation question
in manager studies", International Marketing Review, Vol. 24 Iss 5 pp. 591 - 605
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Nikolaos Papavassiliou, Vlasis Stathakopoulos, (1997),"Standardization versus adaptation of international
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T.C. Melewar, Claes Vemmervik, (2004),"International advertising strategy: A review,
reassessment and recommendation", Management Decision, Vol. 42 Iss 7 pp. 863-881 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/00251740410550934
Madhu Agrawal, (1995),"Review of a 40-year debate in international advertising: practitioner and
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International advertising
strategy: the standardisation
question in manager studies
Patterns in four decades of past research
and directions for future knowledge
advancement

International
advertising
strategy
591

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Fernando Fastoso and Jeryl Whitelock

Bradford University School of Management, Bradford, UK
Abstract
Purpose This papers objectives are firstly to systematically analyse patterns of research in
international advertising standardisation (IAS) conducted among managers and secondly to suggest
fruitful paths for future research in this area.
Design/methodology/approach Content analysis of academic papers published in major
marketing, advertising and international business journals.
Findings Results show that overall future research would benefit from a unified definition of and
measurement procedures for advertising standardisation as only these can ensure the advancement of
knowledge in the field. Additionally, more research is needed in order to further explore process issues
in advertising standardisation, especially a newly proposed perspective related to the implementation
process of the standardisation decision. Finally, an interesting avenue for future research relates to the
study of the subjectivity involved in the standardisation decision.
Research limitations/implications As with all literature reviews, this paper is limited to
analysing works in a selection of the top academic journals in the field. However, a careful choice of the
most important journals has been made, providing a good reflection of knowledge in the area.
Originality/value This paper appears to be the first literature review focusing on manager studies
in the field of IAS.
Keywords Advertising, Advertising standards
Paper type Literature review

Background and rationale for this study

The decision whether to standardize or localize marketing and advertising across
countries is seen as fundamental within international marketing strategy (Walters, 1986;
Jain, 1989; Boddewyn and Grosse, 1995; Terpstra and Sarathy, 2000; Hollensen, 2004). The
origin of the standardization idea has been traced back to the 1920s (Agrawal, 1995; Ryans
et al., 2003) and since then a plethora of studies has been published dealing with the
feasibility and desirability of standardization, most commonly in relation to advertising
(Walters, 1986; Jain, 1989; Onkvisit and Shaw, 1999). Recent literature reviews in the area
(Taylor and Johnson, 2002; Melewar and Vemmervik, 2004; Waheeduzzaman and Dube,
2004; Taylor, 2005) as well as empirical studies in the international marketing (Ozsomer
and Simonin, 2004; Chung, 2005) and specifically advertising fields (Griffith et al., 2003;
Samiee et al., 2003; Taylor and Okazaki, 2006) show that the issue is, even after all these
years, still topical for academics. Moreover, the fact that major multinational companies

International Marketing Review

Vol. 24 No. 5, 2007
pp. 591-605
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
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DOI 10.1108/02651330710828004

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(MNC) like Hewlett Packard (Burrows, 2006), Heineken (Barns, 2006) and Bacardi (Media
Asia, 2006) are currently seeking to achieve global standardization of advertising shows
that this topic is also highly relevant for practitioners.
Despite the evidently strong interest in the topic, progress in the study of the area has
been characterized as limited. Ryans et al. (2003, p. 589), for instance, criticize . . . a status
of stagnation in thought and action related to the topic and call for more research. Yet,
based on this past experience. it seems evident that new research will still be running the
risk of remaining equally unsubstantial in its contribution to knowledge as long as it
remains unclear in which way it must differ from research conducted in the past.
A recent study of advertising standardization suggested that relatively few
empirical studies have examined the standardization of advertising from the
perspective of managers (Taylor and Okazaki, 2006, p. 99). Indeed, although reviews
of the literature on international advertising standardization in general have been
undertaken (Agrawal, 1995; Taylor and Johnson, 2002) there appears to be no review
dealing specifically with international advertising standardisation (IAS) studies of
managers. This is a surprising gap given that major issues within the IAS field such as
company motivations for companies to pursue IAS (Dunn, 1976; Hite and Fraser, 1988),
the analysis of the company benefits derived from standardization strategies (Cavusgil
and Zou, 1994; Okazaki et al., 2006), as well as process standardization issues (Walters,
1986; Solberg, 2002) can only be addressed through studies of managers.
Therefore, the purpose of this study is to provide the needed review of past research
by conducting a systematic analysis of empirical advertising standardization studies
that are based on studies of managers. The rationale for such a study is derived both
from the importance of such studies for the general field as outlined above and from the
call for future research in the area to make more substantial contributions to the body of
knowledge. Thus, this studys first objective is to provide a state-of-the-art review of the
standardization field using studies of managers both in terms of the conceptual issues
analyzed as well as the methodologies employed. Based on this analysis, this studys
second aim is to contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field (as called for by
Ryans et al., 2003) by providing guidelines on how substantial contributions may be
made, both from a conceptual as well as a methodological perspective.
The next section of this paper describes the methodology employed in this study.
Subsequently, results of the conceptual and methodological analysis of previous
studies in the field are presented and discussed. Finally, conclusions are drawn and
implications for future research developed.
Methodology
We decided to search the most influential international business, marketing, and
advertising journals in order to identify studies of managers in the advertising
standardisation field. The method chosen for the literature review is content analysis, a
phenomenological research method . . . for the objective, systematic and quantitative
description of the manifest content of communication (Berelson, 1952, p. 18) that gained
importance in marketing research after Kassarjians (1977) seminal article. This approach
has already been used in similar studies in the fields of international marketing (Nakata
and Huang, 2005) and international advertising (Royne Stafford, 2005; Zou, 2005).
The selection of journals to scrutinize was carried out based on their quality and
impact as assessed by previous reviews in the field, a procedure already used by

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literature reviews in the international marketing area (Nakata and Huang, 2005; Royne
Stafford, 2005; Zou, 2005). Thus, we chose the most important journals in the
marketing field as identified by Hult et al. (1997): Journal of Marketing, International
Journal of Research in Marketing, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal
of Business Research, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research,
Journal of Retailing, and Marketing Science. Furthermore, we added the most highly
regarded international business journals based on DuBois and Reebs (2000)
categorization: Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of World Business
(formerly Columbia Journal of World Business), International Marketing Review,
Journal of International Marketing and Management International Review.
Subsequently, a selection of advertising journals was made based on Henthorne et al.
(1998) as well as Royne Stafford (2005) which further added the Journal of Advertising,
Journal of Advertising Research, Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising
(formerly called Current Issues and Research in Advertising) as well as International
Journal of Advertising to the list of journals of interest. This gave 17 journals to target.
Table I gives an overview of the journals analysed.
In order to identify the relevant articles, several broad keyword searches
(e.g. marketing AND standardisation advertising AND standardisation) were
carried out in the EBSCO host and Proquest databases. This led to the recognition of
over 300 articles. Subsequently, the papers were scrutinized in order to eliminate
studies that either did not directly relate to the standardisation field, studies that were
not based on the manager perspective, or marketing standardisation studies that did
not analyse advertising specifically. This analysis rendered 33 articles whose texts
were subsequently scrutinised in order to identify further papers cited that might have
escaped the systematic search of the databases. As this additional search did not lead
to the identification of additional relevant studies, the analysis was conducted based on
the initial 33 papers.

Major marketing journals (Hult et al., 1997)

Major international business journals

(DuBois and Reeb, 2000)

Major advertising journals

(Henthorne et al., 1998; Royne Stafford, 2005)

International Journal of Research in Marketing

(IJRM)
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science (JAMS)
Journal of Marketing (JM)
Journal of Business Research (JBR)
Journal of Consumer Research (JCR)
Journal of Marketing Research (JMR)
Journal of Retailing (JR)
Marketing Science (MS)
International Marketing Review (IMR)
Journal of International Business Studies (JIBS)
Journal of World Business (JWB)
Journal of International Marketing (JIM)
Management International Review (MIR)
Journal of Advertising (JA)
Journal of Advertising Research (JAR)
Journal of Current Issues and Research in
Advertising (JCIRA)
International Journal of Advertising (IJA)

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Table I.
Journals analysed

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The 33 papers were subsequently content analysed with the aims of firstly identifying
conceptual and methodological patterns in past research and secondly deriving from
these patterns fruitful avenues for future research. Conceptually, our goal was to find
out which main research questions have been addressed in past studies as well as how
the research foci varied over time. Additionally, we were interested in analysing what
progress has been made specifically in relation to those issues within standardisation
that can exclusively or most effectively be addressed through studies of managers,
such as organisational and process issues. In relation to the methodologies employed,
our analysis wanted to shed light on the geographic dimension of past studies, i.e. on
issues like respondent base and geographic focus of analysis. Results of the analysis
are presented in the next section.
Results
Results of the analysis show that the first study was published in 1969 while the most
recent one appeared in 2006, making thus 38 years of studies of managers in IAS.
Conceptual issues in past research
The analysis of the 33 studies confirms Ryans et al.s (2003) general contention that
theoretical progress in the standardisation field has so far been limited. Most studies
appear to have concentrated their attention on analysing the extent of IAS used as
opposed to proposing what best practice should be. Such a shift had been called for
by Harris and Attour (2003). For instance, several of the studies analysed here have
addressed the question of whether and if yes to what extent advertising
standardisation is being practiced. In early studies, Donnelly and Ryans (1969)
analysed the extent of standardised advertising being used by US advertisers overseas,
Kacker (1972) did the same for US companies operating in India, while Michell (1979)
focused on standardisation practices by UK companies overseas. Later on, some
variations of this main research question were introduced as some studies subdivided
the question into strategic and execution levels of advertising (Ryans and Ratz, 1987;
Hill and James, 1989; James and Hill, 1991). Other studies, in turn, introduced new
geographic components by focusing on overseas practices by companies of other
origins such as Canada (Sandler and Shani, 1992) or Colombia (Zou et al., 1997). Despite
these variations, however, the main research question in the field has remained
virtually unchanged. The broad and arguably vague conclusion to be drawn in
this context is that IAS is taking place to some extent.
A more important geographic variation of this main research question analysed in
the field is the shift away from the global and towards the regional analysis of
advertising standardisation. Whereas, the global perspective, i.e. similarity of
advertising practices in all markets (Sriram and Gopalakrishna, 1991), was especially
prevalent in earlier studies (Donnelly and Ryans, 1969; Michell, 1979; Ryans and Ratz,
1987; Hite and Fraser, 1988; Kanso, 1992; Sandler and Shani, 1992; Duncan and
Ramaprasad, 1995), over time more and more studies shifted their focus of analysis
onto specific regions: the EC/EU (Harris, 1994; Whitelock et al., 1995; Okazaki, 2005;
Okazaki et al., 2006; Taylor and Okazaki, 2006), Scandinavia (Kanso and Nelson, 2002),
Chinese Asia (Tai, 1997; Tai, 1998; Samiee et al., 2003) or the Middle East (Melewar
et al., 2000).

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Further interesting results of our analysis are those related to areas within the
standardisation field that can exclusively or most effectively be addressed through
studies of managers: the relationship between the standardisation decision and
company performance; the motivations by companies to pursue standardisation; and
the organisational and process issues involved in standardisation. With respect to
performance issues, it is noteworthy that over the 38-year span covered by the studies
analysed, only two addressed the question of whether there is a relationship between
the standardisation of advertising and company performance gains. Fraser and Hite
(1990) found that there is a negative association between the level of advertising
standardisation and company performance in terms of market share, thus concluding
that localisation might be the more beneficial option overall. The second study on the
issue, recently presented by Okazaki et al. (2006), took a different approach as it did not
analyse the absolute supremacy of standardisation or localisation in terms of
performance gains arguably the traditional approach towards this decision in
Levitts (1983) sense. Instead, the authors analysed under which company internal and
external conditions performance gains would occur and concluded that
standardisation improves company performance when market and company internal
conditions are conducive to a standardised approach.
A further issue which can only be addressed through studies of managers is the one
related to the motivations that lead companies to pursue advertising standardisation.
Within the studies analysed, Duncan and Ramaprasad (1995) found that achieving a
single brand image in all markets was the most important reason for companies to use
IAS. Melewar et al. (2000) confirmed this view yet also found that the possibility of
using international media, a higher control over quality, and economies of scale in
production are also important reasons from the company viewpoint. An alternative
proposition was put forward by Kirpalani et al. (1988) who found that MNCs
standardise advertising campaigns mainly in order to reduce costs of advertising
production and that only a minority of firms stated other benefits as important. The
latest study to address this issue found support for this alternative view as it found
that saving costs was a more important reason to standardise advertising than the
achievement of a unified brand image across borders (Taylor and Okazaki, 2006).
Additionally, this recent study also found that the achievement of a uniform brand
image was an argument put forward significantly more often by companies of US
origin than by Japanese companies, thus suggesting that there may be a relationship
between country of origin of a company and motivations to pursue advertising
standardisation.
An additional issue in the field which can only be analysed through studies of
managers in IAS is that involving organisational and process elements. Interestingly,
despite the fact that advertising processes have been found to be more suitable for
standardisation than programmes (Miracle, 1968; DAntin, 1971; Sorenson and
Wiechmann, 1975; Dunn, 1976), this review found that only eight studies of 33 included
elements of process standardisation in their analyses. Moreover, our analysis also
shows that in relation to process standardisation, so far attention has been centred
on the issue of headquarters (HQ) vs subsidiary role in and control over
standardisation decisions. Among these eight studies, Donnelly and Ryans (1969) as
well as Dunn (1976) found that the methodology of advertising planning is an area
where standardisation seems to work better than in advertising programmes.

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Further studies discovered a positive relationship between HQ control and the

centralisation of advertising decisions and the level of IAS (Donnelly, 1970; Kacker,
1972; Kirpalani et al., 1988; Melewar et al., 2000; Laroche et al., 2001; Solberg, 2002). In
this context, it was concluded that strategic decisions in advertising tend to be more
highly controlled by HQ and thus standardised than tactical decisions (Kirpalani et al.,
1988; Melewar et al., 2000). Probably, the most comprehensive work in the area of
process standardisation is that presented by Laroche et al. (2001) as these authors
proposed a model of how similarity in market position, decision power of subsidiaries
and MNC managers familiarity with the local context influence the degree of MNC
control over subsidiaries which, in turn, influences the level of IAS. The results of their
study of MNCs from North America, Asia, Europe and South America found support
for this model. A recent study by Solberg (2002), however, added a new element to the
relationship proposed by Laroche et al. (2001) as it found that HQ knowledge of local
realities has a positive but also direct influence on the level of IAS used, thus
suggesting that control may be more than a mediating variable in this relationship.
Methodological patterns in past research
Our analysis in relation to methodological patterns in the studies analysed first focused
on the methods used in past research. Results show that 25 of the 33 studies considered
relied on mail surveys (75.8 per cent). Five studies used a combination of mail survey
and interview techniques, two used only the interview method and one was based on
the secondary analysis of previously published results.
Additionally, we analysed respondent position and location. This showed that
32 studies surveyed client company managers whereas only one focused on their
advertising agency counterparts (Duncan and Ramaprasad, 1995). A further analysis
showed that a majority of 20 studies surveyed HQ managers solely whereas the rest
included subsidiary managers in their analysis. The analysis of respondent manager
location in terms of regions of the world (Table II) showed that 23 studies have analysed
managers in North America while 20 surveyed executives in Europe and 13 in Asia-Pacific.
Managers in Latin America and Africa are the least surveyed with seven and five studies,
respectively, (note that several studies analysed managers in multiple regions).
Finally, we analysed the studies in terms of their geographic focus. Results show
that over half of all studies (n 19) aimed to analyse advertising standardisation
phenomena on a global scale, i.e. for all countries where the brands in question were
marketed (Table III). The next most important groups were Asia-Pacific and Europe

Table II.
Distribution of studies
according to respondent
region of base

Respondent region of base

Per cent

North America
Europe
Asia-Pacific
Latin-America
Africa
Total

23
20
13
7
5
33a

69.7
60.6
39.4
21.2
11.1
100a

Note: aPercentages and no. of studies do not add up to 100 per cent or 33, respectively, because of
multiple-country studies

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with seven and five studies, respectively. It must be pointed out, however, that studies
that focused on Europe were limited to Western European countries and Turkey, while
those in Asia-Pacific focused three times on the group of Chinese Asian countries
(i.e. Hong-Kong, Singapore, the Peoples Republic of China and Taiwan), three further
times on India, and finally once on the Peoples Republic of China individually.

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Discussion
Conceptual issues
The analysis presented here first showed that over the 38-year span in which studies of
managers in IAS have been undertaken, one main question has attracted the highest
interest: Is IAS taking place and, if yes, to what extent? Results of our analysis show
that this question has been addressed in various ways yet there is reason to believe
that the contribution of some of these studies to the body of knowledge has remained
questionable, not least because virtually every study measured advertising
standardisation in a different manner: some took advertising as a whole (Donnelly
and Ryans, 1969) while others subdivided it into strategic and execution elements
(James and Hill, 1991); some measured IAS as a single-item construct (Kanso and
Nelson, 2002) whereas others proposed multi-item alternatives (Taylor and Okazaki,
2006). Thus, the differing measurement paths taken make a comparison of results
de facto impossible, so that the only, limited, conclusion that can be drawn overall is
that standardisation is taking place to some extent. And even so, the outlined
differences in measurement paths have allowed for the opposite claim to be made as
well, e.g. Advertising localization overshadows standardization (Kanso and Nelson,
2002, p. 79). Therefore, our results lend support to Ryans et al.s (2003) general
contention that the researchers inability to agree on a definition of standardisation has
been one of the main barriers to knowledge advancement in the field.
Results of our analysis also showed that over the 38-year span analysed, a shift has
taken place away from the global perspective in IAS and towards a regional one. This
shift may actually follow calls for more standardisation research on equivalent
countries in terms of economic development, language and heritage (Onkvisit and
Shaw, 1987) and can be seen as positive on three grounds. From the academic research
point of view, the regional focus in standardisation allows for a clearer measurement of
the phenomenon given that cultural similarity (Tai, 1997; Samiee et al., 2003) and
economic integration (Boddewyn et al., 1986; Sriram and Gopalakrishna, 1991)
have been found to foster standardisation. As a consequence, measuring IAS in regions
will arguably lead to results that are less biased by trade and cultural barriers.

597

Global
Europe
Asia-Pacific (excl. Middle East)
North America
Middle East
Total

Per cent

19
5
7
1
1
33

57.6
15.2
21.2
3
3
100.0

Note: The study in question focused on Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, UAE, Lebanon and Egypt,
i.e. countries geographically located in Africa and Asia

Table III.
Regions of focus of
advertising
standardisation manager
studies

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Secondly, taking the regional perspective also supports the meaningfulness of research
results by avoiding the over-generalisation dangers involved in asking managers to
assess standardisation practices in a wide range of markets simultaneously (Donnelly
and Ryans, 1969; Hite and Fraser, 1988; Kanso, 1992). Finally, the regional perspective
makes further sense from the practitioner point of view, as major MNCs have
announced strategic shifts away from a globalised marketing approach towards a
regional one (The Coca-Cola Company, 2000; Quelch, 2003).
However, despite the benefits of the regional perspective in IAS research over the
global one, it is pertinent to strike a note of caution here in relation to the definition of
regional standardisation used. This is because studies of regional advertising
standardisation have also used different measurement paths for the phenomenon:
whereas studies like Whitelock et al.s (1995) measured the extent of standardisation
between all countries in a region, others like Samiee et al.s (2003) measured
standardisation between individual countries in a region and the respective company
HQ markets outside that region. As a consequence, whereas the former took a strict
regional perspective, the latter included market practices from outside the region into
the comparison. Independently of which perspective should be considered more
beneficial, we believe that, again here, differing definitions of IAS have presented a
barrier to knowledge advancement in the field.
Regarding performance issues in IAS, the analysis presented here showed first of all
that research on the issue has been scarce as only two studies addressed it in almost
four decades of research. Moreover, it was shown that while the first study took an
absolute perspective towards the analysis of the superiority of standardisation over
localisation (or vice-versa) and found that localisation would lead to a better company
performance, the second and very recent study considered the performance benefits
obtained through IAS dependent on external environmental and internal
organisational strategic factors. The conclusion to be drawn from this study by
Okazaki et al. (2006) is that IAS improves company performance when conditions are
conducive to it. This change of perspective on the performance issue in IAS introduced
by this study represents an important advancement in the field given that it responds
to calls for more standardisation research on what constitutes good practice (Harris,
1994; Harris and Attour, 2003) as opposed to providing mere descriptions of the status
quo. Future research should seek to validate these findings, which were obtained from
US and Japanese companies operating in the EU, in other regions of the world and
for companies of other origin. In addition, it would be interesting to gain a deeper
knowledge of these conducive conditions so as to be able to identify different types
or degrees of IAS depending on the existence of specific conditions.
Results were also presented in relation to a further issue which can only be studied
from the manager perspective: the benefits to and motivations of companies in using
IAS. Our analysis showed that research findings are unclear about the relative
importance of the two main reasons why companies are pursuing IAS: cost benefits
and the achievement of a global brand image. This point may have important
consequences for future research in the area given that the benefits of these two
advantages of standardisation have been questioned on several occasions. Firstly, the
significance and achievability of economies of scale through standardisation has been
called into question (Davidson and Haspeslagh, 1982; Douglas and Wind, 1987;
Douglas and Craig, 1989). Doubts have been raised as to whether the economies of

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scale derived from standardisation can actually offset the enhanced value delivery
achieved when adaptations to local market conditions are carried out (Douglas and
Wind, 1987; Onkvisit and Shaw, 1987; Jain, 1989; Szymanski et al., 1993; Baalbaki
and Malhotra, 1995; Muller, 1997; Ozsomer and Prussia, 2000; Solberg, 2000; Terpstra
and Sarathy, 2000). Certainly, the contention that the cost reduction benefits associated
with standardisation represent an irrefutable theoretical argument (Robinson, 1986)
appears enticingly simple and attractive. Nevertheless, Onkvisit and Shaw (1987)
maintain that managements responsibility is to maximise profits and not to cut costs
through standardisation. Therefore, they conclude that the focus of management
action in relation to international advertising should be on the question of advertising
effectiveness and not on cost reductions through standardisation.
The global brand building argument in standardisation can also been seen as
problematic given that it still remains unclear whether customer similarity across
borders, a precondition for achieving benefits through a global brand, actually exists to
a sufficient degree. The evidence in this respect is mixed. While some studies have
confirmed the existence of consumer homogeneity based on both universal appeals
(Dawar and Parker, 1994) and on the general attractiveness of the global dimension of
brands for consumers in a range of countries (Steenkamp et al., 2003; Holt et al., 2004),
others have concluded that national cultural patterns still exert a decisive influence on
customer decision making (see among others, Green et al., 1975; Tse et al., 1989; Tansey
et al., 1990; Caillat and Mueller, 1996; Keillor et al., 1996; Aaker et al., 2001; Koudelova
and Whitelock, 2001). Certainly, the most recent studies here point at the existence of
an incipient global consumer culture (Alden et al., 1999) that is especially appreciative
of brands that are perceived as global (Steenkamp et al., 2003).
As a consequence, the results presented here suggest that there may be some truth
in the doubts which have arisen from time to time in relation to the objectivity of
managers involved in the IAS decision. Some authors believe that the benefits of
standardisation may be overestimated (Fisher, 1984), while others claim that there may
be some hype (Harris, 1994) or bandwagon effect (Muller, 1997) involved in it. As a
consequence, we conclude that there is a need for more research on the motivations that
lead companies to pursue advertising standardisation. Most interestingly, studies
should seek to analyse subjective elements involved in the standardisation decision so
as to be able to capture to what extent the motivations to use IAS put forward by
companies are in fact objectively beneficial for them.
The findings in relation to process and organisational issues suggest that this
stream of research within advertising standardisation is only at an early stage of
development given that it has so far been centred on the issue of HQ vs subsidiary role
in and control over standardisation decisions. As a consequence, more research needs
to be done to shed additional light on process standardisation in general, as well as on
the relationship between control and the level of IAS pursued specifically.
Additionally, however, we also believe that past process standardisation research
may have been one-sided in the sense that it only analysed the process of decision
making and the locus of control (HQ vs subsidiary) for such decisions while leaving the
process of decision implementation out of consideration. Whereas, the former process
perspective relates to how the IAS decision is made, the alternative process view put
forward in this paper would analyse how the IAS decision is implemented in terms of
the advertising campaign development process. Such an analysis could be carried out

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for instance by studying how widespread the use of prototype as opposed to pattern
standardisation (Peebles et al., 1977) is now, as well as whether this influential
typology is still applicable to todays realities. Further, interesting research questions
could address by whom within the organisation (i.e. HQ, regional HQ, subsidiaries)
advertising campaigns are developed as well as in which and how many countries
they are used. Additionally, it would be interesting to study the link between the
traditional and the new perspective on process standardisation proposed here.
This could be done by analysing whether variables like HQ or subsidiary control affect
the process of decision implementation in IAS.
Finally, it appears that studies of advertising agency executives so far largely
neglected in the field may prove to be especially valuable. Specifically, in relation to
process standardisation, the agency perspective may add additional elements to the
understanding of company internal processes as these executives will be aware, yet
probably less biased by the client company internal situation, than managers working
for the client companies.
Methodological issues
Our analysis of methodological patterns in past research first showed that there has
been a strong reliance on surveys administered by mail in order to gather data given
that over three fourths of the studies analysed used this method. The remaining studies
used interviews or combinations of mail and interview surveys. Somewhat
surprisingly, however, no study made use of electronic media (i.e. e-mail or
web-based surveys) to gather data despite technological advances that make such
methods highly convenient (Dillman, 1998).
The analysis of manager position first showed that all but one study took the MNC
manager perspective, thus showing a perhaps surprising neglect of the advertising
agency manager perspective in a field where its consideration appears almost
natural. Additionally, our analysis of respondent base showed that a majority of the
studies analysed have relied on HQ managers views in order to research advertising
standardisation, a fact that has been characterized elsewhere as problematic given that
HQ managers have been seen as lacking precise knowledge about what is actually
happening at local policy level (Dunn, 1976; Brandt and Hulbert, 1977; Samiee et al.,
2003). Moreover, the fact that the great majority of the managers surveyed have been
based in the USA and Western Europe shows that future research could make a
contribution to knowledge by focusing on under- or un-researched regions of the world:
Eastern Europe, large parts of Asia-Pacific, Africa, as well as Central and South
America.
Finally, results in relation to the geographic focus of the studies analysed confirm
that the regional perspective has been taken in a substantial portion of past studies.
However, results also showed that so far Western Europe and Chinese Asia have
received considerable attention, thus offering good opportunities for future
standardisation research focusing on virtually every other region of the world.
Conclusions
This review of the advertising standardisation literature from the manager
perspective, to the best of our knowledge the first of its kind, has identified
33 empirical studies over a period of almost four decades. In conceptual terms, three

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major findings of our study should be highlighted. Firstly, our results have shown that
the lack of agreement regarding how to define and measure advertising
standardisation has posed a serious barrier to the comparability of results and thus
to the advancement of knowledge in the field (as proposed by Ryans et al., 2003).
Secondly, our analysis also showed that the relationship between advertising
standardisation and company performance has only seldom been studied. However,
recent work addressing this question represents a promising step forward in the study
of standardisation phenomena in general as it focuses on the question of what
constitutes good practice (Harris, 1994; Harris and Attour, 2003) as opposed to
merely describing what the status quo in terms of company practices is. Finally, results
brought forward in past research in relation to the company benefits and motivations
associated with advertising standardisation reaffirm earlier doubts on the objectivity
of managers involved in the standardisation decision and, as a consequence, on the
decision itself. Thus, the specific analysis of subjective elements involved in
the standardisation decision may be a fruitful area for future research.
Methodologically, future research on standardisation using studies of managers
would benefit from the analysis of managers at subsidiary level as well as those
based in regions that have remain un- or under-researched such as Central and
South America, Africa and large parts of Arab Asia.
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Corresponding author
Fernando Fastoso can be contacted at: F.J.Fastoso@Bradford.ac.uk

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