2009finalreportteam9 On Jatropha

Team 9: Oil from [the] Soil
Biodiesel Production from Seed Oil of the

Jatropha Curcas Plant
Final Report
Authors:
Brooke Buikema
Stephen Gabbadon
Hwok-Chuen Lee
Michael Workman
Date Submitted:
May 15th, 2009
Executive Summary
Team Oil from [the] Soil is comprised of four Calvin College senior engineering students in the chemical
concentration who are proposing an alternative source for biodiesel production. This alternative entails
converting the oil found in the seeds from the Jatropha Curcas plant into biodiesel. Team Oil from [the]
Soil has designed and optimized a chemical process to produce biodiesel from the Jatropha Curcas plant.
With the use of UniSim design software, the team has simulated a chemical plant which produces two
million gallons of Jatropha Curcas biodiesel annually. Using Jatropha Curcas seed oil to produce
biodiesel was concluded to be a feasible alternative because:
The yield of biodiesel per hectare for Jatropha is more than four times as much fuel per hectare
as soybean, and up to ten times that of corn.
Jatropha is a non-food plant and does not consume any food stock.
The Jatropha plant can be grown in harsh, arid conditions, making it suitable for growth in a
variety of different locations and difficult environments.
Jatropha plantations have the potential to improve the economy of lesser-developed nations with
vast wastelands.
The production of biodiesel from Jatropha Curcas seeds is comprised of three major steps:
1. Extraction of seed oil: A solvent extraction method is used to extract the oil from crushed
Jatropha seed flakes.
2. Treatment of seed oil: The free fatty acid content in the seed oil is reduced by acid-catalyzed
transesterification to give a higher biodiesel yield product in the third and final step.
3. Conversion of seed oil to biodiesel: This step utilizes base- catalyzed transesterification process
which effectively produces biodiesel from the treated Jatropha Curcas seed oil.
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ____________________________________________________________ i
Table of Contents _____________________________________________________________ ii
List of Figures _______________________________________________________________ iv
List of Tables ________________________________________________________________ iv
1. Introduction _______________________________________________________________ 1
2. Background _______________________________________________________________ 1
2.1. Jatropha Curcas History ________________________________________________________ 1
2.2. Jatropha Curcas Life Cycle and Harvest ___________________________________________ 2
2.3. Jatropha Biodiesel for Retail _____________________________________________________ 3
2.3. Potential for Farmers and Developing Nations ______________________________________ 3
3. Chemistry Overview _________________________________________________________ 4

3.1. Extraction of Seed Oil __________________________________________________________ 4
3.2. Treatment of Jatropha Curcas Seed Oil ____________________________________________ 4
3.3. Conversion of Seed Oil to Biodiesel _______________________________________________ 5
3.4 Comparative Fuel Properties _____________________________________________________ 6
4. Process Description _________________________________________________________ 7

4.1. Design Alternatives ____________________________________________________________ 7
4.1.1. Extraction of Seed Oil Alternatives ______________________________________________________ 7
4.1.2. Treatment of Seed Oil and Conversion of Seed Oil to Biodiesel Alternatives _____________________ 8
4.2. Area 100: Hexane Solvent Extraction and Recycle ___________________________________ 8

4.2.1. Section X-100 ______________________________________________________________________ 9
4.2.2. Section X-101 _____________________________________________________________________ 10
4.2.3. Section T-120 ______________________________________________________________________ 10
4.3. Area 200: Hexane Recovery ____________________________________________________ 11

4.3.1. Section E-200 ______________________________________________________________________ 11
4.3.2. Section T-210 ______________________________________________________________________ 12
4.3.3. Section T-211 ______________________________________________________________________ 12
4.4. Area 300: Treatment and Conversion of Seed Oil to Biodiesel ________________________ 12
4.4.1. Section X-300
4.4.2. Section V-310
_____________________________________________________________________ 13
_____________________________________________________________________ 14
_____________________________________________________________________ 14
_____________________________________________________________________ 14
4.5. Area 400: Biodiesel Treatment and Methanol Recovery _____________________________ 15

ii
4.5.1. Section T-400 ______________________________________________________________________ 15

4.5.2. Section V-410 _____________________________________________________________________ 16
4.5.3. Section T-401 ______________________________________________________________________ 16
4.5.4. Section V-411 _____________________________________________________________________ 16
4.6. Absorber and Stripper Design __________________________________________________ 16

4.9. Control Design _______________________________________________________________ 17
4.9.1. Area 100 Controls
__________________________________________________________________ 18
__________________________________________________________________ 18
__________________________________________________________________ 18
__________________________________________________________________ 18
4.10. Side Reactions_______________________________________________________________ 18

4.11. Seed Cake Incineration _______________________________________________________ 19
4.12. Corrosion Concerns __________________________________________________________ 19
5. Process Operation _________________________________________________________ 20

5.1. Site Design___________________________________________________________________ 20
6. Discussion of Experimentation and Results _____________________________________ 21

7. Safety ___________________________________________________________________ 22
7.1. Hexane Safety ________________________________________________________________ 22
7.2. Methanol Safety ______________________________________________________________ 22
7.3. Sodium Hydroxide Safety ______________________________________________________ 23
7.4. Mineral Oil Safety ____________________________________________________________ 23
7.5. Flammability Concerns for Purified Biodiesel _____________________________________ 23
8. Market Analysis ___________________________________________________________ 24

8.1. Overall Energy Analysis _______________________________________________________ 24
8.2. Materials and Equipment Costs _________________________________________________ 25
8.3. Biodiesel Market Analysis ______________________________________________________ 26
8.4. Glycerol Market Analysis ______________________________________________________ 26
9. Uncertainties and Assumptions _______________________________________________ 27

9.1. UniSim Design Assumptions ____________________________________________________ 27
10. Future Work _____________________________________________________________ 27

11. Team Member Biographies & Responsibilities__________________________________ 28
9.1. Brooke Buikema ______________________________________________________________ 28
9.2. Stephen Gabbadon ____________________________________________________________ 29
9.3. Hwok-Chuen Lee _____________________________________________________________ 29
iii
9.4. Michael Workman ____________________________________________________________ 30
12. Acknowledgments_________________________________________________________ 30
APPENDIX ________________________________________________________________ 31
Appendix A: Hand Calculations ____________________________________________________ 32
Appendix B: Infrared Spectroscopy Results for Untreated Oil ___________________________ 41
Appendix C: Infrared Spectroscopy Results for Treated Oil _____________________________ 42
Appendix D: Infrared Spectroscopy Results for Glycerol Byproduct ______________________ 43
Appendix E: Gas Chromatography Results for Untreated Jatropha Oil ___________________ 44
Appendix F: Gas Chromatography Results for Treated Jatropha Oil______________________ 48
Appendix G: Bibliography _________________________________________________________ 52
Appendix H: Full Process Flow Diagram _____________________________________________ 53
Appendix I: Material Safety Data Sheets _____________________________________________ 55
Appendix J: UniSim Design Summary _______________________________________________ 78
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 - Mature Jatropha Curcas Plant ________________________________________ 2
Figure 2.2 - Ripe Fruit of the Jatropha Curcas Plant ________________________________ 3
Figure 3.1 - Free Fatty Acid Treatment with Methanol_______________________________ 5
Figure 3.2 - Transesterification of a Triglyceride (JCO) with Methanol _________________ 6
Figure 4.1 - Equipment design for Hexane Solvent Extraction and Recycle, Area 100______ 9
Figure 4.2 - Hexane Recovery System, Area 200 ___________________________________ 11
Figure 4.3 - Treatment and Conversion, Area 300__________________________________ 13
Figure 4.4 - Methanol Recovery and Biodiesel Wash, Area 400 _______________________ 15
List of Tables
Table 3.1 - Fuel Properties of Jatropha Biodiesel ___________________________________ 6
Table 4.1 - Industry Standards for Corrosion Control _______________________________ 20
Table 6.1 - Free Fatty Acid Content of the Untreated Oil ____________________________ 21
Table 6.2 - Free Fatty Acid Content of the Treated Oil ______________________________ 22
iv
Table 8.1 - Energy Return on Investment, in Kilowatts ______________________________ 25

Table 8.2 - Daily Cost for Chemical Materials _____________________________________ 25
Table 8.3 - Equipment Cost of Heavy Equipment __________________________________ 26
1. Introduction
With a promise of energy independence and decreased environmental impact, the popularity, production,
and use of biodiesel has seen great increase in recent years. Not only has biodiesel been proved as safe
and biodegradable, it also aids in the reduction of harmful air pollutants released during the combustion of
conventional fuels. Biodiesel is a combination of medium to long chain esters that are stable at ambient
temperatures, burn cleanly, and have low sulfur content in comparison to petroleum diesel. Blends of
20% biodiesel with 80% petroleum (B20) diesel are generally acceptable for use in readily-available
diesel engines currently sold in several popular vehicle models.
The primary objectives of this project were to design and optimize a chemical process for the production
of biodiesel from the seed oil of the Jatropha Curcas plant. A simulation of the chosen process was then
devised using UniSim design software and a basis of two million gallons of annual biodiesel production.
This volume of fuel is approximately equivalent to 2.8x1011 Btu. The optimized simulation incorporates
industrial equipment and design for a continuous operation involving seed oil extraction, treatment, and
conversion to biodiesel.
To prove the effectiveness of the process design, bench-scale laboratory experiments were performed.
Intermediate and final products of these lab trials were collected and analyzed with gas chromatography
and infrared spectroscopy.
2. Background
2.1. Jatropha Curcas History
Originating in the Caribbean and in Central America, the Jatropha genus includes over 100 plants,
shrubs, and trees. The genus has also become neutralized to many tropical and subtropical areas,
including India and North America, being spread to Africa and Asia through its trade as a valuable hedge
plant.
Since Jatropha was introduced into the subcontinents over 500 years ago, hundreds of sub-species have
developed through cross-fertilization and adaptation to the subcontinents with varied climatic conditions.
As a result, the yields and growing characteristics of Jatropha oil vary between each region. Research
concerning the qualities and characteristics of Jatropha varieties that flourish in different locations has
been performed, with studies focusing especially on the micro-propagation of seedlings exhibiting the
necessary characteristics for mass plantings in a variety of locales.1
2.2. Jatropha Curcas Life Cycle and Harvest

Standing as high as five meters tall, the mature Jatropha plant bears separate male and female flowers.
The size of each plant is generally controlled by hedging to remain under one meter tall, a convenient
height for the collection of seeds by hand. Jatropha plants are typically harvested between December and
January. Plants reach maturity and begin producing seeds in one to five years, depending on soil fertility
and rainfall, and continue to produce seeds for more than 20 years.2 Each seed contains a high oil
content in the range of 30-40%. The Jatropha plant is hardy, and can grow in harsh conditions, low
fertility soils, and both low- and high-rainfall areas. Figure 2-1 shows a developed, four-year-old
Jatropha Curcas plant.
Figure 2.1 - Mature Jatropha Curcas Plant3
Figure 2-2 depicts the ripe fruit of the Jatropha plant, with each fruit containing two seeds. The Jatropha
plant yields more than four times as much fuel per hectare as soybean crops, and more than ten times that
of corn. One hectare of Jatropha produces approximately 1,900 liters of biofuel.4
1,2
Lele, Satish. Biodiesel and Jatropha Cultivation. India: Agrobios, 2006.

"The World is Green." Word Press. <http://worldisgreen.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/toil-Jatropha-may2007.jpg>.
4
Michael Fitzgerald. Indias Big Plans for Biodiesel. Technology Review; Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 2007. 3 May.
<http://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/17940/>.
3
Figure 2.2 - Ripe Fruit of the Jatropha Curcas Plant5
2.3. Jatropha Biodiesel for Retail

In June of 2008, the ASTM International D02 Main Committee approved a trio of revised specifications
for biodiesel blends. The committee modified the existing pure biodiesel blend stock specification
(ASTM D6751), increased limit specifications to allow for 5% biodiesel (B5) in conventional petroleum
diesel (ASTM D975), and approved blending limits between 6% (B6) and 20% (B20) biodiesel for use in
on- and off-road diesel engines. Each of these specifications greatly aide in the growing market for
biodiesel production.6
The average resale value of biodiesel varies between states but is currently $4.20/gallon nationally, an
attractive price for potential producers. Its cost depends greatly on the market price for Jatropha Curcas
seed oil and the overall efficiency of the production process. In general, a 20% biodiesel-petroleum blend
costs $0.20/gallon more than unblended diesel. However, by increasing the efficiency of production and
decreasing the overhead costs of Jatropha plantations, the price of Jatropha-based biodiesel can be
reduced to a more competitive rate.7
2.3. Potential for Farmers and Developing Nations

Since the planting, harvesting, and care of of Jatropha seeds require manpower, its cultivation has the
potential to generate a wealth of jobs in areas of low employment. As a perennial crop, Jatropha also
serves as a dependable source of income to communities which are typically subject to income
fluctuations.
<http://www.thewoodexplorer.com/maindata/Picts/Jatropha1.jpg>
ASTM Approves New Biodiesel Blend Specifications, Including B20. Green Car Congress, 2008. 12 Nov. 2008
<http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/06/astm-approves-n.html>.
7
Dehue, Bart, and Willem Hettinga. GHG Performance Jatropha Biodiesel. Www.d1plc.com. 2 June 2008. Ecofys. 10 May 2009
<http://www.d1plc.com/pdf/GHG%20Performance%20of%20Jatropha%20Biodiesel.pdf>.
6
Nations that choose to pursue Jatropha farming can utilize large areas of marginal and degraded land that
have fallen out of production or become unsuitable for agriculture. As mentioned, Jatropha crops can
potentially create millions of rural jobs, increasing farm-based incomes and also enabling developing
countries to obtain supplies of local biodiesel. These actions reduce lesser-developed nations
dependence on expensive imports of mineral diesel while producing surpluses of refined biodiesel for
export.
3. Chemistry Overview
The production of biodiesel from Jatropha Curcas has been designed using three main steps:
1. Extraction of seed oil via hexane solvent extraction
2. Treatment of seed oil via acid-catalyzed transesterification
3. Conversion of the seed oil to biodiesel via base-catalyzed transesterification
The following outlines the background information and chemistry occurring in each step of the process.
Material safety data sheets (MSDS) for each relevant compound are available at the conclusion of the
Appendix.
3.1. Extraction of Seed Oil

Hexane solvent extraction provides an effective method of extraction for Jatropha Curcas seed oil. This
solid-liquid method is often referred to as leaching. In this extraction technique, where hexane is
miscible only with the seed oil, allowing the oil to diffuse from the seed flakes upon introduction to the
surrounding hexane solvent.
To increase the efficiency of this step of the overall process, remaining hexane is stripped from the
hexane-seed husk slurry, recovered, and recycled to the extraction process. Care is to be taken to prevent
any emission of hexane from the closed system due to concerns of its toxicity and flammability, as well as
increased raw material costs.
3.2. Treatment of Jatropha Curcas Seed Oil

Another technique for increasing the yield of biodiesel and decreasing material costs is the pre-treatment
of extracted seed oil. The presence of Free Fatty Acids (FFAs) in the extracted seed oil presents the
possibility of saponification during a later step. Saponification, a side reaction involving FFAs,
ultimately causes valuable catalyst to be consumed for the production of glycerol rather than the desired
4
biodiesel product. Freshly-extracted Jatropha Curcas seed oil contains between 10-20% FFAs by weight,
depending on both the age of the plant when harvested as well as its growing conditions. To reduce the
FFA content of the solution, the seed oil is treated using sulfuric acid in an acid-catalyzed
transesterification reaction, which proceeds as follows:
Methanol
Free Fatty Acid
Water
Methyl Ester (Biodiesel)
Figure 3.1 - Free Fatty Acid Treatment with Methanol
The FFAs are reacted with methanol in the presence of a sulfuric acid (H2SO4) catalyst and heat,
producing water and methyl esters.
3.3. Conversion of Seed Oil to Biodiesel

The Jatropha Curcas plant oils are composed almost entirely of mono-, di-, and tri-glycerides, which
react during a second transesterification step to produce biodiesel. Transesterification for producing the
final biodiesel product is conducted using a sodium hydroxide (NaOH) base-catalyzed reaction with
methanol. NaOH is first solvated in the methyl alcohol and is then added to the purified seed oil. The
solvated NaOH must be added first, so as to deprotonate the alcohol prior to insertion in the medium, and
also to aid in mixing the basic catalyst and the immiscible Jatropha Curcas oil. Once the methanolNaOH mixture has been added to the seed oil, the reaction proceeds as follows:
NaOH (catalyst)
Methanol
Triglyceride
Methyl Ester (Biodiesel)
Glycerol
Figure 3.2 - Transesterification of a Triglyceride (JCO) with Methanol

The water content of raw Jatropha Curcas seed oil has been found to contain between 5% and 20% water
by mass.8 However, the transesterification reaction described here requires the water content of reactants
to remain under 1% by weight; if the water content exceeds this limit, emulsification may occur and the
reaction likely will not reach completion. Care must be taken that the hexane recycle streams in the
process are free of water to minimize risks.
Each transesterification reaction takes place in one of two batch reactors. Upon creation, the final
biodiesel product is passed through a water wash to remove reaction byproducts and any unreacted
reagents.
3.4 Comparative Fuel Properties

The following table shows a comparison between the properties of Jatropha oil, Jatropha biodiesel,
conventional diesel, and established biodiesel standards.
Table 3.1 - Fuel Properties of Jatropha Biodiesel9
Property
Density at 15 C
Viscocity at 15 C
Flash point
Pour point
Water content
Ash content
Carbon residue
Acid value
Calorific value
Unit
Jatropha Oil
Jatropha biodiesel
Diesel
Biodiesel standards
ASTM D 6751-02
DIN EN 14214
kg m -3
2 -1
mm s
C
C
%
%
%
940
880
850
860-900
24.5
225
4
1.4
0.8
1
4.8
135
2
0.025
0.012
0.2
2.6
68
-20
0.02
0.01
0.17
1.9-6.0
> 130
< 0.03
< 0.02
-
3.5-5.0
>120
< 0.05
< 0.02
< 0.30
mg KOH g-1
MJ kg-1
28
0.4
< 0.8
< 0.50
38.65
39.23
42
Using the chemical procedures outlined in this report, an overall biodiesel yield of 99% can be expected
from the seed oil of the Jatropha Curcas plant.
Gubitz, G. M, M Mittelbach, and M Trabi. Exploitation of the tropical oil seed plant Jatropha Curcas L. Vol. 67. Oxford:
Elsevier Science, 1999.
9
Kumar Tiwari, Alok; Kumar, Akhilesh; Raheman, Hifjur. Biodiesel production from jatropha oil (Jatropha curcas)
with high free fatty acids: An optimized process. Biomass and Bioenergy (2007), 31(8), 569-575.
4. Process Description
As previously mentioned the proposed method for biodiesel production requires three main steps. These
steps include hexane solvent extraction, acid-catalyzed transesterification, and base-catalyzed
transesterification, each of which is well-known and widely-utilized in todays biodiesel industry. These
steps also allow for a high yield of the final biodiesel product, the primary goal of process optimization,
and each has been classified into one of four areas of the resulting simulation. Extraction of seed oil via
hexane solvent extraction takes place in Area 100, treatment and conversion via transesterification occurs
in Area 300, and biodiesel treatment and methanol recovery take place in Area 400. Hexane recovery,
another important step, occurs in Area 200. Simulation of this process was based on an annual biodiesel
production of two million gallons. However, finalizing the choice of mechanisms and methods for each
step required all possible choices and alternatives to be proposed, researched, and discussed.
4.1. Design Alternatives

There are several design alternatives for the production of biodiesel from Jatropha Curcas seed oil.
Alternatives for the main steps of the production process are as follows.
4.1.1. Extraction of Seed Oil Alternatives

Alternatives methods for extracting the oil within Jatropha seeds include mechanical pressing and
ultrasonification. Of these, mechanical pressing with either manual or electrical power is most common.
This technique lacks in efficiency, though, as only 50-60% of the oil is able to be extracted from the seed
husks. Also, heat generated during pressing can damage the oil and reduce the overall quality and yield.10
Ultrasonification, another method considered, entails the use of high-intensity acoustic energy and
specialty equipment.11 Neither of these two methods provided a feasible, efficient option for extraction.
Accordingly, each was eliminated and other alternatives were considered.
The chosen method, solvent extraction, utilizes a solvent to extract oil from the seed husks. Many
chemicals can serve as the solvent for this process, including hydrocarbon solvents like hexane,
halogenated solvents like trichloroethylene, and supercritical solvents such as supercritical CO2. Hexane
was chosen as the best solvent for this process due to two favorable characteristicsan extraction grade
of 48-98% and a narrow distillation range.
8,9
Thijs, Adriaans . Suitability of solvent extraction for Jatropha Curcas. FACT Foundation, 2006. 20 Nov.
2008 <http://www.fact-fuels.org/media_en/FACT_(2006)_Suitability_of_solvent_extraction_for_jatropha_curcas.pdf>
4.1.2. Treatment of Seed Oil and Conversion of Seed Oil to Biodiesel Alternatives
Various transesterification mechanisms were researched and considered, including ultra-shear inline and
ultra-sonic methods, as well as the use of supercritical methanol or microwave reactors. Each seeks either
to maximize the contact between the two immiscible liquids within the reactor or to increase localized
heat found at their interface.
However, each alternative was eliminated due to unsatisfactory characteristics. The use of supercritical
methanol includes several risks associated with running at high-pressure, high-temperature conditions.
Unfortunately, ultrasonic reactors have very little reference in literature. Despite potential for future
development, microwave reactors remain an unproven technology. Additionally, ultra-shear reactors are
not economically feasible of this project. Thus, transesterification through the use of methanol and
catalyst reaction emerged as the method of choice.
4.2. Area 100: Hexane Solvent Extraction and Recycle

With each mechanism having been chosen and all underlying principles confirmed, the overall biodiesel
production process was designed as follows, beginning with the extraction of the raw seed oil.
First, raw Jatropha Curcas seeds are crushed in a grinder. The Jatropha Curcas oil (JCO) is then
removed from the seed flakes using hexane solvent extraction. The hexane solvent extraction and recycle
system is comprised of a rotocel extractor, a stripper column, a rotary dryer, and a decanter. The recycle
system effectively separates the hexane from both the extracted flakes and the hexane-JCO mixture, also
known as the miscella.
This extraction system consists of the equipment required to separate the hexane from the miscella and
wet seed cake, as shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 - Equipment design for Hexane Solvent Extraction and Recycle, Area 100
Hexane found in the miscella exiting the rotocel extractor is recovered by stripping it from the JCO. This
takes place in the steam-fed stripping column, and hexane is recovered from the hexane-wet flake slurry
by evaporating it with steam in the rotary dryer. The water-hexane mixtures are condensed and sent to the
decanter, where the water is separated and the hexane is recycled. Hand calculations performed for the
sizing of relevant equipment is included in Appendix A.

The heart of the solvent extraction process, the extractor, must transport the Jatropha Curcas flakes as
intended but still allow adequate exposure of the flakes to the hexane stream. The extraction of JCO from
seed husks begins by feeding ground Jatropha Curcas seed flakes into the extractor of choice for this
design, a continuous rotocel extractor (X-100). This device resembles a carousel, with walled, annular
sectors that lie on a horizontal plane and are slowly rotated by a motor. The cells, which catch and hold
the solids, have perforated undersides to allow for solvent drainage. Each cell successively passes
through a solids feed area, a series of solvent sprays, a final spray and drainage area, and a solids
discharge area. Fresh solvent is supplied to the cell at a rate of 2373 L/hr, with flakes being supplied at a
rate of 2760kg/hr. The wet seed cake is then fed into a discharge hopper and sent to the rotary dryer,
while the miscella is sent to the stripper for hexane recovery.
9

The wet seed cake exiting the rotary extractor contains 25-30 wt% hexane.12 To recover this hexane, the
cake is fed directly into a rotary dryer (X-101). This dryer consists of a rotating cylindrical shell that is
slightly inclined. This incline is specified as having a slope of less than 8cm/m from the horizontal
plane.13 The wet seed cake is fed into the dryer at the high end of the shell, and the dry cake is discharged
from the low end. A steam stream flows counter-current to the solids at a rate of 250L/hr, thus
evaporating the hexane from the seed cake. The bulk solids occupy 10-18% of the cylinder volume with
a residence time of 30 minutes. The dry cake exiting the rotary dryer is then sent to an incinerator, with
hexane-water vapors being condensed and collected into a decanter. Heat produced from dry cake
incineration is used for heat exchange and to preheat the steam used in this step, providing an added level
of efficiency and cost savings.
4.2.3. Section T-120

The miscella leaving the extractor is approximately 66 wt% hexane. To recover this hexane, the miscella
stream is fed into a stripper column (T-120). The stripper of choice is a vertically structured column with
eight valve trays, each separated by 12 inches. The column is 22 feet tall and has a diameter of 8.4
inches. There is a four foot head space above the top tray where entrained liquid is removed. Also, a 10foot space below the bottom tray adds bottoms surge capacity. Two streams enter into the stripperthe
miscella and a steam stream used to strip hexane from the JCO within the miscella. The steam stream is
fed conditions of 160C and 240 kPa, and the column operates at 160C and 200 kPa. The boiling point of
the JCO, approximately 870C, is far greater than that of hexane, approximately 69C, so the hexanestripped JCO flows downward and exists as the bottoms product.
This process is highly-effective, removing approximately 99.99% of the hexane from the JCO. The
resulting hexane-steam mixture is condensed and sent to the decanter, and the JCO is pumped to the
appropriate storage tank. All condensed hexane-water mixture is collected into the decanter where,
because of a difference in densities, the hexane and water separate. This solution is then heated to remove
the hexane, and the water is discharged to the sewer. The vaporized hexane is recycled and directed back
to the rotocel extractor.
12,13
Seader, J. D., and Ernest J. Henley. Separation Process Principles. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, 2005.
10
4.3. Area 200: Hexane Recovery

Hexane is a highly flammable, colorless liquid that readily forms explosive mixtures with air. Long-term
exposure to this toxic air pollutant has been found to cause permanent nerve damage in humans. Thus,
Area 200 was designed to prevent excessive emission of hexane from the closed systems in Area 100. In
addition to increasing plant safety through confining all hexane into a single system, this design also
provides the benefit of increased hexane recovery for recycle. Vapors from the extractor, the condensers,
the rotocel extractor, and the heaters are all directed to Area 200 in order to recover any hexane present.
The hexane recovery system consists of a vent condenser and a mineral oil stripper-absorber system.
Figure 4.2 shows the oil absorption system for hexane recovery. Cold mineral oil is used to absorb
hexane in the absorber column, and steam is used in the stripping tower to remove the absorbed hexane
from the mineral oil.
Figure 4.2 - Hexane Recovery System, Area 200
4.3.1. Section E-200

As indicated in the above figure, a vent blower maintains a slight negative pressure on the entire
extraction system. If a leak occurs in the system, this pressure will cause air to enter into system, rather
than having hexane leak out. The vent vapor from the condensers and process tanks first enters the vent
condenser (E-200), and then continues to the mineral oil absorption column.
11

The mineral oil absorption column (T-210) is a vertically structured column with nine valve trays, each
separated by 12 inches. The column is 23feet tall and has a diameter of 13.9 inches. There is a four foot
head space above the top tray where water vapor is allowed to be removed. A 10-foot space below the
bottom tray adds bottoms surge capacity. Two streams enter into the absorberhexane water vapor and a
cooled mineral oil stream used to absorb hexane vapors.
The vapor streams flow counter current to a stream of cooled mineral oil. Because hexane and mineral oil
are both non-polar liquids, they are miscible. The cooler the mineral oil, the higher is hexanes affinity to
dissolve into it. The vapor, now free of hexane, exits the top of the column and is safely discharged into
the surrounding atmosphere. The mineral oil absorbs the hexane and collects in the bottom of the
column. After exiting the bottom of the column, the solution is pumped through a heater, and sent to the
stripper column.

The mineral oil stripper column (T-211) is a vertically structured column with nine valve trays, each
separated by 12 inches. The column is 23feet tall and has a diameter of 13.9 inches. There is a four foot
head space above the top tray where water vapor is allowed to be removed. A 10-foot space below the
bottom tray adds bottoms surge capacity. Two streams enter into the stripper - rich oil from the absorber
column and steam which is used to strip hexane vapors from the mineral oil.
In this column, the heated mineral oil-hexane mixture flows counter current to the steam stream, stripping
the hexane from the mineral oil. The hot mineral oil, now free of hexane, is pumped through the oil
cooler. The hexane vapor and steam from the top of the column are condensed in the vent condenser and
the hexane-water mixture is sent to the decanter V110, where hexane and water are separated and hexane
is recycled.
4.4. Area 300: Treatment and Conversion of Seed Oil to Biodiesel

Area 300 is comprised of two batch tank reactors and two decanters. The treatment of the crude JCO, an
acid-catalyzed transesterification process, reduces the free fatty acid content of Jatropha Curcas seed oil
from 10-20% to less than 1%, achieved by converting the free fatty acids into biodiesel intermediates.
This increases the overall efficiency of the conversion process that follows, where the seed oil is
converted into biodiesel. This conversion process is a base-catalyzed transesterification process which
12
occurs in the second batch reactor. Following each batch tank is a decanter which allows the reactor
effluents to settle and separate before continuing on to the next step in the process.
Figure 4.3 - Treatment and Conversion, Area 300
Figure 4.3 shows the basic layout for Area 300, where the treatment and conversion of the crude JCO
takes place. The specified size of each reactor tank is directly proportional to the optimized time required
for the respective reactions to reach completion.

JCO enters the first batch reactor tank (X-300) at a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 60C. For each
batch, 6665 L of JCO is fed into the reactor, where base-catalyzed transesterification takes place. This
process requires that the Jatropha Curcas seed oil be treated with 0.28 volume/volume of methanol, using
1.43% volume/volume of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) as a catalyst. The volumes of methanol and sulfuric acid
added to the reactor are 2458 L and 16 L, respectively. Both the methanol and the sulfuric acid enter at
atmospheric pressure and 25C.
This reaction has been optimized to run for 88 minutes at a temperature of 60C. The optimized reaction
time for each batch is 88 minutes. A head space of approximately 10% of the overall volume was
13
specified for this reactor, and the size of the reactor tank will be 10500 L. The exit stream contains 9174
L, consisting of 33% treated JCO and 60% biodiesel; the remainder is comprised of methanol, sulfuric
acid, FFAs, and water.

The exit stream from the reactor flows into the horizontal decanter (V-310), where a gravity-induced
settling occurs and two layers separate due to density differences. Two layers that separate in this
decanteran organic layer containing JCO, biodiesel, FFAs, and a small amount of sulfuric acid, and a
second layer containing water, glycerol, methanol, and the remaining sulfuric acid. The organic layer
then proceeds to the second reactor, while the second layer continues for treatment in Area 400.

The second reactor (X-301) converts the remaining source oil into biodiesel. This step also neutralizes the
sulfuric acid in the treated Jatropha Curcas oil stream leaving the reactor. This reactor tank carries out a
base-catalyzed transesterification reaction which converts the JCO in the form of mono-, di-, and
triglycerides into the final biodiesel product. The purified JCO is added in batches of 9130 L and treated
with 0.20 volume/volume of methanol, approximately 2557 L, and with 0.55% weight/volume of sodium
hydroxide, approximately 85.4 kg. Each batch has an optimized reaction time of 30 minutes and runs at a
temperature of 60C. A headspace of approximately 10% of the total volume is necessary, with a reactor
tank size of 13500 L. The side products in this reactor include glycerin, sodium sulfate, water, and
residual soaps. These side products must be treated in Area 400 before a sellable product can be
achieved.

The exit stream from the second reactor flows into a second horizontal decanter (V-311) to allow for
settling and the separation of layers. Similar to the previous decanter, the organic layer contains mostly
biodiesel, with trace amounts of JCO, FFAs, and sodium sulfate. The bottom layer is comprised of
glycerol, methanol, sulfuric acid, sodium sulfate, and residual soaps. The biodiesel-rich layer is treated in
Area 400 to increase its purity. The bottom layer will also be directed to Area 400 for treatment and
methanol recovery
14
4.5. Area 400: Biodiesel Treatment and Methanol Recovery
Methanol Recycle (to storage)
Vent Vapors (from Area 300)
Crude Glycerin (from Area 300)
Distillation
Column
(T-400)
Glycerol
Storage Tank
(V-410)
Water
Biodiesel
Storage Tank
(V-411)
Spray
Column
(T-401)
Crude Biodiesel (from Area 300)
Waste Water (to drain)
Figure 4.4 - Methanol Recovery and Biodiesel Wash, Area 400

As shown in Figure 4.4, a distillation column (T-400) separates methanol from the crude glycerol and
vapors vented from Area 300. The separated methanol is recycled back to methanol feed area and is
reused in Area 300. The glycerol exiting the bottom of the distillation column is sent to storage and is
ready for resale.
This column operates with a pressure of 101.3 kPa. Crude glycerol enters at a flow rate of 88.3 L/hr.
The column contains 10 stages, with the feed entering in the 6th stage. The specified diameter is six
inches and its height is 15 feet, with an optimized reflux ratio of 1.34. The distillate is comprised of 70
mol% glycerol, 12.8 mol% water, and a remainder of Na2SO4 salts.
15

The glycerol leaving the bottom of the distillation column is collected into a storage tank (V-410), which
has been specified to hold up to 10 batches. This equates to approximately a 15,000 L capacity.

The design shown in Figure 4.4 also includes a counter current liquid-liquid extraction spray column (T401). This design allows for a pure product with as little waste water as possible. Crude biodiesel from
Area 300 enters the bottom of the column and travels upward while contacting water droplets sprayed
from the top of the column. The washed biodiesel exits the top of the spray column and is collected into a
storage tank (V-411). Waste water exiting the bottom of the column is sent into the drainage system.
Washing the biodiesel is extremely important because contaminates such as unreacted methanol and
catalyst will damage equipment and burn poorly in diesel engines. This is reflected in the ASTM D6751
biodiesel standards which require the removal of glycerin, catalyst, alcohols, and FFAs. In order to wash
the biodiesel, water is sprayed into the tower as the dispersed phase. As it travels through the crude
biodiesel, the water collects methanol, dissolved salts, and unused catalyst found in the diesel. The total
volume of water suggested for washing biodiesel is a standard 2:1 volumetric ratio of water to biodiesel.
The column operates with a pressure of 101.3 kPa. Crude biodiesel enters the column at a rate of 897
L/hr. The column contains 10 stages, with the feed entering in the 6th stage. The diameter is six inches
and its height is 15 feet, with an optimized reflux ratio of 1.34. The distillate is comprised of 96.2mol%
Jatropha-based biodiesel, 1.78 mol% water, and a remainder of methanol.

The biodiesel exiting the top of the distillation column is collected into a storage tank (V-411), which has
been specified to hold up to 10 batches. This equates to approximately a 90,000 L capacity.
4.6. Absorber and Stripper Design

Three columns are used for striping and absorption in the plant: T-120a stripping tower used to remove
hexane from JCO, T-210an absorber column used to absorb hexane with cold mineral oil, and T-211
a stripping tower used to strip hexane from the mineral oil. All three columns are tray towers, which are
vertical, cylindrical pressure vessels in which counter currently flowing vapor and liquid are contacted on
16
a series of trays. As such, the process for designing these columns was based on the same design
principles, including:
a. Number of equilibrium stages
b. Tray diameter
c. Overall plate efficiency
d. Column height
e. Type of trays
f.
Tray pressure drop
g. Overall operational costs
The optimal number of equilibrium stages was determined using the Kremser algebraic method for single
section cascades.14 T-120, which strips hexane from JCO, was designed to have an efficiency of 99.99%,
the highest physically possible. This is a reasonable target since hexane can be stripped from JCO with
low-pressure steam, due to a large difference in respective boiling points. The boiling point of JCO is
approximately 870C, while the boiling point of hexane is approximately 69C. T-210 was designed to
have an absorption rate for hexane of 99.999%. This was a necessary target since the discharge from T210 is released into the atmosphere and must have as little hexane present as possible. T-211 was
designed to have an efficiency of 99.99% to strip a high amount of hexane from the mineral oil,
increasing the overall volume of recycled hexane.
Diameter, plate efficiency, and column height for each column were based on the determination of the
number of equilibrium stages. Each column was designed to have four feet above the top tray for
removal of entrained liquid, and 10 feet below the bottom tray for bottoms surge capacity.15 All columns
were specified to use valve trays. This offers flexibility in the case where flooding or weeping occurs in
the column due to excessive entrainment of liquid droplets in the vapor, or when vapor pulsation becomes
excessive. The valve trays pressure drops were based on the previously-mentioned factors, which
combined form the overall operational efficiency of these columns.
4.9. Control Design

Control systems are a vital part of any process. They are essential to both the safety of the process and to
the quality of the product. Control systems monitor for deviations in the design specifications, and
attempt to correct for those deviations with minimum negative impact to the process. Design and
14, 15
17
placement are essential for properly functioning controls. With this in mind, the control designs for each
area are as follows.

There are five controllers in Area 100. The first controls the incoming hexane by comparing its flowrate
to the incoming flowrate of rolled seeds. The next controller is connected to the output temperature of the
heat exchanger on the hexane-JCO stream. Following this, another controller monitors the water flowrate
of the condenser for the steam-hexane stream, according to the desired setpoint temperature. The next
controller adjusts the steam flowrate into the steam stripper column via a temperature sensor on the output
distillate stream. The final controller in Area 100 controls the volume of water passing through the
condenser before entering the storage tank.

There are five controllers in this areaone controls pressure by opening and closing an expansion valve,
and the other four control temperature via condenser and steam heat exchanger performance. For safety
purposes, the mineral oil in this system is continuously circulating. In the case of an emergency
shutdown, the mineral oil circulation can be ceased and vapors can be vented into the incinerator.

There are six controllers in this area. Two of these controllers adjust the temperature of each of the two
reactors via the condensers and heat exchangers immersed in the reactor medium. The other four
controllers monitor the flow of methanol, H2SO4, and NaOH into the two reactors based on pH and flow
sensors on the incoming JCO streams.

One simple controller monitors this area, based on a pH sensor of the liquid-liquid extraction column used
to wash the biodiesel. This system assures that the biodiesel is well washed, yet it prevents the waste of
water that would exist normally in this system. This ensures a high-quality product with a minimal
amount of waste.
4.10. Side Reactions

One possible side reaction is of concern to the operation of the entire production process. The reaction
between sodium hydroxide and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in reactor tank X-301 results in the making of
18
sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). Though found only in trace amounts, the presence of sodium sulfate in both the
biodiesel and glycerol exiting X-301 must be accounted for and monitored to reduce any resulting safety
or corrosive issues.
Treatment in Area 400 allows for sodium sulfate found in the biodiesel to be stripped away and combined
with the glycerol stream. A specified amount of sulfates are allowed in commercial-grade glycerol. If the
sodium sulfate content in the glycerol is low enough, no need exists for the removal of the sodium sulfate
from the glycerol. If the sodium sulfate content in the glycerol exceeds the maximum allowed, the
sodium sulfate in the glycerol must be removed before the glycerol can be sold. Another option would be
to sell the raw glycerol to a purchaser who wishes to purify it off-site. Off-site purification would greatly
reduce the selling price of the glycerol.
4.11. Seed Cake Incineration

The seed cake created during the Jatropha extraction process is known to contain toxins which are of
environmental concern. Thus, dumping of the dry cake into landfill facilities is an unfavorable method of
disposal. (toxin info) However, this seed cake has been found to have an energy factor between 18.8125.1 MJ/kg. Incineration can be used to recover and redirect some of the cakes energy content.16 This
incineration process has a specified heat transfer efficiency of approximately 70%.
4.12. Corrosion Concerns

Selecting proper materials for plant construction and chemical storage systems is an essential component
of the design process. Each year, corrosion concerns cost U.S. businesses an estimated $80 billion.17 Of
that amount, approximately $25 billion is avoidable damages that result from poor decisions made
primarily by engineers. This could be either a lack of communication, incorrect assumptions, or making
other mistakes during the design and consultation processes. Existing materials are not properly utilized
and companies must pay for the consequences.
For this particular process, pure sulfuric acid poses the greatest risk of equipment and pipe damage due to
corrosion. However, there are several adequate solutions for handling sulfuric acid during each phase of
the process. It is suggested that storage tanks be constructed from carbon steel and utilize anodic
16
Openshaw, Keith Openshaw. "A review of Jatropha curcas: an oil plant of unfulfilled promise." Biomass
Bioenergy 19 (2000): 1-15.
17
Dillon, C. P. Corrosion Control in the Chemical Process Industries. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1986. Print.
19
protection and drying vents. Desiccating vents are an essential feature for the storage of sulfuric acid.
Contact between the acid and any atmospheric moisture may otherwise result in dilution and attack.
Storage tanks containing sulfuric acid are also subject to the following industry references18.
Table 4.1 - Industry Standards for Corrosion Control
Title
Description
NACE Standard
RP0294,
NACE Standard RP0391
"Design, Fabrication and Inspection of Tanks for the Storage of Concentrated Sulphuric
Acid and Oleum at Ambient Temperatures"
"Materials for the Handling and Storage of Concentrated (90 to100%) Sulfuric Acid at
Ambient Temperatures"
"Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage"
"Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, And Reconstruction"
"Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Rerating of In-Service Piping Systems"
"Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping"
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Div I.
Handbook of Sulphuric Acid Manufacturing,
"Materials Selector for Hazardous Chemicals. Vol 1: Concentrated Sulphuric Acid and
Oleum"
"Carbon Steel Sulphuric Acid Storage Tank - Inspection Guidelines"
API-650
API-653
API-570
ASME B31.3,
---------
Valves, piping, and pumps are also susceptible to acid corrosion. All piping must be made only of ductile
cast iron. The use of any other form of iron will result in several undesirable incidents, including
excessive internal corrosion of the graphite flakes. Other forms of iron pipes also pose the risk of
explosion, due to the gaseous products created from internal corrosion. Non-throttling valves should be
constructed of stainless steel, specifically CF3M to protect from turbulent flow conditions. CN7M
stainless steel is recommended for use with throttling valves as well as for all pumps.
5. Process Operation
5.1. Site Design
Most biofuel production plants are located within 150 miles of the resource being used as the primary
process source. As previously mentioned, the Jatropha Curcas plant thrives in areas with abundant
sunlight. Therefore, the plantation and the biodiesel production plant designed for this process should be
located in sunny regions. For a plant producing two million gallons of Jatropha-based biodiesel annually,
a plantation size of 4.2 square miles is required.
18
"Industry References." Sulfuric Acid Equipment. 2006. NorFalco.

<http://www.norfalco.com/documents/NorFalco_H2SO4Property12.pdf>.
20
The proposed process makes use of solvent extraction. Because solvent extraction is a complex system
which poses specific hazards, the location of a Jatropha biodiesel plant should be a sufficient distance
from residential and commercial areas.
6. Discussion of Experimentation and Results

To confirm the identity of the intermediate products and byproducts of the biodiesel synthesis, samples
were analyzed using both infrared (IR) spectroscopy and gas chromatography (GC). Analyzed samples
included untreated oil, treated oil, and glycerol. The results of the IR spectroscopy analysis served as the
primary mode for characterizing the samples. From these results it can be concluded that the composition
of each sample is as expected. IR spectroscopy transmittance readings are included in Appendices B, C,
and D. Characteristic peaks of each transmittance record are labeled with corresponding bonds and
features.
Gas chromatography was performed for the untreated oil as well as the treated oil, in order to determine
the effectiveness of the acid-catalyzed transesterification step. As previously mentioned, this step is
intended to increase the overall efficiency of the process by decreasing the amount of free fatty acids in
the intermediate products. The plotted results of this analysis are included in Appendices E and F. In
summary, the acid-transesterification step was found to be sufficiently effective at reducing the free fatty
acid content, as summarized in the tables below.
Table 6.1 - Free Fatty Acid Content of the Untreated Oil

RT
Compound
6.69
1.266
Methyl Palmitoleate
Molecular weight
(g/mol)
268
6.85
19.765
Methyl Palmate
270
7.14
1.116
Palmitic Acid
256
8.67
33.477
Methyl Linoleate
294
8.75
36.551
Methyl Oleate
296
9.01
6.368
Methyl Stearate
298
9.14
0.177
Linoleic Acid
280
9.18
1.179
Oleic Acid
282
9.5
0.1
Stearic Acid
284
Totals:
97.427
% METHYL ESTERS
2.572
% FREE ACIDS
21
Table 6.2 - Free Fatty Acid Content of the Treated Oil

RT
Compound
6.69
0.944
Methyl Palmitoleate
Molecular weight
(g/mol)
268
6.85
16.271
Methyl Palmate
270
7.13
0.369
Palmitic Acid
256
8.7
32.709
Methyl Linoleate
294
8.79
39.543
Methyl Oleate
296
9.04
9.391
Methyl Stearate
298
9.15
0.131
Linoleic Acid
280
9.18
0.603
Oleic Acid
282
9.51
0.037
Stearic Acid
284
Totals:
98.858
% METHYL ESTERS
1.140
% FREE ACIDS
7. Safety
A high level of sophistication is required to maintain and operate a biodiesel production plant and to
utilize the chemicals specified for this process. In addition to following general safety precautions, the
safe handling and storage of all chemicals involved in the Jatropha extraction and treatment processes
must be considered. The dangers of explosions make adequate regulatory procedures necessary.
7.1. Hexane Safety

The highly reactive and flammable nature of hexane requires that consideration be given to proper storage
techniques. Exposure to air will form explosive mixtures. An air-tight container should be used, located
away from oxidizing agents, chlorine, and fluorine. Prolonged exposure to hexane may cause serious
health effects, and acute exposure has been proven to cause infertility and respiratory conditions.
Individuals involved in the use of hexane should ensure that all sources of ignition are eliminated and that
a well-ventilated work space is utilized. Safety goggles, chemical resistant clothing, and gloves are
recommended.
7.2. Methanol Safety

Methanol, especially hazardous when in its vapor phase at low temperatures, is extremely flammable in
all phases. Solutions combining methanol and water also present a flammability hazard. Methanol
should be stored away from heat, spark, and flame sources. Depending on the expected airborne
22
concentration, suggested respiratory protection ranges from no protection to a self-contained breathing

apparatus during extended exposure. Due to the risk of skin damage incurred from prolonged exposure,
boots, gloves, and chemical resistant clothing are suggested for individuals working near methanol.
Goggles and a face shield are also suggested to minimize the risk of eye damage. Any ingestion of
methanol may cause significant damage to the human nervous system or death. Additionally, liquid
penetration of the skin and inhalation may also cause nervous system damage.
7.3. Sodium Hydroxide Safety

Sodium hydroxide should be stored in a tightly closed container and a cool, dry atmosphere. The storage
and use of sodium hydroxide should only be conducted in a well-ventilated area. Care should be given
that storage conditions are isolated from acids, flammable liquids, organic halogens, metals, and nitrocompounds, as these combinations may cause undesired reactions. Due to the corrosive nature of sodium
hydroxide, any contact with skin, eyes, and clothing should be avoided to prevent severe burns. Care
should also be given that particulate matter, vapor, or dust from the compound is not inhaled or ingested.
To avoid bodily contact, chemical resistant clothing, gloves, goggles, and a face shield are suggested.
7.4. Mineral Oil Safety

Although it does not pose the risk of explosion, mineral oil is combustible in both the liquid and vapor
phases and has a flash point of 135C. In the event of a spill, liquid should be absorbed with noncombustible materials such as vermiculite and dry sand. Mineral oil should be stored in a tightly closed
container that is located in a well-ventilated area with no direct sunlight exposure. Personnel working
with or near this compound are recommended to use protective eyewear, clothing, boots, gloves, and a lab
coat. If exposure to exhaust is possible, the use of a half- or full-face personal particulate respirator is
also suggested. Unprotected exposure to mineral oil may result in a variety of health issues, including eye
and skin irritation, nausea, vomiting, and respiratory irritation or chemical pneumonia.
7.5. Flammability Concerns for Purified Biodiesel

With a flash point of over 300, biodiesel is not considered to be readily flammable. The flash points for
blends of biodiesel increase as the percentage of biodiesel in the blend increases. In comparison to the
flash point of petroleum diesel, approximately 160, biodiesel and blends of biodiesel are much safer to
handle and store.19
19
National Biodiesel Board, 1 Dec. 2008 <http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/Envi&Safetyinfo.pdf>
23
8. Market Analysis
The following outlines the market conditions and factors which justify the feasibility of a Jatropha-based
biodiesel production plant.
8.1. Overall Energy Analysis

One of the largest factors determining the feasibility of any fuel project is the ratio between expended
energy and the total energy input for the necessary production process. To be an attractive alternative to
petroleum-based energy, the Jatropha-based biodiesel process must be extremely energy efficient.
According to our analysis, this appears to be the case. Jatropha-based biodiesel was found to have an
energy return on investment (EROI) value of between 3.5 and 7.1 for an industrial plant setting.
Additionally, the process of utilizing seed cake ash as fertilizer for company-owned Jatropha fields aids
in making Jatropha-based biodiesel a very attractive energy solution20.
This EROI was calculated solely at the industrial level by dividing the output streams energy by the
energy input. This yields a ratio describing the energy produced by the process in relation to the energy
required for production. The energy required for the process was computed as follows. First, the input
heating, work, and cooling streams were added to the steam and material inputs. These inputs were
calculated by determining the amount of energy used to create as well as the energy content contained
within them. The energy output stream was calculated according to the disposal method of the seed cake.
EROIs for each of four scenarios were calculatedtwo for a best case scenario, and two for a worst
case scenario.
20
International Bio-fuels Conference. HGCA.

<http://www.hgca.com/content.output/2369/2369/Markets/Analysis/International%20Biofuel%20Conference.mspx.
Retrieved on 2008-04-15.
24
Table 8.1 - Energy Return on Investment, in Kilowatts

Energy
Stream
Heat, Input
Best Case
Scenario, Without
Incineration
536
Best Case
Scenario, With
Incineration
536
Worst Case
Scenario, Without
Incineration
536
Worst Case
Scenario, With
Incineration
536
Work, Input
190
190
190
190
Cooling, Input
695
695
695
695
Material, Inputs
1211
1211
1211
1211
Steam
152
152
152
152
Seed Cake Recovery
9771
7322
Fuel, Output
10135
10135
9998
9998
Total Input
2783
2783
2783
2783
Total Output
10135
19906
9998
17320
EROI
3.64
7.15
3.59
6.22
8.2. Materials and Equipment Costs

The costs of chemical materials used daily were calculated, presented in Table 8.1. Equipment costs were
also estimated using values from Ulrich and Vasudevan21 , and Peters and Timmerhaus22. These costs
were done on equipment that was sized and specified for the 2 million gallons a year production rate.
Many of the prices calculated are at best an educated estimate and more accurate figures can be obtained
directly from the manufacturers.
Table 8.2 - Daily Cost for Chemical Materials

Chemicals
Description
Unit
Quantity
Hexane
Sodium
Hydroxide
Solvent - For extraction of seed oil

Catalyst - Anhydrous pellets, 98%
per 55 gallons
per 2.5 kg
1.73
81.9
$
$
601.50
55.55
$
$
1,040
4,552
Sulfuric Acid
Catalyst - Concentrated, 95-98%
per 16 liters
24.1
62.50
1,507
Methanol
Mineral Oil
Reagent - Anhydrous, 99.8%

Solvent - For extraction of hexane
per 20 gallons
per 55 gallons
87.7
$
0.00189
$
Total daily costs
120.08
859.20
21
Price/Unit
Cost
$ 10,537
$
2
$ 17,637
Ulrich, Gael D., and Palligarnai T. Vasudevan.

Chemical Engineering Process Design And Economics: A Practical Guide. 2nd ed. Durham, New Hampshire: Process
Publishing, 2004.
22
Peters, Max S., and Klaus D. Timmerhaus.

Plant Design And Economics For Chemical Engineerings. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1991.
25
Table 8.3 - Equipment Cost of Heavy Equipment

Heavy Equipment
Rotocel Extractor (X-100)
Rotary Dryer (X-101)
Incinerator
Reactor (X-300)
Reactor (X-301)
Distillation Column (T-400)
Storage Tank (V-400)
Spray Column (T-401)
Storage Tank (V-401)
Description
Extraction of seed oil with hexane
Removes hexane from wet seed cake
Incinerates dry seed cake
Base-catalyzed transesterification reaction
Acid-catalyzed transesterification reaction
Recovers methanol for reuse
Storage of glycerol
Washing of biodiesel
Storage of biodiesel
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
Cost
13,000
7,000
25,000
70,000
80,000
42,000
12,000
24,000
35,000
Total Equipment Cost
$ 308,000
8.3. Biodiesel Market Analysis

The price of biodiesel in recent months has risen significantly. Currently, the price of biodiesel is in the
range of $4.00-$4.30/gallon, though no national average price is available at this time. This price is a
major increase from those at the end of 2008, when biodiesel prices were in the range of $3.20-$3.40.
Another consideration is that the price of biodiesel is dependent mostly on the price of soybeans, the
largest source of biodiesel currently in production. The price of soybeans has recently risen, which
correlates with the sudden price spike in biodiesel. This is also evident in the volume of biodiesel
production, which fell sharply at the turn of the year to its lowest level in two years.
Imperium Renewables, a Seattle-based biodiesel production company, stated that biodiesel will be able to
compete with crude oil as long as the price of crude oil remains above $43 a barrel. If JCO were to
replace soybean oil as the most common source used in biodiesel production, the price of biodiesel would
likely drop, as Jatropha-based biodiesel has no direct effect on food prices. As long as Jatropha-based
biodiesel can match the price of conventional diesel, it would present a good prospect for biodiesel
production. If a price of $4.20 were presently used for pure biodiesel, production plants could expect an
approximate return of $8,600,000 from annual biodiesel sales. The cost of biodiesel production through
this process is estimated at $2.80/gallon.
8.4. Glycerol Market Analysis

Glycerol, also known as glycerin or glycerine, is most commonly used in pharmaceutical and medical
products. The price of glycerol varies based on its grade. Glycerol byproducts from biodiesel production
are considered crude-grade glycerol, which is approximately 80% pure. The price of crude-grade glycerol
is approximately $0.05-$0.10/lb. A two million gallon annual biodiesel production rate will yield
26
205,000 gallons of glycerol each year. This equates to about $110,000 in revenue for the production
plant.
If the production of biodiesel increases, the supply of glycerol will also increase. This will likely cause
the price of glycerol to drop, significantly impacting the feasibility of selling the glycerol byproduct.
Additionally, finding proper disposal sites may also become difficult if the market becomes saturated with
glycerol byproducts. One option is to purify the crude-grade glycerol to raise its purity and price, though
this would also raise the cost for equipment and operations. Another option is to incinerate the glycerol.
Research is currently being conducted concerning the production of ethanol through the fermentation of
glycerin. Preliminary results indicate that this process is actually more efficient than producing ethanol
from corn.
9. Uncertainties and Assumptions

9.1. UniSim Design Assumptions
The Peng-Robinson fluid package was used for the entire simulation of the chosen production process.
Because the UniSim component list does not include JCO, biodiesel mineral oil, or sodium sulfate,
hypothetical components were created in the simulation basis package in UniSim. These hypothetical
components were created through the use of known properties for each component, including molecular
weight, normal boiling point, liquid density, critical temperature, and pressure.
The rotocel extractor was treated as a simple solid separator, and the rotary dryer was treated as a
separator. These simplifications were made due to the lack of support in UniSim for these specific types
of equipment. The efficiencies for the rotocel extractor and rotary dryer were based on their efficiency
for separations in industry.
The vent condenser, absorber, and stripper units in Area 200 were simulated as separator units. UniSim
does not simulate vent condensers, a specific type of condenser with multiple inputs and outputs.
10. Future Work

In order to utilize this process in an industrialized production plant, additional design work and
development are required. First, a continuous operation would be preferred for the entire process to
maintain a constant output of biodiesel. This requires that the existing batch reactors be replaced with
continuously stirred tank reactors.
27
Each piece of equipment would also required additional specifications to provide greater design details.
Sizing of the continuously stirred tank reactors require that rate laws and rate kinetics are properly
defined. This would require a large amount of laboratory work to determine the reaction rates of each
transesterification process. Kinetic models for the distillation column, strippers, and absorber could be
developed and then used to optimize the sections of the plant. The equipment cost estimates included are
only educated estimates, based on the price of similarly specified equipment currently used in industry.
The scope for the sizing and optimization of the process equipment would need to be widened to
incorporate pumps and heat exchangers. The focus of this project remained on the columns and reactors
required to carry out the main separation and transesterification processes. The rotocel extractor and
rotary dryer are two pieces of industrial equipment that would need to be sized by manufacturers, as based
on operational parameters. The three decantersV-100, V-300 and V-301would also need to be
specified from a manufacturer, as based on the inputs and required separations.
The cost for purchasing and maintaining Jatropha plantations or purchasing the Jatropha seeds will need
to be considered to prove the feasibility of the entire process. Cost analysis would need to be conducted
on the plant as a whole. Equipment specifications and operational parameters for the incineration and
boiler processes were outside the scope of this project. The cost for piping and land would also need to
be incorporated into the capital costs. The direct costs, indirect costs, and working capital would combine
to the total cost for using this process on a large scale.
11. Team Member Biographies & Responsibilities

Through their varying interests and backgrounds, the members of Team Oil from [the] Soil were able to
successfully envision, perform, and present their project results concerning an alternative source for
biodiesel production. Although they represent three countries and two states, all four members share a
common bond as four of Calvin Colleges seven graduating engineering students in the chemical
concentration. This project served as an important lesson in the value of teamwork and the importance of
project management, with each member contributing in the areas of his or her individual strengths.
9.1. Brooke Buikema

Brooke Buikema is a Zeeland, Michigan native. While studying within the chemical concentration here
at Calvin, she interned at DC Cook Nuclear Plant and participated in the 2008 Washington Internships for
Students of Engineering program in Washington, DC. Brooke will attend Michigan State University this
28
fall to pursue a masters degree in public policy, with hopes of becoming a Michigan policymaker who
specializes in the areas of science, health, and manufacturing.
Although Brooke assisted in UniSim troubleshooting and experimental trials, she served primarily as the
teams lead for communications. Much of her time was spent compiling presentation materials,
researching a variety of report topics, and revising all submitted deliverables. Brooke also saw that the
teams odds and ends were completed, including tasks such as writing thank you cards and sending
team schedule update emails.
9.2. Stephen Gabbadon

Stephen Gabbadon is originally from Kingston, Jamaica, and came to Calvin to pursue an engineering
degree. While studying within the chemical concentration, Stephen developed an interest and passion for
finance, and plans to pursue a masters degree in financial engineering next year.
After spending the majority of the fall semester researching alternative methods to the standard biodiesel
production procedure, Stephen performed laboratory experiments and test reactions in the spring semester
for converting Jatropha Curcas seed oil into biodiesel. Stephen worked on the design of the hexane
solvent extraction, recycle, and recovery for the UniSim simulation, and calculated the sizing and
optimization parameters for the process columns and reactors.
9.3. Hwok-Chuen Lee

Hwok-Chuen Lee, more commonly known as Lee, was born in Deerfield, Illinois but was raised in
Malaysia. Like his teammates, Lee will be graduating with an engineering degree in the chemical
concentration. Though higher education has not yet been ruled out, Lee will return to Malaysia after
graduation to begin his career near home or in a neighboring country.
Lees primary responsibilities for the fall semester included early work in UniSim and the creation of the
team website. During the spring semester, he assisted with laboratory experiments and completed
research for the projects report concerning market analysis and side reactions. Lee photographed the
stages of experimental trials, and also compiled and edited the video used during the project presentation
night.
29
9.4. Michael Workman

Michael Workman will graduate with a degree in chemistry and also a degree in engineering with a
chemical concentration. During a summer internship at Brady Varitronics in Brooklyn Park, Minnesota,
near his hometown of Princeton, Mike utilized 6-sigma principles while installing a new assembly line
and reworking another. Mike hopes his versatility will help in his pursuit of the perfect job.
For this project, Michael researched common practices for biodiesel production and oil extraction, and
assisted in the bench-scale laboratory experiments. He assisted with the UniSim simulation of various
pieces of equipment, including decanters, absorption columns, extraction columns, and general
troubleshooting. Michael also created the process flow diagrams utilized in this report.
12. Acknowledgments
Team Oil from [the] Soil wishes to acknowledge the important contributions made to this project by
several individuals:
Professor J. Aubrey Sykes faculty advisor
Dr. David Dornbos industrial consultant
Professor Wayne Wentzheimer UniSim consultant
Rich Huisman laboratory equipment & supplies
Michigan State University experimental analysis equipment
30
APPENDIX
31
Appendix A: Hand Calculations

Algebraic method for determining the number of equilibrium stages
Kremser method for single-section cascades
Stripper T-120
Type of Trays:
Valve Trays
Number of Stages
Operating Conditions: Stripping hexane from JCO stream using steam with a desired efficiency of 99.999%
JCO + hexane: In stream
Steam: Stripping Agent

flowrate =
130
Teamperature =
160
Average MW* =
18.02
flowrate =
1707
Teamperature =
34.22
kg/h
C
kg/kmol
Average MW* =
123.3
kg/kmol
kg/h
Equations:
Fraction of hexane stripped =
(Si^(N+1) - Si)/(Si^(N+1) - 1)
Si = KiV/L
Pressure of Vessel =
101.3
Temp of Vessel =
160
V=
7.214
13.844
L=
K(hexane)=
S(hexane)=
4.168771664
Fraction
stripped
Number of Stages, N
kPa
C
kmol/h
kmol/h
Percent Stripped,
%
0.80653
80.65
0.95565
95.565
0.98947
98.947
0.99748
99.748
0.99940
99.940
0.99986
99.986
0.99997
99.997
0.99999
99.999
1.00000
100.000
10
1.00000
100.000
11
1.00000
100.000
32
105
Percent of Hexane Stripped
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
0
4
6
8
Number of Equilibrium stages
Number of Stages =
10
12
8.0000
Tray Diameter Calculation
Equations:
DT = [4V(Mv)/(f(Uf)pi(1-((Ad)/A))pv]^0.5
Conditions:
Pressure of Vessel
=
Ad/A (Flv <= 0.1) = 0.1
Temp of Vessel =
Ad/A (0.1 <= Flv <= 1) = 0.1 + (FLV - 0.1)/9
V=
7.214
kmol/h
Ad/A (Flv >= 0.1) = 0.2
L=
13.844
kmol/h
FLv = (L(ML) /V(Mv)(pv/pl)^0.5

p=PM/RT
Fst = (/20)^0.2
Fha = 1 for Ad/A >= 0.1 and 5(Ad/A)+0.5 for
0.06<= Ad/A <= 0.1
C= Fst(Ff)(Fha)Cf
Uf = C ((pl - pv)/pv)^0.5
Constants: specific to designing Columns

Tray Spacing =
12.0000
Ff - Friction factor =
1.0000
- surface tension =
60.0000
f -fraction flooding =
0.8000
inches
dynes/cm
33
101.3
160
kPa
C
Calculated Parameters:
ML =
123.3000
Mv =
18.0200
pL =
731.5000
kg/m^3
pv =
0.5097
kg/m^3
FLv =
0.3466
For the known tray spacing, From fig 6.24 (Separation Process Principles) we obtain Cf
Cf =
0.1700
Fst =
1.4310
ft/s
Because 0.1 <= Flv <= 1 :

Ad/A =
0.1274
Fha =
1.0000
C=
0.2433
ft/s
Uf =
9.2125
ft/s
Tray diameter Dt =
0.2145
8.446
inches
Overall Plate efficiency

O'Connell correlation for plate efficiency of absorbers and strippers
Equations:
E= exp^(1.597-0.199log(K(ML)L/pL) - 0.0896[log(K(ML)L/pL)]^2
ML =
123.3000
g/mol
pL =
731.5000
kg/m^3
L =
0.4817
K=
Overall stage efficiency E =
cP
8
20.04
Height of trays =
ft
Height above trays =
ft
Height below bottom tray =
10
ft
Total column Height =
22
ft
Column Height
34
lb/lbmol
45.67
lb/ft^3
Calculations done by: SG
Checked by HL
Absorer T-210
Operating Conditions: Absorbing remaining hexane from vent streams using mineral oil with a desired efficiency of 99.99%
Type of Trays:
Valve Trays
Hexane and Water: In stream
Mineral Oil (n-C15): Absorbing Agent

flowrate =
40
kg/h
Teamperature =
20
flowrate =
Teamperature
=
Average MW =
212
kg/kmol
Average MW =
Equations:
Fraction of hexane Absorbed =
(Ai^(N+1) - Ai)/(Ai^(N+1) - 1)
Ai = L/KiV
Pressure of Vessel
172
Temp of Vessel =
45
V=
0.444096134
0.188679245
L=
K(hexane)=
0.15
A(hexane)=
2.832408435
Number of Stages, N
Fraction Absorbed
kPa
C
kmol/h
kmol/h
Percent Absorbed
0.7391
73.91
0.9156
91.56
0.9711
97.11
0.9899
98.99
0.9964
99.64
0.9987
99.87
0.9996
99.96
0.9998
99.98
0.9999
99.99
16
1.0000
100.00
35
17
110
38.28
kg/h
C
kg/kmol
105
Percent of Hexane Absorbed
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
0
10
15
Number of Equilbrium Stages
Number of Stages =
20
Equations:
Conditions:
Pressure of Vessel
Ad/A (Flv <= 0.1) = 0.1
Temp of Vessel =
Ad/A (0.1 <= Flv <= 1) = 0.1 + (FLV - 0.1)/9
V=
0.444096134
kmol/h
Ad/A (Flv >= 0.1) = 0.2
L=
0.188679245
kmol/h

p=PM/RT
Fst = (/20)^0.2
Fha = 1 for Ad/A >= 0.1 and 5(Ad/A)+0.5 for 0.06<=
Ad/A <= 0.1
C= Fst(Ff)(Fha)Cf
Uf = C ((pl - pv)/pv)^0.5

Tray Spacing =
12.00
1.00
- surface tension =
60.00
0.80
inches
dynes/cm
36
172
45
kPa
C
ML =
212.4
Mv =
55.92
pL =
3.622
kg/m^3
pv =
0.435
kg/m^3
FLv =
0.559248584
Cf =
0.200
Fst =
1.431
ft/s

Ad/A =
0.151
Fha =
1.000
C=
0.286
ft/s
Uf =
0.775
ft/s
Tray diameter Dt =
0.354836825
13.970
inches

Equations:
ML =
212.4000
g/mol
=
=
pL =
3.6220
kg/m^3
L =
0.4817
cP
K=
0.15
46.90
Height of trays =
ft

Height below bottom tray
=
ft
10
ft
14
ft
Column Height
37
lb/lbmol
45.67
lb/ft^3
Calculations done by: SG
Checked by HL
Stripper T-211
Type of Trays:
Valve Trays
Number of Stages
Operating Conditions: Stripping hexane from JCO stream using steam with a desired efficiency of 99.999%
Rich oil (Mineral Oil + Hexane): In stream
Steam: Stripping Agent

flowrate =
Teamperature =
160
Average MW =
18.02
54.9
kg/h
flowrate =
Teamperature
=
130
kg/kmol
Average MW =
123.3
kg/h
Equations:
Fraction of hexane stripped =
(Si^(N+1) - Si)/(Si^(N+1) - 1)
Si = KiV/L
101.3
Temp of Vessel =
140
V=
0.277
0.445
L=
K(hexane)=
S(hexane)=
3.739014938
Number of Stages, N
Fraction
stripped
kPa
C
kmol/h
kmol/h
Percent Stripped, %
0.78899
78.90
0.94658
94.658
0.98591
98.591
0.99625
99.625
0.99900
99.900
0.99973
99.973
0.99993
99.993
0.99998
99.998
0.99999
99.999
10
1.00000
100.000
11
1.00000
100.000
38
kg/kmol
105
Percent of Hexane Stripped
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
0
4
6
8
10
Number of Equilibrium stages
Number of Stages =
12
9.0000
Equations:
Conditions:
Ad/A (Flv <= 0.1) = 0.1
Temp of Vessel =
Ad/A (0.1 <= Flv <= 1) = 0.1 + (FLV - 0.1)/9
V=
0.277
kmol/h
Ad/A (Flv >= 0.1) = 0.2
L=
0.445
kmol/h

p=PM/RT
Fst = (/20)^0.2
Fha = 1 for Ad/A >= 0.1 and 5(Ad/A)+0.5 for
0.06<= Ad/A <= 0.1
C= Fst(Ff)(Fha)Cf
Uf = C ((pl - pv)/pv)^0.5

Tray Spacing =
12.0000
1.0000
- surface tension =
60.0000
0.8000
inches
dynes/cm
39
101.3
140
kPa
C
ML =
123.3000
Mv =
18.0200
pL =
731.5000
kg/m^3
pv =
0.5097
kg/m^3
FLv =
0.2898
Cf =
0.1700
Fst =
1.4310
ft/s

Ad/A =
0.1211
Fha =
1.0000
C=
0.2433
ft/s
Uf =
9.2125
ft/s
Tray diameter Dt =
0.0419
1.650
inches

Equations:
ML =
123.3000
g/mol
pL =
731.5000
kg/m^3
L =
0.4817
K=
cP
6
22.29
Height of trays =
ft
ft
Height below bottom tray =
10
ft
23
ft
Column Height
40
lb/lbmol
45.67
lb/ft^3
Appendix B: Infrared Spectroscopy Results for Untreated Oil

s2 Tue Apr 28 11:08:00:14 2009
0.8
0.7
0.6
A
b
s
0.5
o
r
b
a
0.4
n
c
e
0.3
0.2
0.1
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
Wavenumbers
41
1500
1000
500
Appendix C: Infrared Spectroscopy Results for Treated Oil

s1 Tue Apr 28 11:35:20:31 2009
1.5
A
b
s
o
r
1.0
b
a
n
c
e
0.5
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
Wavenumbers
s1 Tue Apr 28 11:35:20:31 2009
3465.4119
80
2857.8812, 5.6445
20
1743.3356, 4.5740
2926.4108, 1.3785
4000
3500
3000
1187.1803
1464.5513
3007.6614
1362.5601
T
r
a
n
s
m
i40
t
t
a
n
c
e
2500
723.3765
1056.0647
60
%
2000
Wavenumbers
42
1500
1000
500
Appendix D: Infrared Spectroscopy Results for Glycerol Byproduct

s3c Tue Apr 28 12:29:38:59 2009
3353.4270, 2.2683
2921.3983, 2.1559
1034.4206, 2.0970
1742.8433
924.7162
855.2226
676.2418
1112.0594
1568.3989
A
1.5
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
1.0
e
1456.9735
1407.7436
2856.6433
2.0
0.5
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
Wavenumbers
s3c Tue Apr 28 12:29:38:59 2009
70
60
%
50
T
r
a
n
s40
924.7162
1742.8433
m
i
t
t
30
a
n
c
e
20
1568.3989, 8.5100
676.2418, 12.5911
10
1456.9735, 6.7644
2856.6433, 1.8457
1407.7436, 5.8635
2921.3983, 0.6982
3335.7632, 0.5736
0
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
Wavenumbers
43
1112.0594, 5.9282
1034.4206, 0.7997
1000
500
500
Appendix E: Gas Chromatography Results for Untreated Jatropha Oil
44
45
46
47
Appendix F: Gas Chromatography Results for Treated Jatropha Oil
48
49
50
51
Appendix G: Bibliography
ASTM Approves New Biodiesel Blend Specifications, Including B20. Green Car Congress, 2008. 12
Nov. 2008 <http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/06/astm-approves-n.html>.
Fitzgerald, Michael. Indias Big Plans for Biodiesel. Technology Review; Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. 2007. 3 May. <http://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/17940/>.
Gubitz, G. M, M Mittelbach, and M Trabi. Exploitation of the tropical oil seed plant Jatropha Curcas L.
Vol. 67. Oxford: Elsevier Science, 1999.
International Bio-fuels Conference. HGCA.
<http://www.hgca.com/content.output/2369/2369/Markets/Analysis/International%20Biofuel%20
Conference.mspx. Retrieved on 2008-04-15.
Kumar Tiwari, Alok; Kumar, Akhilesh; Raheman, Hifjur. Biodiesel production from jatropha oil
(Jatropha curcas) with high free fatty acids: An optimized process. Biomass and Bioenergy (2007),
31(8), 569-575.
Lele, Satish. Biodiesel and Jatropha Cultivation. India: Agrobios, 2006. India. n.d. 5 Dec. 2008
<http://www.d1plc.com/globalIndia.php>.
M. Wrgetter, Local and Innovative Biodiesel. Final report No 4.1030/C/02-022. ALTENER, 2006
National Biodiesel Board, 1 Dec. 2008 <http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/Envi&Safetyinfo.pdf>.
Openshaw, Keith Openshaw. "A review of Jatropha curcas: an oil plant of unfulfilled promise." Biomass
Bioenergy 19 (2000): 1-15.
Peters, Max S., and Klaus D. Timmerhaus. Plant Design And Economics For Chemical Engineerings.
4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1991.
"The World is Green." Word Press. <http://worldisgreen.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/toil-Jatrophamay2007.jpg>.
The World Explorer. <http://www.thewoodexplorer.com/maindata/Picts/Jatropha1.jpg>
Thijs, Adriaans . Jatropha Handbook, Chapter 4 & 5. FACT Foundation, 2006.
< http://www.blt.bmlfuw.gv.at/vero/veroeff/0964_LIB_Forschungsbericht47.pdf>
Thijs , Adriaans . Suitability of solvent extraction for Jatropha Curcas. FACT Foundation, 2006. 20 Nov.
2008 <http://www.fact-fuels.org/media_en/FACT_(2006)_Suitability_of_solvent_extraction_for_
Jatropha_Curcas.pdf>.
Ulrich, Gael D., and Palligarnai T. Vasudevan. Chemical Engineering Process Design And Economics: A
Practical Guide. 2nd ed. Durham, New Hampshire: Process Publishing, 2004.
52
Appendix H: Full Process Flow Diagram
AREA 100
AREA 300
AREA 200
AREA 400
53
Appendix I: Material Safety Data Sheets
Material Safety Data Sheet
Sodium hydroxide, solid, pellets or beads

ACC# 21300
Section 1 - Chemical Product and Company Identification

MSDS Name: Sodium hydroxide, solid, pellets or beads
Catalog Numbers: S71990, S71990-1, S71991, S71992, S71993, S71993-1, S71993-2,
S71993-3, S71993-4, S78605, BP359-212, BP359-500, BW13580500, BW1358350,
BW13583500, S318-1, S318-10, S318-100, S318-3, S318-3LC, S318-5, S318-50, S318500, S318-50LC, S320-1, S320-10, S320-3, S320-50, S320-500, S612-3, S612-50, S612500LB, S613-10, S613-3, S613-50, S613-500LB
Synonyms: Caustic soda; Soda lye; Sodium hydrate; Lye.
Company Identification:
Fisher Scientific
1 Reagent Lane
Fair Lawn, NJ 07410
For information, call: 201-796-7100
Emergency Number: 201-796-7100
For CHEMTREC assistance, call: 800-424-9300
For International CHEMTREC assistance, call: 703-527-3887
Section 2 - Composition, Information on Ingredients

Percent
EINECS/ELINCS
497-19-8
CAS#
Sodium carbonate
Chemical Name
<3
207-838-8
1310-73-2
Sodium hydroxide
95-100
215-185-5
Hazard Symbols: C
Risk Phrases: 35
Section 3 - Hazards Identification

EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Appearance: white. Danger! Corrosive. Causes eye and skin burns. Hygroscopic. May
cause severe respiratory tract irritation with possible burns. May cause severe digestive
tract irritation with possible burns.
Target Organs: Eyes, skin, mucous membranes.
Potential Health Effects
Eye: Causes eye burns. May cause chemical conjunctivitis and corneal damage.
Skin: Causes skin burns. May cause deep, penetrating ulcers of the skin. May cause skin
54
rash (in milder cases), and cold and clammy skin with cyanosis or pale color.
Ingestion: May cause severe and permanent damage to the digestive tract. Causes
gastrointestinal tract burns. May cause perforation of the digestive tract. Causes severe
pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and shock. May cause corrosion and permanent tissue
destruction of the esophagus and digestive tract. May cause systemic effects.
Inhalation: Irritation may lead to chemical pneumonitis and pulmonary edema. Causes
severe irritation of upper respiratory tract with coughing, burns, breathing difficulty, and
possible coma. Causes chemical burns to the respiratory tract.
Chronic: Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause dermatitis. Effects may be delayed.
Section 4 - First Aid Measures

Eyes: In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes. Get medical aid immediately.
Skin: In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes
while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Get medical aid immediately. Wash
clothing before reuse.
Ingestion: If swallowed, do NOT induce vomiting. Get medical aid immediately. If victim is
fully conscious, give a cupful of water. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious
person.
Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If
breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical aid.
Notes to Physician: Treat symptomatically and supportively.
Section 5 - Fire Fighting Measures

General Information: As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus in
pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and full protective gear. Use
water spray to keep fire-exposed containers cool. Use water with caution and in flooding
amounts. Contact with moisture or water may generate sufficient heat to ignite nearby
combustible materials. Contact with metals may evolve flammable hydrogen gas.
Extinguishing Media: Substance is noncombustible; use agent most appropriate to
extinguish surrounding fire. Do NOT get water inside containers.
Section 6 - Accidental Release Measures

General Information: Use proper personal protective equipment as indicated in Section 8.
Spills/Leaks: Vacuum or sweep up material and place into a suitable disposal container.
Avoid runoff into storm sewers and ditches which lead to waterways. Clean up spills
immediately, observing precautions in the Protective Equipment section. Avoid generating
dusty conditions. Provide ventilation. Do not get water on spilled substances or inside
containers.
Section 7 - Handling and Storage
56
Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Do not allow water to get into the container
because of violent reaction. Minimize dust generation and accumulation. Do not get in eyes,
on skin, or on clothing. Keep container tightly closed. Avoid ingestion and inhalation.
Discard contaminated shoes. Use only with adequate ventilation.
Storage: Store in a tightly closed container. Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away
from incompatible substances. Keep away from metals. Corrosives area. Keep away from
acids. Store protected from moisture. Containers must be tightly closed to prevent the
conversion of NaOH to sodium carbonate by the CO2 in air.
Section 8 - Exposure Controls, Personal Protection

Engineering Controls: Facilities storing or utilizing this material should be equipped with
an eyewash facility and a safety shower. Use adequate general or local exhaust ventilation
to keep airborne concentrations below the permissible exposure limits.
Exposure Limits
Chemical Name
ACGIH
NIOSH
OSHA - Final PELs
Sodium carbonate
none listed
none listed
none listed
Sodium hydroxide
C 2 mg/m3
10 mg/m3 IDLH
2 mg/m3 TWA
OSHA Vacated PELs: Sodium carbonate: No OSHA Vacated PELs are listed for this
chemical. Sodium hydroxide: C 2 mg/m3
Personal Protective Equipment
Eyes: Wear chemical goggles.
Skin: Wear appropriate protective gloves to prevent skin exposure.
Clothing: Wear appropriate protective clothing to prevent skin exposure.
Respirators: A respiratory protection program that meets OSHA's 29 CFR 1910.134 and
ANSI Z88.2 requirements or European Standard EN 149 must be followed whenever
workplace conditions warrant a respirator's use.
Section 9 - Physical and Chemical Properties

Physical State: Solid
Appearance: white
Odor: Odorless
pH: 14 (5% aq soln)
Vapor Pressure: 1 mm Hg @739 deg C
Vapor Density: Not available.
Evaporation Rate:Not available.
Viscosity: Not available.
Boiling Point: 1390 deg C @ 760 mm Hg
Freezing/Melting Point:318 deg C
Autoignition Temperature: Not applicable.
Flash Point: Not applicable.
Decomposition Temperature:Not available.
NFPA Rating: (estimated) Health: 3; Flammability: 0; Reactivity: 1
Explosion Limits, Lower:Not available.
Upper: Not available.
Solubility: Soluble.
57
Specific Gravity/Density:2.13 g/cm3

Molecular Formula:NaOH
Molecular Weight:40.00
Section 10 - Stability and Reactivity

Chemical Stability: Stable at room temperature in closed containers under normal storage
and handling conditions.
Conditions to Avoid: Moisture, contact with water, exposure to moist air or water,
prolonged exposure to air.
Incompatibilities with Other Materials: Acids, water, flammable liquids, organic
halogens, metals, aluminum, zinc, tin, leather, wool, nitromethane.
Hazardous Decomposition Products: Toxic fumes of sodium oxide.
Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur.
Section 11 - Toxicological Information

RTECS#:
CAS# 497-19-8: VZ4050000
CAS# 1310-73-2: WB4900000
LD50/LC50:
CAS# 497-19-8:
Draize test, rabbit, eye: 100 mg/24H Moderate;
Draize test, rabbit, eye: 50 mg Severe;
Draize test, rabbit, skin: 500 mg/24H Mild;
Inhalation, mouse: LC50 = 1200 mg/m3/2H;
Inhalation, rat: LC50 = 2300 mg/m3/2H;
Oral, mouse: LD50 = 6600 mg/kg;
Oral, rat: LD50 = 4090 mg/kg;
CAS# 1310-73-2:
Draize test, rabbit,
eye: 400 ug Mild;

eye: 1% Severe;
eye: 50 ug/24H Severe;
eye: 1 mg/24H Severe;
skin: 500 mg/24H Severe;
Carcinogenicity:
CAS# 497-19-8: Not listed by ACGIH, IARC, NIOSH, NTP, or OSHA. CAS# 1310-73-2: Not
listed by ACGIH, IARC, NIOSH, NTP, or OSHA.
Epidemiology: No information available.
Teratogenicity: No information available.
Reproductive Effects: No information available.
Neurotoxicity: No information available.
Mutagenicity: No information available.
Other Studies: See actual entry in RTECS for complete information.
Section 12 - Ecological Information

58
No information available.
Section 13 - Disposal Considerations

Chemical waste generators must determine whether a discarded chemical is classified as a
hazardous waste. US EPA guidelines for the classification determination are listed in 40 CFR
Parts 261.3. Additionally, waste generators must consult state and local hazardous waste
regulations to ensure complete and accurate classification.
RCRA P-Series: None listed.
RCRA U-Series: None listed.
Section 14 - Transport Information

US DOT
IATA
RID/ADR
IMO
SODIUM
Shipping Name: HYDROXIDE,
SOLID
Hazard Class:
UN Number:
Canada
TDG
SODIUM
HYDROXIDE
8(9.2)
UN1823
UN1823
Packing Group: II
II
Section 15 - Regulatory Information

US FEDERAL
TSCA
CAS# 497-19-8 is listed on the TSCA inventory.
Health & Safety Reporting List
None of the chemicals are on the Health & Safety Reporting List.
Chemical Test Rules
None of the chemicals in this product are under a Chemical Test Rule.
Section 12b
None of the chemicals are listed under TSCA Section 12b.
TSCA Significant New Use Rule
None of the chemicals in this material have a SNUR under TSCA.
SARA
Section 302 (RQ)
CAS# 1310-73-2: final RQ = 1000 pounds (454 kg)
Section 302 (TPQ)
None of the chemicals in this product have a TPQ.
SARA Codes
CAS # 497-19-8: acute. CAS # 1310-73-2: acute, reactive.
Section 313
No chemicals are reportable under Section 313.
Clean Air Act:
59
This material does not contain any hazardous air pollutants. This material does not contain
any Class 1 Ozone depletors. This material does not contain any Class 2 Ozone depletors.
Clean Water Act:
CAS# 1310-73-2 is listed as a Hazardous Substance under the CWA. None of the chemicals
in this product are listed as Priority Pollutants under the CWA. None of the chemicals in this
product are listed as Toxic Pollutants under the CWA.
OSHA:
None of the chemicals in this product are considered highly hazardous by OSHA.
STATE
CAS# 497-19-8 is not present on state lists from CA, PA, MN, MA, FL, or NJ.
CAS# 1310-73-2 can be found on the following state right to know lists: California, New
Jersey, Florida, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Massachusetts.
California No Significant Risk Level: None of the chemicals in this product are listed.
European/International Regulations
European Labeling in Accordance with EC Directives
Hazard Symbols:
C
Risk Phrases:
R 35 Causes severe burns.
Safety Phrases:
S 26 In case of contact with eyes, rinse immediately
with plenty of water and seek medical advice.
S 37/39 Wear suitable gloves and eye/face
protection.
S 45 In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek
medical advice immediately (show the label where
possible).
WGK (Water Danger/Protection)
CAS# 497-19-8: 1
CAS# 1310-73-2: 1
Canada
CAS# 497-19-8 is listed on Canada's DSL List. CAS# 497-19-8 is listed on Canada's DSL
List. CAS# 1310-73-2 is listed on Canada's DSL List. CAS# 1310-73-2 is listed on Canada's
DSL List.
This product has a WHMIS classification of E.
CAS# 497-19-8 is listed on Canada's Ingredient Disclosure List.
Exposure Limits
CAS# 1310-73-2: OEL-AUSTRALIA:TWA 2 mg/m3 OEL-BELGIUM:STEL 2 mg/m3
OEL-DENMARK:TWA 2 mg/m3 OEL-FINLAND:TWA 2 mg/m3 OEL-FRANCE:TWA 2 mg
/m3 OEL-GERMANY:TWA 2 mg/m3 OEL-JAPAN:STEL 2 mg/m3 OEL-THE NETHERLA
NDS:TWA 2 mg/m3 OEL-THE PHILIPPINES:TWA 2 mg/m3 OEL-SWEDEN:TWA 2 mg/
m3 OEL-SWITZERLAND:TWA 2 mg/m3;STEL 4 mg/m3 OEL-THAILAND:TWA 2 mg/m3
OEL-TURKEY:TWA 2 mg/m3 OEL-UNITED KINGDOM:TWA 2 mg/m3;STEL 2 mg/m3
OEL IN BULGARIA, COLOMBIA, JORDAN, KOREA check ACGIH TLV OEL IN NEW
ZEALAND, SINGAPORE, VIETNAM check ACGI TLV
Section 16 - Additional Information
60
MSDS Creation Date: 12/12/1997

Revision #4 Date: 8/01/2001
The information above is believed to be accurate and represents the best information currently available to us. However,
we make no warranty of merchantability or any other warranty, express or implied, with respect to such information, and
we assume no liability resulting from its use. Users should make their own investigations to determine the suitability of the
information for their particular purposes. In no event shall Fisher be liable for any claims, losses, or damages of any third
party or for lost profits or any special, indirect, incidental, consequential or exemplary damages, howsoever arising, even if
Fisher has been advised of the possibility of such damages.
61
Methyl Alcohol, Reagent ACS, 99.8% (GC)

ACC# 95294

MSDS Name: Methyl Alcohol, Reagent ACS, 99.8% (GC)
Catalog Numbers: AC423950000, AC423950010, AC423950020, AC423955000,
AC9541632, AC423952
Synonyms: Carbinol; Methanol; Methyl hydroxide; Monohydroxymethane; Pyroxylic spirit;
Wood alcohol; Wood naptha; Wood spirit; Monohydroxymethane; Methyl hydrate.
Acros Organics N.V.
One Reagent Lane
Fair Lawn, NJ 07410
For information in North America, call: 800-ACROS-01
For emergencies in the US, call CHEMTREC: 800-424-9300

CAS#
67-56-1
Chemical Name
Percent
EINECS/ELINCS
99+
200-659-6
Methyl alcohol
Hazard Symbols: T F
Risk Phrases: 11 23/24/25 39/23/24/25

EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Appearance: clear, colorless. Flash Point: 11 deg C. Poison! Cannot be made non-poisonous.
Causes eye and skin irritation. May be absorbed through intact skin. This substance has
caused adverse reproductive and fetal effects in animals. Danger! Flammable liquid
and vapor. Harmful if inhaled. May be fatal or cause blindness if swallowed. May cause
central nervous system depression. May cause digestive tract irritation with nausea,
vomiting, and diarrhea. Causes respiratory tract irritation. May cause liver, kidney and heart
damage.
Target Organs: Kidneys, heart, central nervous system, liver, eyes.
Eye: Produces irritation, characterized by a burning sensation, redness, tearing,
inflammation, and possible corneal injury. May cause painful sensitization to light.
Skin: Causes moderate skin irritation. May be absorbed through the skin in harmful
amounts. Prolonged and/or repeated contact may cause defatting of the skin and
dermatitis.
Ingestion: May be fatal or cause blindness if swallowed. May cause gastrointestinal
irritation with nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. May cause systemic toxicity with acidosis. May
cause central nervous system depression, characterized by excitement, followed by
headache, dizziness, drowsiness, and nausea. Advanced stages may cause collapse,
62
unconsciousness, coma and possible death due to respiratory failure. May cause
cardiopulmonary system effects.
Inhalation: Harmful if inhaled. May cause adverse central nervous system effects including
headache, convulsions, and possible death. May cause visual impairment and possible
permanent blindness. Causes irritation of the mucous membrane.
Chronic: Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause dermatitis. Chronic inhalation and
ingestion may cause effects similar to those of acute inhalation and ingestion. Chronic
exposure may cause reproductive disorders and teratogenic effects. Laboratory experiments
have resulted in mutagenic effects. Prolonged exposure may cause liver, kidney, and heart
damage.

Eyes: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally
lifting the upper and lower eyelids. Get medical aid immediately.
Skin: Immediately flush skin with plenty of soap and water for at least 15 minutes while
removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Get medical aid if irritation develops or persists.
Wash clothing before reuse.
Ingestion: If victim is conscious and alert, give 2-4 cupfuls of milk or water. Never give
anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Get medical aid immediately. Induce vomiting
by giving one teaspoon of Syrup of Ipecac.
Inhalation: Get medical aid immediately. Remove from exposure to fresh air immediately.
If breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Do NOT use mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. If breathing
has ceased apply artificial respiration using oxygen and a suitable mechanical device such
as a bag and a mask.
Notes to Physician: Effects may be delayed. Ethanol may inhibit methanol metabolism.

General Information: Containers can build up pressure if exposed to heat and/or fire. As
in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus in pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH
(approved or equivalent), and full protective gear. Water runoff can cause environmental
damage. Dike and collect water used to fight fire. Vapors can travel to a source of ignition
and flash back. During a fire, irritating and highly toxic gases may be generated by thermal
decomposition or combustion. Flammable Liquid. Can release vapors that form explosive
mixtures at temperatures above the flashpoint. Use water spray to keep fire-exposed
containers cool. Water may be ineffective. Material is lighter than water and a fire may be
spread by the use of water. Vapors may be heavier than air. They can spread along the
ground and collect in low or confined areas. May be ignited by heat, sparks, and flame.
Extinguishing Media: For small fires, use dry chemical, carbon dioxide, water spray or
alcohol-resistant foam. Use water spray to cool fire-exposed containers. Water may be
ineffective. For large fires, use water spray, fog or alcohol-resistant foam. Do NOT use
straight streams of water.

63
Spills/Leaks: Scoop up with a nonsparking tool, then place into a suitable container for
disposal. Use water spray to disperse the gas/vapor. Remove all sources of ignition. Absorb
spill using an absorbent, non-combustible material such as earth, sand, or vermiculite. Do
not use combustible materials such as saw dust. Provide ventilation. A vapor suppressing
foam may be used to reduce vapors. Water spray may reduce vapor but may not prevent
ignition in closed spaces.

Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated clothing and wash before
reuse. Ground and bond containers when transferring material. Do not breathe dust, vapor,
mist, or gas. Do not get in eyes, on skin, or on clothing. Empty containers retain product
residue, (liquid and/or vapor), and can be dangerous. Keep container tightly closed. Avoid
contact with heat, sparks and flame. Do not ingest or inhale. Use only in a chemical fume
hood. Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill, grind, or expose empty containers to
heat, sparks or open flames.
Storage: Keep away from heat, sparks, and flame. Keep away from sources of ignition.
Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible substances. Flammablesarea. Keep containers tightly closed. Do not store in aluminum or lead containers.

Engineering Controls: Use explosion-proof ventilation equipment. Facilities storing or
utilizing this material should be equipped with an eyewash facility and a safety shower. Use
adequate general or local exhaust ventilation to keep airborne concentrations below the
permissible exposure limits. Use only under a chemical fume hood.
Exposure Limits
Chemical Name
Methyl alcohol
ACGIH
NIOSH
200 ppm TWA; 250 ppm

200 ppm TWA; 260
STEL; skin - potential for mg/m3 TWA 6000 ppm
cutaneous absorption
IDLH
OSHA - Final PELs

200 ppm TWA; 260
mg/m3 TWA
OSHA Vacated PELs: Methyl alcohol: 200 ppm TWA; 260 mg/m3 TWA; 250 ppm STEL;
325 mg/m3 STEL
Eyes: Wear chemical goggles.

Physical State: Liquid
Appearance: clear, colorless
Odor: alcohol-like - weak odor
64
pH: Not available.

Vapor Pressure: 128 mm Hg @ 20 deg C
Vapor Density: 1.11 (Air=1)
Evaporation Rate:5.2 (Ether=1)
Viscosity: 0.55 cP 20 deg C
Boiling Point: 64.7 deg C @ 760.00mm Hg
Freezing/Melting Point:-98 deg C
Autoignition Temperature: 464 deg C ( 867.20 deg F)
Flash Point: 11 deg C ( 51.80 deg F)
Explosion Limits, Lower:6.0 vol %
Upper: 36.00 vol %
Solubility: miscible
Specific Gravity/Density:.7910g/cm3
Molecular Formula:CH4O

Chemical Stability: Stable under normal temperatures and pressures.
Conditions to Avoid: High temperatures, incompatible materials, ignition sources,
oxidizers.
Incompatibilities with Other Materials: Acids (mineral, non-oxidizing, e.g. hydrochloric
acid, hydrofluoric acid, muriatic acid, phosphoric acid), acids (mineral, oxidizing, e.g.
chromic acid, hypochlorous acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid), acids (organic, e.g. acetic acid,
benzoic acid, formic acid, methanoic acid, oxalic acid), azo, diazo, and hydrazines (e.g.
dimethyl hydrazine, hydrazine, methyl hydrazine), isocyanates (e.g. methyl isocyanate),
nitrides (e.g. potassium nitride, sodium nitride), peroxides and hydroperoxides (organic,
e.g. acetyl peroxide, benzoyl peroxide, butyl peroxide, methyl ethyl ketone peroxide),
epoxides (e.g. butyl glycidyl ether), Oxidants (such as barium perchlorate, bromine,
chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, lead perchlorate, perchloric acid, sodium hypochlorite)., Active
metals (such as potassium and magnesium)., acetyl bromide, alkyl aluminum salts,
beryllium dihydride, carbontetrachloride, carbon tetrachloride + metals, chloroform + heat,
chloroform + sodium hydroxide, cyanuric chloride, diethyl zinc, nitric acid, potassium-tertbutoxide, chloroform + hydroxide, water reactive substances (e.g. acetic anyhdride, alkyl
aluminum chloride, calcium carbide, ethyl dichlorosilane).
Hazardous Decomposition Products: Carbon monoxide, irritating and toxic fumes and
gases, carbon dioxide, formaldehyde.

RTECS#:
CAS# 67-56-1: PC1400000
LD50/LC50:
CAS# 67-56-1:
Draize test, rabbit, eye: 40 mg Moderate;
Draize test, rabbit, eye: 100 mg/24H Moderate;
Draize test, rabbit, skin: 20 mg/24H Moderate;
65
Inhalation, rat: LC50 = 64000 ppm/4H;

Oral, mouse: LD50 = 7300 mg/kg;
Oral, rabbit: LD50 = 14200 mg/kg;
Oral, rat: LD50 = 5628 mg/kg;
Skin, rabbit: LD50 = 15800 mg/kg;
Carcinogenicity:
CAS# 67-56-1: Not listed by ACGIH, IARC, NIOSH, NTP, or OSHA.
Epidemiology: Methanol has been shown to produce fetotoxicity in the embr yo or fetus of
laboratory animals. Specific developmenta l abnormalities include cardiovascular,
musculoskeletal, and urogenital systems.
Teratogenicity: Effects on Newborn: Behaviorial, Oral, rat: TDLo=7500 mg/kg (female 1719 days after conception). Effects on Embryo or Fetus: Fetotoxicity, Inhalation, rat:
TCLo=10000 ppm/7H (female 7-15 days after conception). Specific Developmental
Abnormalities: Cardiovascular, Musculoskeletal, Urogenital, Inhalation, rat: TCLo=20000
ppm/7H (7-14 days after conception).
Reproductive Effects: Paternal Effects: Spermatogenesis: Intraperitoneal, mouse TDLo=5
g/kg ( male 5 days pre-mating). Fertility: Oral, rat: TDLo = 35295 mg/kg (female 1-15 days
after conception). Paternal Effects: Testes, Epididymis, Sperm duct: Oral, rat: TDLo = 200
ppm/20H (male 78 weeks pre-mating).
Neurotoxicity: No information available.
Mutagenicity: DNA inhibition: Human Lymphocyte = 300 mmol/L. DNA damage: Oral, rat
= 10 umol/kg. Mutation in microorganisms: Mouse Lymphocyte = 7900 mg/L. Cytogenetic
analysis: Oral, mouse = 1 gm/kg.
Other Studies: Standard Draize Test(Skin, rabbit) = 20 mg/24H (Moderate) S tandard
Draize Test: Administration into the eye (rabbit) = 40 mg (Moderate). Standard Draize test:
Administration int o the eye (rabbit) = 100 mg/24H (Moderate).

Ecotoxicity: Fish: Fathead Minnow: 29.4 g/L; 96 Hr; LC50 (unspecified) Goldfish: 250
ppm; 11 Hr; resulted in death Rainbow trout: 8000 mg/L; 48 Hr; LC50 (unspecified)
Rainbow trout: LC50 = 13-68 mg/L; 96 Hr.; 12 degrees C Fathead Minnow: LC50 = 29400
mg/L; 96 Hr.; 25 degrees C, pH 7.63 Rainbow trout: LC50 = 8000 mg/L; 48 Hr.;
Unspecified ria: Phytobacterium phosphoreum: EC50 = 51,000-320,000 mg/L; 30 minutes;
Microtox test No data available.
Environmental: Dangerous to aquatic life in high concentrations. Aquatic toxicity rating:
TLm 96>1000 ppm. May be dangerous if it enters water intakes. Methyl alcohol is expected
to biodegrade in soil and water very rapidly. This product will show high soil mobility and
will be degraded from the ambient atmosphere by the reaction with photochemically
produced hyroxyl radicals with an estimated half-life of 17.8 days. Bioconcentration factor
for fish (golden ide) < 10. Based on a log Kow of -0.77, the BCF value for methanol can be
estimated to be 0.2.
Physical: No information available.
Other: None.

66

RCRA U-Series: CAS# 67-56-1: waste number U154; (Ignitable waste).

US DOT
IATA
RID/ADR
IMO
Shipping Name: METHANOL

Hazard Class:
UN Number:
Canada
TDG
METHANOL
3(6.1)
UN1230
UN1230
Packing Group: II
II
FLASHPOINT
11 C
Additional Info:

US FEDERAL
TSCA
None of the chemicals are on the Health & Safety Reporting List.
Chemical Test Rules
Section 12b
None of the chemicals are listed under TSCA Section 12b.
SARA
Section 302 (RQ)
Section 302 (TPQ)
SARA Codes
CAS # 67-56-1: acute, flammable.
Section 313
This material contains Methyl alcohol (CAS# 67-56-1, 99%),which is subject to the
reporting requirements of Section 313 of SARA Title III and 40 CFR Part 373.
Clean Air Act:
CAS# 67-56-1 is listed as a hazardous air pollutant (HAP). This material does not contain
Clean Water Act:
None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Hazardous Substances under the CWA.
None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Priority Pollutants under the CWA. None
of the chemicals in this product are listed as Toxic Pollutants under the CWA.
OSHA:
67
STATE
CAS# 67-56-1 can be found on the following state right to know lists: California, New
Jersey, Florida, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Massachusetts.

Hazard Symbols:
TF
Risk Phrases:
R 11 Highly flammable.
R 23/24/25 Toxic by inhalation, in contact with skin
and if swallowed.
R 39/23/24/25 Toxic : danger of very serious
irreversible effects through inhalation, in contact
with skin and if swallowed.
Safety Phrases:
S 16 Keep away from sources of ignition - No
smoking.
S 36/37 Wear suitable protective clothing and
gloves.
S 45 In case of accident or if you feel unwell, seek
medical advice immediately (show the label where
possible).
S 7 Keep container tightly closed.
CAS# 67-56-1: 1
Canada
CAS# 67-56-1 is listed on Canada's DSL List. CAS# 67-56-1 is listed on Canada's DSL List.
This product has a WHMIS classification of B2, D1A, D2B.
Exposure Limits
CAS# 67-56-1: OEL-ARAB Republic of Egypt:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);Ski
n OEL-AUSTRALIA:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);STEL 250 ppm;Skin OEL-BELGIU
M:TWA 200 ppm (262 mg/m3);STEL 250 ppm;Skin OEL-CZECHOSLOVAKIA:TWA 10
0 mg/m3;STEL 500 mg/m3 OEL-DENMARK:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);Skin OELFINLAND:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);STEL 250 ppm;Skin OEL-FRANCE:TWA 200
ppm (260 mg/m3);STEL 1000 ppm (1300 mg/m3) OEL-GERMANY:TWA 200 ppm (2
60 mg/m3);Skin OEL-HUNGARY:TWA 50 mg/m3;STEL 100 mg/m3;Skin JAN9 OEL
-JAPAN:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);Skin OEL-THE NETHERLANDS:TWA 200 ppm (
260 mg/m3);Skin OEL-THE PHILIPPINES:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3) OEL-POLA
ND:TWA 100 mg/m3 OEL-RUSSIA:TWA 200 ppm;STEL 5 mg/m3;Skin OEL-SWEDEN
:TWA 200 ppm (250 mg/m3);STEL 250 ppm (350 mg/m3);Skin OEL-SWITZERLAN
D:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);STEL 400 ppm;Skin OEL-THAILAND:TWA 200 ppm
(260 mg/m3) OEL-TURKEY:TWA 200 ppm (260 mg/m3) OEL-UNITED KINGDOM:TW
A 200 ppm (260 mg/m3);STEL 250 ppm;Skin OEL IN BULGARIA, COLOMBIA, JO
RDAN, KOREA check ACGIH TLV OEL IN NEW ZEALAND, SINGAPORE, VIETNAM ch
eck ACGI TLV
68

69

Hexane (certified ACS grade)
ACC# 10951

MSDS Name: Hexane (certified ACS grade)
Catalog Numbers: AC2924, S80032, BPH292RS-115, BPH292RS-200, BPH292RS-28,
BPH292RS-50, H202500LC, H291RS115, H291RS200, H291RS28, H291RS50, H2921,
H29220, H292200, H29220LC, H2924, H292500, H292500LC, H292FB115, H292FB19,
H292FB200, H292FB50, H292J4, H292RB115, H292RB19, H292RB200, H292RB50,
H292SK4, H292SS115, H292SS200, H292SS28, H292SS50, S800321, S800322MF
Synonyms: n-Hexane; Hexyl hydride; Dipropyl; normal-Hexane; Hex.
Fisher Scientific
1 Reagent Lane
Fair Lawn, NJ 07410
For information, call: 201-796-7100
Emergency Number: 201-796-7100
For CHEMTREC assistance, call: 800-424-9300
For International CHEMTREC assistance, call: 703-527-3887

CAS#
0-01-1
96-37-7
110-54-3
Chemical Name
Percent
EINECS/ELINCS
4.2
unlisted
9.7
202-503-2
86.1
203-777-6
Various Methylpentanes
Methylcyclopentane
Hexane
Hazard Symbols: XN F N
Risk Phrases: 11 38 48/20 62 51/53 65 67

EMERGENCY OVERVIEW
Appearance: clear colorless. Flash Point: -22 deg C. Aspiration hazard if swallowed. Can
enter lungs and cause damage. Causes respiratory tract irritation. Causes eye and skin
irritation. Danger! Extremely flammable liquid and vapor. Vapor may cause flash fire.
Possible risk of impaired fertility. Breathing vapors may cause drowsiness and dizziness.
Dangerous for the environment. May cause nervous system effects.
Target Organs: Central nervous system, respiratory system, eyes, skin, peripheral nervous
system.
Eye: Causes mild eye irritation. Causes redness and pain. May cause blurred vision, tearing,
70
and conjunctivitis.
Skin: Prolonged and/or repeated contact may cause defatting of the skin and dermatitis.
Causes irritation with burning pain, itching, and redness. Absorbed through the skin.
Ingestion: Aspiration hazard. May cause gastrointestinal irritation with nausea, vomiting
and diarrhea. Aspiration of material into the lungs may cause chemical pneumonitis, which
may be fatal. May cause central nervous system effects. Aspiration can cause asphyxia,
brain damage, and cardiac arrest.
Inhalation: Causes respiratory tract irritation. Exposure produces central nervous system
depression. Aspiration may cause respiratory swelling and pneumonitis. Inhalation of high
concentrations may cause narcotic effects. Vapors may cause dizziness or suffocation.
Exposure may cause vertigo, hallucinations, fatigue, muscle weakness, visual disturbances,
nervous system disturbances, coughing, chest pains, difficulty in breathing, lung irritation,
gastrointestinal disturbances, and edema which may be fatal.
Chronic: Prolonged or repeated skin contact may cause defatting and dermatitis. Prolonged
or repeated exposure may cause adverse reproductive effects. May cause fetal effects.
Chronic exposure may cause visual disturbances. Laboratory experiments have resulted in
mutagenic effects. Peripheral neuropathy symptoms include: muscular weakness,
paresthesia, numbing of the hands, feet, legs and arms, unsteadiness, and difficulty in
walking and standing. Repeated exposure may cause nervous system abnormalities with
muscle weakness and damage, motor incoordination, and sensation disturbances. Chronic
exposure produces peripheral neuropathy.

Eyes: In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15
minutes. Get medical aid.
Skin: In case of contact, flush skin with plenty of water. Remove contaminated clothing and
shoes. Get medical aid if irritation develops and persists. Wash clothing before reuse.
Ingestion: Potential for aspiration if swallowed. Get medical aid immediately. Do not
induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never give anything by
mouth to an unconscious person.
Inhalation: If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If
breathing is difficult, give oxygen. Get medical aid.
Notes to Physician: Treat symptomatically and supportively. For ingestion, the stomach
sould be intubated, aspirated, and lavaged with a slurry of activated charcoal--protect the
airway from aspiration of gastric contents. Monitor arterial blood gases in cases of severe
aspiration.

General Information: As in any fire, wear a self-contained breathing apparatus in
pressure-demand, MSHA/NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and full protective gear. Vapors
may form an explosive mixture with air. During a fire, irritating and highly toxic gases may
be generated by thermal decomposition or combustion. Use water spray to keep fireexposed containers cool. Extremely flammable liquid and vapor. Water may be ineffective.
Material is lighter than water and a fire may be spread by the use of water. May accumulate
static electrical charges, and may cause ignition of its own vapors. Containers may explode
if exposed to fire. Vapors are heavier than air and may travel to a source of ignition and
71
flash back. Vapors can spread along the ground and collect in low or confined areas.
Extinguishing Media: For small fires, use dry chemical, carbon dioxide, water spray or
alcohol-resistant foam. Water may be ineffective. Water may spread fire. If water is the only
media available, use in flooding amounts. For large fires, use water spray, fog or alcoholresistant foam. Do NOT use straight streams of water. Contact professional fire-fighters
immediately. Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire is out.

Spills/Leaks: Absorb spill with inert material (e.g. vermiculite, sand or earth), then place
in suitable container. Avoid runoff into storm sewers and ditches which lead to waterways.
Clean up spills immediately, observing precautions in the Protective Equipment section.
Remove all sources of ignition. Provide ventilation. A vapor suppressing foam may be used
to reduce vapors. Use only non-sparking tools and equipment.

Handling: Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated clothing and wash before
reuse. Ground and bond containers when transferring material. Avoid contact with eyes,
skin, and clothing. Empty containers retain product residue, (liquid and/or vapor), and can
be dangerous. Take precautionary measures against static discharges. Avoid contact with
heat, sparks and flame. Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill, grind, or expose
empty containers to heat, sparks or open flames. Use only with adequate ventilation. Avoid
breathing vapor or mist.
Storage: Keep away from heat and flame. Keep away from sources of ignition. Store in a
tightly closed container. Keep from contact with oxidizing materials. Store in a cool, dry,
well-ventilated area away from incompatible substances. Flammables-area.

Engineering Controls: Facilities storing or utilizing this material should be equipped with
an eyewash facility and a safety shower. Use adequate general or local explosion-proof
ventilation to keep airborne levels to acceptable levels.
Exposure Limits
Chemical Name
ACGIH
NIOSH
OSHA - Final PELs
none listed
none listed
none listed
none listed
50 ppm TWA; 180

mg/m3 TWA 1100 ppm
IDLH (10 percent lower
explosive limit)
500 ppm TWA; 1800

mg/m3 TWA
Various Methylpentanes none listed

Methylcyclopentane
Hexane
none listed
50 ppm TWA; skin potential for cutaneous
absorption
OSHA Vacated PELs: Various Methylpentanes: No OSHA Vacated PELs are listed for this
chemical. Methylcyclopentane: No OSHA Vacated PELs are listed for this chemical. Hexane:
50 ppm TWA; 180 mg/m3 TWA
72
Eyes: Wear appropriate protective eyeglasses or chemical safety goggles as described by

OSHA's eye and face protection regulations in 29 CFR 1910.133 or European Standard
EN166.

Physical State: Liquid
Appearance: clear colorless
Odor: gasoline-like
pH: Not available.
Vapor Pressure: 151 mm Hg @ 25 deg C
Vapor Density: 2.97(Air = 1)
Evaporation Rate:Not available.
Viscosity: 0.31 mPas 20 C
Boiling Point: 69 deg C @ 760 mmHg
Freezing/Melting Point:-95 deg C
Autoignition Temperature: 225 deg C ( 437.00 deg F)
Flash Point: -22 deg C ( -7.60 deg F)
Explosion Limits, Lower:1.1 vol %
Upper: 7.5 vol %
Solubility: Insoluble.
Specific Gravity/Density:0.6600
Molecular Formula:C6H14

Chemical Stability: Stable under normal temperatures and pressures.
Conditions to Avoid: Ignition sources, excess heat, electrical sparks.
Incompatibilities with Other Materials: Strong oxidizing agents, dinitrogen tetraoxide.
Hazardous Decomposition Products: Carbon monoxide, irritating and toxic fumes and
gases, carbon dioxide.

RTECS#:
CAS# 0-01-1 unlisted.
CAS# 96-37-7: GY4640000
CAS# 110-54-3: MN9275000
73
LD50/LC50:
Not available.
Not available.
CAS# 110-54-3:
Draize test, rabbit, eye: 10 mg Mild;
Inhalation, rat: LC50 = 48000 ppm/4H;
Oral, rat: LD50 = 25 gm/kg;
Carcinogenicity:
CAS# 0-01-1: Not listed by ACGIH, IARC, NIOSH, NTP, or OSHA. CAS# 96-37-7: Not listed
by ACGIH, IARC, NIOSH, NTP, or OSHA. CAS# 110-54-3: Not listed by ACGIH, IARC,
NIOSH, NTP, or OSHA.
Epidemiology: No data available.
Teratogenicity: Effects on Newborn - behavioral: Inhaltion, rat: TCLo = 10000 ppm/7H
(female 15 days pre-mating and female 1-18 days after conception).; Effects on Embryo or
Fetus - fetotoxicity: Inhalation, rat: TCLo = 5000 ppm/20 H (female 6-19 days after
conception).
Reproductive Effects: No data available.
Neurotoxicity: No data available.
Mutagenicity: Sex Chromosome Loss and Nondisjunction: Saccharomyces cerevisiae = 132
mmol/L.; Cytogenetic Anaylsis: Hamster fibroblast = 500 mg/L.
Other Studies: No data available.

Ecotoxicity: No data available. Estimated BCF values = 2.24 and 2.89. These values
suggest that hexane will show low bioconcentration in aquatic organisms. Estimated Koc
value = 4.11. This product will show slight soil mobility and is expected to rapidly volatilize
from moist surface soils.
Environmental: Terrestrial: Volatilization and adsorption are expected to be the most
important fate processes. Aquatic: Photolysis or hydrolysis are not expected to be
important. Atmospheric: Expected to exist entirely in the vapor phase in ambient air,
expected half life 2.8 days. Expected to biodegrade but not bioconcentrate.
Physical: No information available.
Other: No information available.

RCRA U-Series: None listed.

US DOT
IATA
RID/ADR
74
IMO
Canada
TDG
Shipping Name: HEXANES
Hazard Class:
UN Number:
HEXANES
UN1208
UN1208
Packing Group: II
II
FLASHPOINT
-22C
Additional Info:

US FEDERAL
TSCA
CAS# 0-01-1 is not listed on the TSCA inventory. It is for research and development use
only.
CAS# 96-37-7: Effective Date: June 20, 1985; Sunset Date: November 9, 1993
Chemical Test Rules
Section 12b
CAS# 96-37-7: 4/12b CAS# 110-54-3: 4/12B/12b
SARA
Section 302 (RQ)
Section 302 (TPQ)
SARA Codes
CAS # 96-37-7: flammable. CAS # 110-54-3: acute, chronic, flammable.
Section 313
This material contains Hexane (CAS# 110-54-3, 86 1%),which is subject to the reporting
requirements of Section 313 of SARA Title III and 40 CFR Part 373.
Clean Air Act:
CAS# 110-54-3 is listed as a hazardous air pollutant (HAP). This material does not contain
Clean Water Act:
None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Hazardous Substances under the CWA.
None of the chemicals in this product are listed as Priority Pollutants under the CWA. None
of the chemicals in this product are listed as Toxic Pollutants under the CWA.
OSHA:
STATE
CAS# 0-01-1 is not present on state lists from CA, PA, MN, MA, FL, or NJ.
CAS# 96-37-7 can be found on the following state right to know lists: New Jersey, Florida,
Pennsylvania, Massachusetts.
CAS# 110-54-3 can be found on the following state right to know lists: New Jersey, Florida,
75
Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Massachusetts.

Hazard Symbols:
XN F N
Risk Phrases:
R 11 Highly flammable.
R 38 Irritating to skin.
R 48/20 Harmful : danger of serious damage to health
by prolonged exposure through inhalation.
R 62 Possible risk of impaired fertility.
R 51/53 Toxic to aquatic organisms; may cause
long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment.
R 65 Harmful: may cause lung damage if swallowed.
R 67 Vapors may cause drowsiness and dizziness.
Safety Phrases:
S 16 Keep away from sources of ignition - No
smoking.
S 29 Do not empty into drains.
S 33 Take precautionary measures against static
discharges.
S 36/37 Wear suitable protective clothing and
gloves.
S 9 Keep container in a well-ventilated place.
S 61 Avoid release to the environment. Refer to
special instructions/Safety data sheets.
S 62 If swallowed, do not induce vomiting: seek
medical advice immediately and show this container or
label.
CAS# 0-01-1: No information available.
CAS# 96-37-7: 1
CAS# 110-54-3: 1
Canada
Canada
CAS# 96-37-7 is listed on Canada's DSL List. CAS# 96-37-7 is listed on Canada's DSL List.
CAS# 110-54-3 is listed on Canada's DSL List. CAS# 110-54-3 is listed on Canada's DSL
List.
This product has a WHMIS classification of B2, D2A.
CAS# 0-01-1 is not listed on Canada's Ingredient Disclosure List.
CAS# 96-37-7 is not listed on Canada's Ingredient Disclosure List.
Exposure Limits
CAS# 110-54-3: OEL-AUSTRALIA:TWA 50 ppm (180 mg/m3) OEL-BELGIUM:TWA
50 ppm (176 mg/m3) OEL-DENMARK:TWA 50 ppm (180 mg/m3) OEL-FINLAND:T
WA 50 ppm (180 mg/m3);STEL 150 ppm (530 mg/m3) OEL-FRANCE:TWA 50 ppm
(170 mg/m3) OEL-GERMANY:TWA 50 ppm (180 mg/m3) OEL-HUNGARY:TWA 100 m
g/m3;STEL 200 mg/m3;Skin OEL-JAPAN:TWA 40 ppm (140 mg/m3);Skin OEL-T
76
HE NETHERLANDS:TWA 100 ppm (360 mg/m3) OEL-THE PHILIPPINES:TWA 500 pp

m (1800 mg/m3) JAN9 OEL-POLAND:TWA 400 mg/m3 OEL-RUSSIA:TWA 40 ppm;S
TEL 300 mg/m3 OEL-SWEDEN:TWA 25 ppm (90 mg/m3);STEL 50 ppm (180 mg/m3
) OEL-SWITZERLAND:TWA 50 ppm (180 mg/m3);STEL 100 ppm (360 mg/m3) OE
L-TURKEY:TWA 500 ppm (1800 mg/m3) OEL-UNITED KINGDOM:TWA 100 ppm (360
mg/m3);STEL 125 ppm OEL IN BULGARIA, COLOMBIA, JORDAN, KOREA check A
CGIH TLV OEL IN NEW ZEALAND, SINGAPORE, VIETNAM check ACGI TLV

77
Appendix J: UniSim Design Summary
78

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Team 9: Oil from [the] Soil

Biodiesel Production from Seed Oil of the

May 15th, 2009

3. Chemistry Overview _________________________________________________________ 4

4. Process Description _________________________________________________________ 7

4.2. Area 100: Hexane Solvent Extraction and Recycle ___________________________________ 8

4.3. Area 200: Hexane Recovery ____________________________________________________ 11

4.5. Area 400: Biodiesel Treatment and Methanol Recovery _____________________________ 15

4.5.1. Section T-400 ______________________________________________________________________ 15

4.6. Absorber and Stripper Design __________________________________________________ 16

4.10. Side Reactions_______________________________________________________________ 18

5. Process Operation _________________________________________________________ 20

6. Discussion of Experimentation and Results _____________________________________ 21

8. Market Analysis ___________________________________________________________ 24

9. Uncertainties and Assumptions _______________________________________________ 27

10. Future Work _____________________________________________________________ 27

9.4. Michael Workman ____________________________________________________________ 30

Table 8.1 - Energy Return on Investment, in Kilowatts ______________________________ 25

2.2. Jatropha Curcas Life Cycle and Harvest

Figure 2.1 - Mature Jatropha Curcas Plant3

Lele, Satish. Biodiesel and Jatropha Cultivation. India: Agrobios, 2006.

Figure 2.2 - Ripe Fruit of the Jatropha Curcas Plant5

2.3. Jatropha Biodiesel for Retail

2.3. Potential for Farmers and Developing Nations

3.1. Extraction of Seed Oil

3.2. Treatment of Jatropha Curcas Seed Oil

Free Fatty Acid

Methyl Ester (Biodiesel)

Figure 3.1 - Free Fatty Acid Treatment with Methanol

3.3. Conversion of Seed Oil to Biodiesel

Methyl Ester (Biodiesel)

Figure 3.2 - Transesterification of a Triglyceride (JCO) with Methanol

3.4 Comparative Fuel Properties

4.1. Design Alternatives

4.1.1. Extraction of Seed Oil Alternatives

4.2. Area 100: Hexane Solvent Extraction and Recycle

4.2.1. Section X-100

4.2.2. Section X-101

4.2.3. Section T-120

4.3. Area 200: Hexane Recovery

Figure 4.2 - Hexane Recovery System, Area 200

4.3.1. Section E-200

4.3.2. Section T-210

4.3.3. Section T-211

4.4. Area 300: Treatment and Conversion of Seed Oil to Biodiesel

Figure 4.3 - Treatment and Conversion, Area 300

4.4.1. Section X-300

4.4.2. Section V-310

4.4.3. Section X-301

4.4.4. Section V-311

4.5. Area 400: Biodiesel Treatment and Methanol Recovery

Methanol Recycle (to storage)

Vent Vapors (from Area 300)

Crude Glycerin (from Area 300)

Crude Biodiesel (from Area 300)

Waste Water (to drain)

Figure 4.4 - Methanol Recovery and Biodiesel Wash, Area 400

4.5.1. Section T-400

4.5.2. Section V-410

4.5.3. Section T-401

4.5.4. Section V-411

4.6. Absorber and Stripper Design

Tray pressure drop