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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED
CLASSIFICATION.
CHAPTER 1
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ESWAR COLLEGE OF ENGG

CLASSIFICATION.
INTRODUCTION
An image is a two-dimensional picture, which has a similar appearance to some
subject usually a physical object or a person.
Image is a two-dimensional, such as a photograph, screen display, and as well as a

three-dimensional, such as a statue. They may be captured by optical devicessuch as
cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and phenomena,
such as the human eye or water surfaces.
1.1 IMAGE PROCESSING

Digital image processing, the manipulation of images by computer, is relatively
recent development in terms of mans ancient fascination with visual stimuli. In its short
history, it has been applied to practically every type of images with varying degree of
success. The inherent subjective appeal of pictorial displays attracts perhaps a
disproportionate amount of attention from the scientists and also from the layman. Digital
image processing like other glamour fields, suffers from myths, mis-connect ions, misunderstandings and mis-information. It is vast umbrella under which fall diverse aspect of
optics, electronics, mathematics, photography graphics and computer technology. It is
truly multidisciplinary endeavor ploughed with imprecise jargon.
Several factor combine to indicate a lively future for digital image processing. A
major factor is the declining cost of computer equipment. Several new technological
trends promise to further promote digital image processing. These includeparallel
processing mode practical by low cost microprocessors, and the use of charge coupled
devices (CCDs) for digitizing, storage during processing and display and large low cost of
image storage arrays.
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1.1.2 FUNDAMENTAL STEPS IN DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
Fig1.1 (a) Fundamental steps in digital image processing

1.1.3 Image Acquisition
Image Acquisition is to acquire a digital image. To do so requires an image
sensor and the capability to digitize the signal produced by the sensor. The sensor could be
monochrome or color TV camera that produces an entire image of the problem domain
every 1/30 sec. the image sensor could also be line scan camera that produces a single
image line at a time. In this case, the objects motion past the line.
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CLASSIFICATION.
Fig 1.1(b) Image acquisition
Scanner produces a two-dimensional image. If the output of the camera or other

imaging sensor is not in digital form, an analog to digital converter digitizes it. The nature
of the sensor and the image it produces are determined by the application.
Fig1.1(c) Scanner
1.1.4 Image Enhancement

Image enhancement is among the simplest and most appealing areas of digital
image processing. Basically, the idea behind enhancement techniques is to bring out detail
that is obscured, or simply to highlight certain features of interesting an image. A familiar
example of enhancement is when we increase the contrast of an image because it looks
better. It is important to keep in mind that enhancement is a very subjective area of image
processing.
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CLASSIFICATION.
Fig1.1(d) Image enhancement
1.1.5 Image restoration

Image restoration is an area that also deals with improving the appearance of an
image. However, unlike enhancement, which is subjective, image restoration is objective,
in the sense that restoration techniques tend to be based on mathematical or probabilistic
models of image degradation.
Fig1.1(e) Image restoration
Enhancement, on the other hand, is based on human subjective preferences

regarding what constitutes a good enhancement result. For example, contrast stretching
is considered an enhancement technique because it is based primarily on the pleasing
aspects it might present to the viewer, where as removal of image blur by applying a
deblurring function is considered a restoration technique.
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1.1.6 Color image processing

The use of color in image processing is motivated by two principal factors. First,
color is a powerful descriptor that often simplifies object identification and extraction
from a scene. Second, humans can discern thousands of color shades and intensities,
compared to about only two dozen shades of gray. This second factor is particularly
important in manual image analysis.
Fig1.1(f) Color image processing
1.1.7 Wavelets and multi resolution processing

Wavelets are the formation for representing images in various degrees of
resolution. Although the Fourier transform has been the mainstay of transform based
image processing since the late1950s, a more recent transformation, called the wavelet
transform, and is now making it even easier to compress, transmit, and analyze many
images. Unlike the Fourier transform, whose basis functions are sinusoids, wavelet
transforms are based on small values, called Wavelets, of varying frequency and limited
Duration.
Fig1.1(g) Wavelets and multi resolution processing

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CLASSIFICATION.
Wavelets were first shown to be the foundation of a powerful new approach to

signal processing and analysis called Multi resolution theory. Multi resolution theory
incorporates and unifies techniques from a variety of disciplines, including sub band
coding from signal processing, quadrature mirror filtering from digital speech recognition,
and pyramidal image processing.
1.1.8 Compression
Compression, as the name implies, deals with techniques for reducing the
storage required saving an image, or the bandwidth required for transmitting it. Although
storage technology has improved significantly over the past decade, the same cannot be
said for transmission capacity. This is true particularly in uses of the Internet, which are
characterized by significant pictorial content. Image compression is familiar to most users
of computers in the form of image file extensions, such as the jpg file extension used in
the JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) image compression standard.
1.1.9 Morphological processing

Morphological processing deals with tools for extracting image components that
are useful in the representation and description of shape. The language of mathematical
morphology is set theory. As such, morphology offers a unified and powerful approach to
numerous image processing problems. Sets in mathematical
morphology represent objects in an image. For example, the set of all black pixels
in a binary image is a complete morphological description of the image.
Fig 1.1(h) Morphological processing
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In binary images, the sets in question are members of the 2-D integer space Z2,
where each element of a set is a 2-D vector whose coordinates are the (x,y) coordinates of
a black(or white) pixel in the image. Gray-scale digital images can be represented as sets
whose components are in Z3. In this case, two components of each element of the set refer
to the coordinates of a pixel, and the third corresponds to its discrete gray-level value.
1.1.10 Segmentation
Segmentation procedures partition an image into its constituent parts or objects. In
general, autonomous segmentation is one of the most difficult tasks in digital image
processing. A rugged segmentation procedure brings the process a long way toward
successful solution of imaging problems that require objects to be identified individually.
Fig 1.1(i) Segmentation
On the other hand, weak or erratic segmentation algorithms almost always

guarantee eventual failure. In general, the more accurate the segmentation, the more likely
recognition is to succeed.
1.1.11 Representation and description

Representation and description almost always follow the output of a segmentation
stage, which usually is raw pixel data, constituting either the boundary of a region (i.e., the
set of pixels separating one image region from another) or all the points in the region
itself. In either case, converting the data to a form suitable for computer processing is
necessary. The first decision that must be made is whether the data should be represented
as a boundary or as a complete region. Boundary representation is appropriate when the
focus is on external shape characteristics, such as corners and inflections.
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Regional representation is appropriate when the focus is on internal properties,

such as texture or skeletal shape. In some applications, these representations complement
each other. Choosing a representation is only part of the solution for transforming raw
data into a form suitable for subsequent computer processing. A method must also be
specified for describing the data so that features of interest are highlighted. Description,
also called feature selection, deals with extracting attributes that result in some
quantitative information of interest or are basic for differentiating one class of objects
from another class.
1.1.12 Object recognition

The last stage involves recognition and interpretation. Recognition is the process
that assigns a label to an object based on the information provided by its descriptors.
Interpretation involves assigning meaning to an ensemble of recognized objects.
1.1.13 Knowledgebase
Knowledge about a problem domain is coded into image processing system in the
form of a knowledge database. This knowledge may be as simple as detailing regions of
an image when the information of interests is known to be located, thus limiting the search
that has to be conducted in seeking that information. The knowledge base also can be
quite complex, such as an inter related to list of all major possible defects in a materials
inspection problem or an image data base containing high resolution satellite images of a
region in connection with change deletion application. In addition to guiding the operation
of each processing module, the knowledge base also controls the interaction between
modules. The system must be endowed with the knowledge to recognize the significance
of the location of the string with respect to other components of an address field. This
knowledge glides not only the operation of each module, but it also aids in feedback
operations between modules through the knowledge base. We implemented preprocessing
techniques using MATLAB.
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1.2 APPLICATIONS OF IMAGE

1.2.1 BIO MEDICAL IMAGE PROCESSING
Brain tumor segmentation is one of the crucial procedures in surgical and
treatment planning. However, at present, brain tumor segmentation in brain tumor images
is mostly performed manually in clinical practice. Apart from being time consuming,
manual brain tumor delineation is difficult and depends on the individual operator.
Currently, multimodal MRI images are used simultaneously by radiologists in segmenting
brain tumor images because multimodal MRI images can provide various data on tumors.
In glioma, the tumor area is usually divided into necrosis, contrast-enhancing tumor, nonenhancing tumor.
Different MRI image modalities can reveal different parts in the tumor area. For
instance, T1C (T1-weighted images with contrast enhancement) highlights contrastenhancing regions, whereas T2 highlights edema regions (Fig.1.1-a).
Although multimodal MRI images can provide complementary information in

the tumor area, brain tumor segmentation is still a challenging and difficult task. Brain
tumors can have various sizes and shapes and may appear at different locations. In
addition to tumor heterogeneity, tumor edges can be complex and visually vague (Fig.
1). Moreover, some tumors may deform surrounding structures in the brain because of
the mass effect or edema (Fig. 1.2(a)). Additionally, artifacts and noise in brain tumor
images increase the difficulty when segmenting tumors. Thus, designing of a semiautomatic or automatic brain tumor segmentation approach is necessary to provide an
acceptable performance. Numerous algorithms have been developed to perform brain
tumor detection and segmentation. These methods include thresholding and
morphological techniques, watershed method, region growing approach, asymmetry
analysis, atlas-based method, contour/surface evolution method, interactive algorithm,
and supervised and unsupervised learning methods.
1.2.2 BRAIN TUMORS
Under certain conditions, brain cells grow and multiply uncontrollably because
for some reasons the mechanism that control normal cells is unable to regulate the
growth of the brain cells. The abnormal mass of brain tissue is the brain tumor that
occupies space in the skull and interrupts the normal functions of brain and creates an
increasing pressure in the brain. Due to increased pressure on the brain, some brain
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CLASSIFICATION.
tissues are shifted, pushed against the skull or are responsible for the damage of the
nerves of the other healthy brain tissues. Scientists have classified brain tumor according
to the location.
Fig1.2(a) Brain tumors

Fig1.2(a): Different modalities reveal different parts in the tumor area. The edge of the tumor
area is visually vague. In addition, the brain structure is deformed because of the occurrence
edema. (a) T1C-weighted brain tumor MRI image. (b) T2-weighted brain tumor MRI image. (c)
Contour of the actual brain tumor. \t" represents the combination of contrast-enhancing and
necrotic parts, and \e" represents the edema part.
Primary brain tumors are the tumors that originated in the brain and are named
for the cell types from which they originated. They can be benign (non-cancerous) and
malignant (cancerous). Benign tumors grow slowly and do not spread elsewhere or
invade the surrounding tissues. However, occupying a short space, even the less
aggressive tumor can exercise much pressure on the brain and makes it dysfunctional.
Conversely, more aggressive tumors can grow more quickly and spread to other
tissues. Each of these tumors has unique clinical, radiographic and biological
characteristics. Secondary brain tumors originate from another part of the body. These
tumors consist of cancer cells somewhere else in the body that have metastasized or
spread to the brain The most common cause of secondary brain tumors are: lung
cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, kidney cancer, bladder cancer, certain sarcomas, and
testicular and germ cell tumors.
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1.2.3 MRI Brain Imaging and characteristics of brain tumors

There are a variety of imaging techniques used to study brain tumors, such as:
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT),Positron emission
tomography (PET), and single photon emission computer tomography (SPECT)
imaging and cerebral angiography. In recent years, CT and MR imaging are the most
widely used techniques, because of their widespread availability and their ability to
produce high resolution images of normal anatomic structures and pathological tissues.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a method used to visualize pathological or other
physiological alterations of living tissues and is commonly used for brain tumor
imaging because of the following reasons.
It does not use ionizing radiation like CT, SPECT and PET Its contrast
resolution is higher than other techniques mentioned above Ability of MRI devices to
generate 3D space images enables them to have superior tumor localization its ability
in acquisition of both functional and anatomical information about the tumor during the
same scan.
1.2.4 MR imaging (MRI)

Before discussing the MR image characteristics of brain tumors, it is important
to describe the working principle of MR imaging. During MR imaging, the patient is
placed in a strong magnetic field which causes the pro-tons in the water molecule of the
body to align in either a parallel (low energy) or anti-parallel (high energy) orientation
with the magnetic field. Then a radiofrequency pulse is introduced which forces the
spinning protons to move out of equilibrium state. When a radio frequency pulse is
stopped, the protons return to equilibrium state and produce a sinusoidal signal at a
frequency dependent on the local magnetic field. Finally, a radio frequency coils or
resonators within the scanner detects the signal and creates the image. Magneticresonance imaging (MRI) is an imaging technique used primarily in medical settings to
produce high quality images of the inside of the human body. A MRI is similar to CT,
but it does not use X-rays. Instead, a strong, magnetic field is used to accept the
orientation of protons, which behave like miniature magnets and tend to align
themselves with the external field.
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Raymond V. Damadian invented MRI in 1969 and was the first person to use
MRI to investigate the human body. Eventually, MRI became the most preferred
imaging technique in radiology because MRI enabled internal structures be visualized
in some detail. With MRI, good contrast between different soft tissues of the body can
be observed. This makes MRI suitable for providing better quality images for the brain,
the muscles, the heart and cancerous tissues compared with other medical imaging
techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) or X-rays. In MRI signal processing
considers signal emissions.
These are characterized by various magnetic signals weighting with particular

values of the echo time (TG) and the repetition time (TR). The signal processing has
three different images that can be achieved from the same body: T1-weighted, T2weighted and PD-weighted (proton density). Figure 2 (a) shows that a patient's head is
examined from three plans in a clinical diagnosis which are plane, sagittal plane and
coronal plane. Furthermore, T1-weighted brain MR images from various planes are
shown in figure 2 (b), (c),and(d)
Fig1.2(b) Brain MR Images From (a) Axial Plane, (c) Sagittal Plane And (d) Coronal
Plan
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CLASSIFICATION.
2.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION:

Chapter-1 of the thesis gives the brief review about the digital image processing and
biomedical image processing and applications.
Chapter-2 The literature for the project is gathered and represented along with
problem statement.
Chapter-3 describe about existing technique and methods with the listed advantage
and disadvantage.
Chapter-4 deals with the proposed system that deals the algorithm and methodology
and in the project along with parameter calculated.
Chapter-5 result and conclusion is described.
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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED CLASSIFICATION.
CHAPTER 2
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LITERATURE SURVEY
1. Meiyan Huang et.al discuss about problem of segmentation of brain tumors. For solving
this several methods are available. In this Paper the aim of author is to solve the
segmentation problem by using LIPC based method. Compared with other coding LAE
method is more suitable in solving linear reconstruction weights under the locality
constraint. The data distribution in each sub manifold was important for the classification,
and he used a soft max model to learn the relationship between the data distribution and
reconstruction error norm. He evaluated the method using both synthetic data and public
available brain tumor image data.
2. Dongjin Kwon et.al discuss about new method for deformable registration of pre-operative
and post-operative brain MR scans of glioma patients. It matches intensities of healthy tissue
as well as glioma to resection cavity. This method extracted pathological information on both
scans using scan specific approaches and then registers scans by combining image based
matching with pathological information. He presented a new deformable registration approach
that matches intensities of healthy tissue as well as glioma to resection cavity. His method
extracted pathological information on both scans using scan-specific approaches and then
registers scans by combining image-based matching with pathological information. To
achieve unbiased deformation fields on either scan, he used a symmetric formulation of our
energy model comprised of image- and shape-based correspondences and smoothness
constraints. He determined the optimal registration results by minimizing the energy function
using a hybrid optimization strategy which takes advantages both of discrete and continuous
optimizations.
3. Andac Hamamci et.al discuss about fast and robust practical tool for segmentation of solid
tumors with minimal user interaction. Segmentation algorithm for problem of tumor
delineation which exhibit varying tissue characteristics. The author discuss a tumor cut
segmentation to partition the tumor tissue further into its necrotic tumor and enhancing parts.
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He presented a segmentation algorithm for the problem of tumor delineation which exhibit
varying tissue characteristics. As the change in necrotic and enhancing part of the tumor after
radiation therapy becomes important, He also applied the Tumor-cut segmentation to partition
the tumor tissue further into its necrotic and enhancing parts. He presented validation studies
over a synthetic tumor database and two real tumor databases: one from Harvard tumor
repository and another from a clinical database of tumors that underwent radiosurgery
planning at Radiation Oncology Department of ASM.
4. Stefan Bauer et.al discuss about a new method which makes use of sophisticated models of
bio physio mechanical tumor growth to adapt a general brain atlas to an individual tumor patient
image. It can be applied for solid tumors and gliomas with distinct boundaries to capture
important mass effect, while the less pronounced in Itration effect is not considered in this case.
The method essentially comprises two steps: patient specific tumor growth modeling in
combination with non rigid registration techniques , where his method for tumor growth
modeling integrates discrete and continuous approaches for simulation. The results show that it
is possible to adapt a healthy atlas to a tumor-bearing patient image using the his model
approach. Quantitative overlap measures indicate that this sophisticated method achieves
reasonable results in a similar range as other models without being very sensitive to the initial
and stopping conditions of the growth model. The accuracy of Dice coefficients is also
comparable to values reported for a different approach , however different data was used in this
case. He expect better results when using the full image resolution for the tumor growth model.
Computation times are significantly longer compared to the approach because several bio
physical and bio mechanical layers are taken into account.
2.1 Problem statement

Brain Tumor segmentation is an important procedure for early tumor diagnosis and
radio therapy planning. Although numerous brain tumor segmentation methods have been
presented enhancing tumor segmentation methods is still challenging because brain tumor
MRI images exhibits complex characteristics , such as high diversity in tumor appearance
and ambiguous tumor boundaries. To address this problem , proposed a novel automatic
tumor segmentation method for MRI images.
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CHAPTER 3
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EXISTING TECHNIQUIES
3.1 Threshold Method
Image segmentation by using threshold method is quite simple but very powerful
approach for segmenting images based on image-space region i.e. characteristics of the image
[7]. This method is usually used for images having light object on darker background or vice
versa. Thresholding algorithm will choose a proper threshold value T to divide images pixels
into several classes and separate objects from the background. Any pixel (x, y) for which f(x,
y)>=T is considered to be foreground while any pixel (x, y) which has value f(x, y) <T is
considered to be background. Based on the selection of threshold value, there are two types of
thresholding method that are in existence:
a) Global Thresholding
Global (single) thresholding method is used when there the intensity distribution
between the objects of foreground and background are very distinct. When the difference
between foreground and background objects are very distinct, a single value of threshold can
simply be used to differentiate both objects apart. Thus, in this type of thresholding, the value
of threshold T depends solely on the property of the pixel and the grey level value of the
image. Some most common used global thresholding methods are Otsu method, entropy based
thresholding, etc [10].
b) Local thresholding
This method divides an image into several sub regions and then choose various
thresholds Ts for each sub region respectively. Thus, threshold depends on both f(x, y) and
p(x, y). Some common used Local thresholding techniques are simple statistical thresholding,
2-D entropy-based thresholding histogram transformation thresholding etc [7].
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3.2 Region based Segmentation Methods

A As compared to segmentation based on edge detection, segmentation methods based
on regions are relatively simple and are more immune to noise. Contrary to edge based
Segmentation techniques who segmenting image based on the abrupt changes in the intensities
of neighboring pixel, region based segmentation algorithms segment an image into regions
that are similar according to a set of predefined criteria [10]. Region based segmentation
include:
a) Region Growing
This method group pixels in an entire image into sub regions or large regions based on
predefined criterion. In other words, the basic idea is to group a collection of pixels with
similar properties to form a region [10]. Region growing can be processed into four steps:
(i) Select a group of seed particles in original image
(ii) Select a set of criteria for determining similar seeds based on properties such as
gray level intensity or color and then set up a stopping rule.
(iii) Grow the region by adding to each seed those neighboring pixels that have predefined
properties similar to the seed pixel.
(iv) Stop the region growth when there are no more pixels that match the criterion for
inclusion in that region.
b) Region Splitting and Merging
Previous mentioned techniques, region grows by selecting a set of seed points.
However, in this technique, the image is subdivided into a set of arbitrary unconnected regions
and merge/split the region according to the condition of the segmentation. This particular
splitting technique is usually implemented with theory based on quad tree data. Quad tree is a
tree in which each node has exactly four branches .
This include following steps:
a) Start splitting the region into four branches.
b) Merge any region when no further splitting is possible.
c) Stop when no further merging is possible.
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3.3 Intensity-Based Method

Low-level operations, such as thresholding, edge detection, and morphological
techniques, are fast and can be easily adjusted. However, the tumor segmentation performance of
these methods highly depends on evident difference in the intensities between tumor and nontumor regions. Watershed and region growing approaches are simple and consistently produce
complete boundaries. However, these two methods are sensitive to noise, which is a common
problem in the intensity-based method. Moreover, most intensity-based methods tend to over
segment tumors because of the weak and di used edges caused by edema.
3.4 Asymmetry Analysis

The healthy human brain is largely symmetric across the mid-sagittal plane. The
asymmetric analysis method for tumor segmentation is based on the principle that tumors, which
appear in one of the cerebral hemispheres, can cause asymmetry between the left and right
cerebral hemispheres. This asymmetry can be detected, and tumors can be roughly located in the
corresponding cerebral hemisphere. The asymmetric analysis method can hasten the tumor
detection and segmentation process because tumor segmentation is implemented in one of the
cerebral hemispheres. However, accurately finding the mid-sagittal plane is a challenging and
time-consuming task. More importantly, asymmetry analysis may not be useful when a tumor is
located across the mid-sagittal plane.
3.5 Atlas-Based Method

Atlas-based segmentation methods have been extensively investigated. Brain atlases
can provide important data prior to tumor segmentation enhancement by measuring the
difference between abnormal and normal brains. However, the deformable registration of
the brain atlas to brain images with tumor is an extremely challenging task because of the
intensity variations around the tumor caused by edema and the deformations of healthy
tissue morphology caused by the tumor mass effect. In a previous study, affine registration
is used to align the atlas to the tumor image data. When a large brain structure deformation
appears, the misalignment issues are noted on the aligned atlas, which may significantly
decrease segmentation accuracy.
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3.6 Contour/Surface Evolution Method

The contour/surface evolution method has been widely used for the tumor
segmentation of 2D/3D data. This method can be represented implicitly as a level set
function or explicitly as an active contour model/snake function. Compared with the
parametric active contour model, the level set method can represent contours with complex
topology and handle topological changes, such as splitting and merging in a natural and e
client way. Furthermore, the extension of the level set method to 3D is straightforward and
does not require additional machinery. However, the contour/surface evolution method
does not easily determine the initializations and tune the parameters even when 3D level set
surfaces are used.
3.7 Interactive Algorithm

Graph-based seeded segmentation framework is one of the popular methods among
interactive algorithms. Graph-based seeded segmentation is a global optimization approach,
which showed outstanding performance for tumor segmentation in our previous studies.
However, this method needs manual seed selection in different tissues, and distinguishing
Different tissues in the tumor are difficult during the selection of initial seeds for different
tissues. In a previous study, a cellular automata-based seeded method, called tumor-cut, has
been presented for brain tumor segmentation. This method only requires the user to draw a
line over the largest visible tumor diameter. Although this initial seed selection strategy can
reduce manual interaction and decrease the sensitivity of the method to initialization, this
procedure may not include all tumor areas within the volume of interest along the depth
direction, thus leading to tumor under segmentation.
3.8 Supervised and Unsupervised Learning Methods

Unsupervised learning method, such as k-means and fuzzy clustering, has become
popular for brain tumor segmentation in recent years. The fuzzy method considers that
medical images are inherently fuzzy, so it is a very strong tool for medical image processing.
Furthermore, the fuzzy method can capture pixel proximity in the same objective region
without a training step. However, most fuzzy methods work well only for tumors that present
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hyper-intensity and exhibit poor performance on segmenting non-enhanced tumors. These

conditions are due to the fact that these fuzzy methods typically use intensity-based method,
such as thresholding and morphological operations, as pre- or post-processing.
Supervised classification learning method is widely used in tumor segmentation. Welltrained classifiers can extract discriminative information from the training data and estimate
the label of each voxel in a testing volume. However, the traditional classification methods
classify each voxel into different classes without considering the spatial correlation between
current and nearby voxels. This method may not obtain a global optimized result. To address
this problem, a classification method is generally combined with a regularization step. The
regularization step can be implemented by modeling the boundary or by applying a variant of
a random field spatial prior (MRF/CRF). In the previous studies, context-aware spatial
features and the probabilities obtained by tissue-specific Gaussian mixture models are used as
inputs for classifiers, and satisfied segmentation results are achieved without using post-hoc
regularization.
Similar to the previously described methods, we propose a novel classification method,

named local independent projection-based classification (LIPC), for brain tumor segmentation
without using explicit regularization. The contribution of this study can be summarized as
follows. First, an LIPC-based method is introduced to solve the tumor segmentation problem.
Based on recent studies on sparse representation, the sparse representation-based classification
(SRC) method was adopted in medical image segmentation, thereby producing robust results.
In the SRC method, a sample can be sparsely represented in a specific dictionary, which
contains samples from all classes. Contrary to SRC, the proposed LIPC assumes that the
training samples from different classes are located on different sub manifolds. Then, the
training samples are divided into different groups and subsequently used to construct different
dictionaries.
The testing sample is independently projected on these different dictionaries using the
local anchor embedding (LAE) method.
Second, a soft max model is used to determine the relationship between data
distribution and reconstruction error norm. When the data distribution is uniform and the noise
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is low, classification may be performed well. However, data distribution is complex in brain
tumor MRI images. In addition, the data distribution of different classes (i.e., tumor, edema,
and brain tissue) may widely vary. Therefore, the data distribution of each class should be
considered when segmenting brain tumors. Our evaluations on synthetic data and public
available brain tumor image data demonstrates that considering the data distribution of
different classes can further improve the segmentation perform.
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CHAPTER 4
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PROPOSED METHOD
The Proposed method consists of four major steps , that are preprocessing, feature
extraction, tumor segmentation using the LIPC method , and post processing .To reduce the
computational costs, to embedded the proposed method.
Block diagram of the proposed system
Training
data
Pre processing
Testing
data
Pre processing
Feature
extraction
LIPC
Post
Processing
Final
result
Feature
extraction
Fig.4.1: Flowchart of proposed method.
A Series of experiments were performed on the training and testing brain tumor image
data. For the training data, a complete tumor is subdivided into tumor core and edema parts.
The proposed method was evaluated using a five fold cross validation fashion. All
experiments were repeated five times , and the final results were reported as the mean an
standard deviation of the result from the individual runs. For each run, a total of 64 images
were used in training and 16 images were used in testing. Mean while no joint set is existed
between the training and testing datasets.
4.1 Pre-processing
Median filtering is similar to using an averaging filter, in that each output pixel is set
to an average of the pixel values in the neighborhood of the corresponding input pixel.
However with median filtering, the value of an output pixel is determined by the median of
the neighborhood pixels, rather than the mean. The median is much less sensitive than the
mean to extreme values. Median filtering is better able to remove outliers without reducing the
sharpness of the image.
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FEATURE EXTRACTION
1. LBP Method
2. SVM Method
4.2 Local Binary Pattern

Local Binary' Patterns (LBP) is a type of feature used for classification in computer
vision. LBP was first described in 1996. It has since been found to be a powerful feature for
texture classification; it has further been determined that when LBP is combined with the
Histogram of oriented gradients (HOG) classifier, it yields the best classifier of humans (i.e.
person vs. non-person) among the classifiers usually considered in academic literature
The LBP feature vector, in its simplest form, is created in the following manner:
Divide the examined window to cells (e.g. 16x16 pixels for each cell).
For each pixel in a cell, compare the pixel to each of its 8 neighbors (on its left-top, leftmiddle, left-bottom, right-top, etc.). Follow the pixels along a circle, i.e. clockwise or
counter-clockwise.
Where the center pixel's value is greater than the neighbor, write "1". Otherwise, write
"0". This gives an 8-digit binary number (which is usually converted to decimal for
convenience).
Compute the histogram, over the cell, of the frequency of each "number" occurring (i.e.,
each combination of which pixels are smaller and which are greater than the center).
Optionally normalize the histogram.
Concatenate normalized histograms of all cells. This gives the feature vector for the
window.
The feature vector now can be processed using the Support vector machine or some other
machine-learning algorithm, to produce a classifier.
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4.3 Binary pattern (image generation)

Binary pattern is an image produced by a formula that includes binary operations and
results in a 32bit integer number. These patterns are closely tied to the 32bit RGB color system.
These patterns may be used with any integer numbers.
The most simple pattern is x or y, result of which will be pixel color (in RGB), where x and y
represent coordinates of image pixel we search. x or y operation where x and y are 32bit
numbers is per-bit or. For example, if we have 108 (1101100) and 226 (11100010) then 108 or
226 is 238 (11101110). This pattern is not restricted only to 2D. and can be extended into higher
dimensions such as 3D.
Uses
Color generation - possibility to create dozens of new colors, which won't be close to any of
basic colors, such as Red, Green, Blue, etc.
Desktop backgrounds - using several filters its possible to achieve nice patterns, which
may be tiled on desktop screen
Texture generation - different formulas may provide images suitable for procedural image
generation, for example creating carpets or walls
Color = x or y
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Fig 4.3 Binary pattern image
Local binary pattern (LBP) is a popular technique used for image/face representation
and classification. LBP has been widely applied in various applications due to its high
discriminative power and tolerance against illumination changes such as texture analysis and
object recognition. It was originally introduced by Ojala et al. [10] as gray-scale and rotation
invariant texture classification. Basically, LBP is invariant to monotonic gray-scale
transformations. The basic idea is that each 3x3-neighborhood in an image is threshold by the
value of its center pixel and a decimal representation is then obtained by taking the binary
sequence (Figure 1) as a binary number such that LBP e [0, 255].
0
30
6
1
42
7
2
5
8
1 2
128 0
64 32
4
8
16
Fig 4.3: The multi-scale LBP operator with (8,1) and (8,2) neighborhoods. Pixel
values are bi linearly interpolated for points which are not in the center pixel.
4.4 Enhanced Local Binary Pattern

Jin et al. suggests that the original LBP operator miss some local structures and they
then proposed an improvement of LBP operator that considers both local shape and texture
information instead of raw grayscale information and it is robust to illumination variation, called
improved Local Binary Patterns (ILBP) [8]. The main difference between ILBP and LBP is the
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comparison of all the pixels including the center pixel with the mean of all the pixels in the
kernel. The decimal result of 9-bits can be mathematically expressed as,
7
LBP xc , yc s in ic .2n
n 0
Eq 1
Where it is the mean grey value in the kernel. Qian Tao and Raymond Veldhuis [13] proposed
simplified local binary pattern (SLBP) for illumination normalization by assigning equal weights
to each of the 8 neighborhood. It was shown that the processed image becomes more robust to
illumination change. There are two advantages for SLBP: the simplified one is not directionalsensitive and the coding number is largely reduced from 256 to 9 patterns. SLBP is defined as,
7
SLBP xc , yc s in ic .1
n 0
Eq 2
However, LBP operator based method still has its small spatial support area (3x3
neighborhood), hence theit-wise comparison made between two single pixel values is much
affected by noise. The local 3x3 LBP therefore does not capture large scale structure (macrostructure) that may be dominant facial feature. To overcome these limitations of LBP operator,
Shengcai Liao et al [9] proposed a multi scale block, local binary pattern (MBLBP), by simply
calculating the average sum of image intensity in each block (e.g. 3x3, 9x9, 15x15), 3x3
MBLBP operator is equivalent to the original LBP, and comparing to its surrounding block as
shown in Fig4.4. The average sum is then threshold by its center block.
7
MBLBP Bc s Bn Bc .2n
n 0
Eq 3
where Be is the average sum obtained at central block and Bn is the average sum obtained at its
neighbourhood. Note that the average sum over each block can be computed efficiently by using
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Fig 4.4: The 9x9 MBLBP operator
4.5 Local Line Binary Pattern

The motivation of Local Line Binary Pattern (LLBP) is from Local Binary Pattern (LBP)
due to it summarizes the local special structure (micro-structure) of an image by thresholding the
local window with binary weight and introduce the decimal number as a texture presentation.
Moreover it consumes less computational cost.
The basic idea of LLBP is similar to the original LBP but the difference are as follows:
1) its neighbourhood shape is a straight line with length N pixel, unlike in LBP which is a square
shape. 2) the distribution of binary weight is started from the left and right adjacent pixel of
center pixel (20) to the end of left and right side , (2 N /2 , e.g , N 9, 29/22 , where _ _ is ceiling
function) equally as illustrated in Fig 4.5 The algorithm of LLBP, it first obtains the line
binary code along with horizontal and vertical direction separately and its magnitude, which
characterizes the change in image intensity such as edges and corners, is then computed. It can be
mathematically expressed as in (6)-(8). where LLBPH, LLBPV, LLBPM are LLBP on horizontal
direction, vertical direction, and its magnitude respectively (The example of processed image
for each direction and its magnitude are shown in Fig4.5).
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Fig 4.5: LLBP operator with line length 9 pixels, 8 bits considered
4.6 SVM
In machine learning, Support Vector Machines (SVMs, also support vector
networks"1) are supervised learning models with associated learning algorithms that analyze
data used for classification and regression analysis. Given a set of training examples, each
marked for belonging to one of two categories, an SVM training algorithm builds a model
that assigns new examples into one category or the other, making it a non-probabilistic
binary linear classifier. An SVM model is a representation of the examples as points in
space, mapped so that the examples of the separate categories are divided by a clear gap that
is as wide as possible. New examples are then mapped into that same space and predicted to
belong to a category based on which side of the gap they fall on.
In addition to performing linear classification, SVMs can efficiently perform a nonlinear classification using what is called the kernel trick, implicitly mapping their inputs into
high-dimensional feature spaces.
When data are not labeled, a supervised learning is not possible, and an unsupervised
learning is required, that would find natural clustering of the data to groups, and map new data to
these formed groups. The clustering algorithm which provides an improvement to the support
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vector machines is called support vector clustering0 and is often used in industrial applications
either when data is not labeled or when only some data is labeled as a preprocessing for a
classification pass.
We are given a training dataset of ft points of the form
x1
, y1 ,.......,
xn
, yn
Eq 4
Where the yi are either 1 or -1, each indicating the class to which the point
Each
x1
x1
belongs.
i is a p - dimensional real vector. We want to find the "maximum-margin hyper
plane" that divides the group of points
x1
for which yi 1 from the group of points for
which yi 1 which is defined so that the distance between the hyper plane and the nearest
point
x1
from either group is maximized. Any hyper plane can be written as the set of points

satisfying x
. b 0,
Fig 4.6 Supporting vector graph
Maximum-margin hyper plane and margins for an SVM trained with samples from two
classes. Samples on the margin are called the support vectors.
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where
is the (not necessarily normalized) normal vector to the hyper plane. The
parameter
determines the offset of the hyper plane from the origin along the normal
vector
4.6.1 Hard-margin
If the training data are linearly separable, we can select two parallel hyper planes that
separate the two classes of data, so that the distance between them is as large as possible. The
region bounded by these two hyper planes is called the "margin", and the maximum-margin
hyper plane is the hyper plane that lies halfway between them. These hyper planes can be
described by the equations

. b 1
and

. b 1
Geometrically, the distance between these two hyper planes is

distance between the planes we want to minimize
, so to maximize the
. As we also have to prevent data points
from falling into the margin, we add the following constraint: for each either
. b
1, if
=1
Or
Eq 5
. b
-1, if
= -1
These constraints state that each data point must lie on the correct side of the margin.
This can be rewritten as:
( . b)
1,
for all 1
n.
Eq 6
We can put this together to get the optimization problem:
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Minimize subject to
The
and
( .
b)
. + b).
that solve this problem determine our classifier,
An easy-to-see but important consequence of this geometric description is that max-margin

hyper plane is completely determined by those
which lie nearest to it. These
are
called support vectors.

4.6.2 Soft-margin
To extend SVM to cases in which the data are not linearly separable, we introduce
the hinge loss function,
( . b)).
Eq 7
This function is zero if the constraint in (1) is satisfied, in other words, if
lies on the
correct side of the margin. For data on the wrong side of the margin, the function's value is
proportional to the distance from the margin. We then wish to minimize
[
Where the parameter
ensuring that the
Eq 8
determines the tradeoff between increasing the margin-size and
lie on the correct side of the margin. Thus, for sufficiently small values
of , the soft-margin SVM will behave identically to the hard-margin SVM if the input data
are linearly classifiable, but will still learn a viable classification rule if not.
4.7 Local independent projection based classification

Brain tumor segmentation can be considered as a multiclass classification problem. To
solve this problem, a one-versus-all (OVA) strategy can be used. In the OVA approach, a
classifier is trained per class to distinguish a class a from all other classes. Therefore, N
Classifiers f = (fi)Ni=1 where N is the number of classifiers.
The label of sample x can be defined as follows.
l=arg max
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=arg max
Eq 9
Page 35
Before the proposed LIPC was introduced, the following assumption was considered as the
base for LIPC:
Assumption I:
Samples from different classes are located on different non-linear sub manifolds, and a
sample can be approximately represented as a linear combination of several nearest neighbors
from its corresponding sub-manifold.
4.8 LIPC Implementation
4.8.1 Dictionary construction:
The manually labeled original samples in a training set are used to construct D. However,
numerous original training samples possibly produce a large D, which dramatically increases
computational and memory costs. In the present study, more than half a million samples for
each class are available for training. Thus, subsequent processes are impractical when
conducted traditionally. Applying a dictionary learning method is necessary in learning a
compact representation of the original training samples.
The k-means method can obtain the typical structures of the original sample space; and
thus, this method is used in the current study to learn a compact representation of the original
training samples of each class.
4.8.2 Local linear representation

Sparse coding, LLC, LAE are used to represent a sample that is linearly based on
training sample. In particular LAE forces the weight coefficients to maintain the non
negativity and a sum that is equal to one, which ensures that the reconstructed sample is a
convex combination of its closest neighbors, therefore the reconstructed sample is located in a
convex region on a hyper plane spanned by its closest neighbors.
Cost function of LAE as
a*= arg min ||x-
s.t
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Eq 10
Three steps to be performed to obtain the solution to LAE

The K nearest neighbors of the testing sample x was selected from D and N
(k) was
constructed
For dJs that dont belong to the Nx (k), The associated ajs were set to 0
Their corresponding ajs was calculated using the projected gradient

=
Eq 11
).
Where t is the number of iterations,

is the gradient of function h at a.
P X (a) is a simplex projection
= arg min ||a-a||
In general, data distributions on different sub manifolds are different. The Therefore
reconstruction error norms of the samples cover a wide range and may sometimes violate the
negative correlation as shown in below fig.
Fig4.8: Example that shows how a testing sample may be wrongly classified if the data
distributions on different sub manifolds are not considered.
so the testing sample will be
assigned to Class 2 based on (8). However, assigning the testing sample to be Class 1 is
reasonable after considering the distribution of all training data on different sub manifolds
b- Learning a soft max regression model using the reconstruction error norms to separate the
data into different classes.
Thus classification score can be defined as
Yi=g(
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( |
| )
Eq 12
Soft max regression model can be defined as

Yi=exp(
||
2) /
Eq 13
| )
Algorithm
Input: Training set T = {T i }Ni= 1 = {{xji , lij }nj=i 1 }Ni= 1 ; A testing sample x.
Output: The classification scores y = {yi }Ni= 1 and the label l of x.
Stage-1: Construction of sub dictionary for each class Partition {xji , lij }nj=i 1 into Ni subsets
and calculate the cluster centers denoted as Di = [d1i , d2i , . . . , dNi i ] using k-means methods.
Stage-2: Calculation of locally linear representation coefficients. Reconstruct each x(j ) in T
based on dictionary D using the LAE method and calculate the corresponding coefficient
vector {a(ij ) }Ni= 1.
Stage 3: Soft max regression model determination: Calculate reconstruction error vector i of
all training samples for each class based on dictionary D = {Di }Ni= 1 and coefficient vectors
{a(j ) }nj= 1 .
Stage 4: Core of the proposed method:
Reconstruct the input sample x based on dictionary D using the LAE method and calculate the
coefficient vectors {ai }Ni= 1 . Calculate the reconstruction error vector i of x for each class
according to (2). Calculate the classification scores y = {yi }Ni= 1 of x ,Achieve the label l of x .
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CHAPTER 5
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RESULT
1. For the classification of an image the system is first trained for to get the good
classification.
2.For this total 80 images used out of these 40 are used for training and 40 are
used for testing.
5.1 Input image
Fig5.1 Input images
Select the input image from data set , after that apply the Gaussian filter, for to get the
Filtered image.
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5.2 EDAGE DETECTION IMAGE
Fig 5.2 Edge detection images

Fig 5.2 Edge detection images to detect the tumor edges canny method is used.
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5.3 Counter segmentation
Fig 5.3 Counter segmentation
Fig 5.3 counter segmentation method same intensity pixel values are taken.
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5.4 Tumor region part
Fig 5.4 Tumer region part
Fig 5.4 Tumor region part water shed algorithm is used.
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5.5 Database classification
Fig 5.5 Data base classification
Fig 5.5 data base classification 80 images are used out of this 40 images are
used for training and 40 images are used for testing.
5.6 LIPC classification
Fig 5.6 LIPC classification
Fig 5.6 LIPC classification image can be divided into four patches. And also
LBP method is applied .
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CONCLUSION
An automatic method is proposed for brain tumor segmentation in MRI images. An
LIPC-based method was introduced to solve the tumor segmentation problem. The proposed
LIPC used local independent projection into the classical classification model, and a novel
classification framework was derived. Compared with other coding approaches, the LAE
method was more suitable in solving the linear reconstruction weights under the locality
constraint. The data distribution in each sub manifold was important for the classification, and
we used a soft max model to learn the relationship between the data distribution and
reconstruction error norm. This work evaluate the proposed method using both synthetic data
and public available brain tumor image data. In both problems, our method outperformed
competing methods.
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References
1.Meiyan Huang, Wei Yang, Yao Wu, Jun Jiang, Wufan Chen, Senior Mem-ber, IEEE, and
Qianjin Feng*, Member," Brain Tumor Segmentation Based on Local Independent
Projection-based Classification \ IEEE Transactions on Biomedical EngineeringDOI
10.1109/TBME.2014.2325410 ,2013
2. Dongjin Kwon*, Member, IEEE, Marc Niethammer, Member, IEEE, Hamed Akbari,
Michel Bilello,Christos Davatzikos, Fellow, IEEE, and Kil-ian M. Pohl, Member, \PORTR:
Pre-Operative and Post-Recurrence Brain Tumor Registration", IEEE Transactions on
Medical Imaging.
3. MarchBauer*,Student Member, IEEE, Christian May, Dimitra Diony-siou, Georgios

Stamatakos, Member, IEEE, Philippe, and Mauricio Reyes, Member, IEEE," Multiscale
Modeling for Image Analysis of Brain Tumor Studies", IEEE Transactions on Biomedical
Engineering, vol. 59, no. 1, january 2012
4. T. Wang, I. Cheng, and A. Basu, "Fluid vector ow and applications in brain tumor
segmentation," IEEE Transactions on Bio-medical Engineering, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 781-9, Mar
2009.
5. J. Corso, E. Sharon, S. Dube, S. El-Saden, U. Sinha, and A. Yuille, "Efficient multilevel

brain tumor segmentation with integrated bayesian model classi cation," IEEE Transactions
on Medical Imaging, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 629-40, May 2008.
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CLASSIFICATION.
BIO-DATA
(1) Name
Reg no
Fathers name
Address
:
:
:
:
Phone no
Email Id
:
:
(2) Name
Reg no
Fathers name
Address
:
:
:
:
Phone no
Email Id
:
:
(3) Name
Reg no
Fathers name
:
:
:
Address
Phone no
Email Id
:
:
(4) Name
Reg.No
Fathers name
Address
:
:
:
:
Phone no
Email Id
:
:
DEPARTMENT OF ECE
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Shaik Nowshad
12JE1A0453
Shaik.khayum
Nehuru nagar
Chilakaluripet,Guntur(Dist)
9550263914
shaiknowshad453@gmail.com
Pothukuchi Lakshmi Madhuri
12JE1A0429
P.Ramasasthri
Vidya nagar
Narasaraopet,Guntur(Dist)
7893028550
lakshmimadhuri78@gmail.com
Shaik Hajar munni
12JE1A0419
Shaik Meeravali
Kammavari palli,
Pullalacheruvu,
Prakasam (Dist)
8008514695
hajarmunnishaik@gmail.com
Kavala. Deepthi
12JE1A0411
K. Nagaiah
East Christian pet
Chilakaluripet, Guntur(Dist)
9573985079
deepthikavala@gmail.com

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

ESWAR COLLEGE OF ENGG

BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

Image is a two-dimensional, such as a photograph, screen display, and as well as a

1.1 IMAGE PROCESSING

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

1.1.2 FUNDAMENTAL STEPS IN DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

Fig1.1 (a) Fundamental steps in digital image processing

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

Fig 1.1(b) Image acquisition

Scanner produces a two-dimensional image. If the output of the camera or other

1.1.4 Image Enhancement

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

Fig1.1(d) Image enhancement

1.1.5 Image restoration

Fig1.1(e) Image restoration

Enhancement, on the other hand, is based on human subjective preferences

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

1.1.6 Color image processing

Fig1.1(f) Color image processing

1.1.7 Wavelets and multi resolution processing

Fig1.1(g) Wavelets and multi resolution processing

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

Wavelets were first shown to be the foundation of a powerful new approach to

1.1.9 Morphological processing

Fig 1.1(h) Morphological processing

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

Fig 1.1(i) Segmentation

On the other hand, weak or erratic segmentation algorithms almost always

1.1.11 Representation and description

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

Regional representation is appropriate when the focus is on internal properties,

1.1.12 Object recognition

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

1.2 APPLICATIONS OF IMAGE

Although multimodal MRI images can provide complementary information in

ESWAR COLLEGE OF ENGG

BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

Fig1.2(a) Brain tumors

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

1.2.3 MRI Brain Imaging and characteristics of brain tumors

1.2.4 MR imaging (MRI)

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

These are characterized by various magnetic signals weighting with particular

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED

2.5 THESIS ORGANIZATION:

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BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED CLASSIFICATION.

ESWAR COLLEGE OF ENGG

BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED CLASSIFICATION.

ESWAR COLLEGE OF ENGG

BRAIN TUMOR SEGMENTATION BASED ON LOCAL INDEPENDENT PROJECTION BASED CLASSIFICATION.