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INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
The analysis of blast loading was started in 1960s
only. Protecting civilian buildings from the threat of terrorist activities is one
of the most critical challenges for structural engineers today. Most of the
studies were conducted using the vehicle driven high-energy explosive
loading on the concrete/composite masonry wall building simulating
terrorist attack. The terrorist activities and threats have become a growing
problem all over the world and protection of the citizens against terrorist
attacks involves prediction, prevention and mitigation of such events.
Extensive research into blast effects analysis and
techniques to protect buildings has been initiated in many countries to
develop methods of protecting critical infrastructure and the built in
environment. The private sector is also increasingly considering measures to
protect so-called icon buildings against the threat of external terrorist
bomb attacks. If the structures are properly designed for these abnormal
loads damage can be reduced. Additionally, in order to ensure safety of
existing structures against such events, an evaluation procedure for their
inspection and eventual retrofit is needed.
After the progressive collapse of the Ronan Point
apartment, England in 1968[1], structural engineering research department
throughout the world forced to direct their research towards the progressive
collapse of high rise buildings under abnormal loads. So many guidelines,
standards and criteria were developed by different government and private
agencies in the world. According to UFC (Unified Facilities Criteria)
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[2]
around 75. The bomb was fertilizer-based (Ammonium Nitrate fuel oil
ANFO) explosive which had the TNT (Trinitrotoluene) equivalent 1814
(1.05) = 1905 kg. The Murrah building was a nine storey building of RC 4
slab-column construction, measuring 61.5m 21.5 m. The bomb, in a truck
at the base of the building, destroyed three of the four front columns. This
caused failure of transfer girder and columns supported by the transfer
girder. About 50% of floor area was lost over the full height of the structure.
Figure 1.2 Floor plan and Damage to north and east sides of Murrah
Building
1.2.3 Khobar Tower bombing, Saudi Arabia [11]
In 1996, Khobar Tower in Saudi Arabia was being
used to house foreign military personnel. On June 25, 1996, terrorist
detonated a bomb estimated at 9000kg TNT equivalent, apparently placed in
a tank truck parked approximately 24m from one of the buildings. The
explosion, which created a crater 17 m in diameter and 5 m deep, destroyed
the facing faade wall of the closest building, and damaged interior floors
and wall components. In addition, the explosion seriously damaged other
nearby buildings, and caused widespread glass damage in the complex.
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Figure 1.3 Crater created due to explosion and building after the
bombing
burst explosion occur when the detonation occurs close to or on the ground
surface. The initial shock wave is reflected and amplified by the ground
surface to produce a reflected wave.
Figure 1.6 Fully vented, partially vented and fully confined explosions
If detonating explosive is in contact with a structural component, e.g. a
column, the arrival of the detonation wave at the surface of the explosive
will generate intense stress waves in the material and resulting crushing of
the material. Except that an explosive in contact with a structure produces
similar effect to those of unconfined or confined explosions. There are many
forms of high explosive available and as each explosive has its own
detonation characteristics, the properties of each blast wave will be different.
TNT is being used as the standard benchmark, where all explosions can be
expressed in terms of an equivalent charge mass of TNT. The most common
method of equalization is based on the ratio of an explosives specific energy
to that of TNT.
pressure at the source. These high pressure gases expand rapidly into the
surrounding area and a blast wave is formed. Because the gases are moving,
they cause the surrounding air move as well. The damage caused by
explosion is produced by the passage of compressed air in the blast wave.
Blast waves propagate at supersonic speed and reflected as they meet
objects. As the blast wave continues to expand away from the source of the
explosion its intensity diminishes and its effect on the objects is also
reduced. Once the blast wave has formed and propagating away from the
source, it is convenient to separate out the different types of loading
experienced by the surrounding objects. Mainly three types of effects have
been identified in three categories. The effect rapidly compressing the
surrounding air is called Air Shock Wave. The air pressure and air
movement effect due to the accumulation of gases from the explosion
chemical reaction is called Dynamic Pressure and the effect rapidly
compressing the ground is called Ground Shock Wave.
high explosives. The detonation wave rapidly converts the solid or liquid
explosive in to a very hot, dense, high pressure gas, and the volume of this
gas which had been the explosive material is then the source of strong blast
waves in air. Pressures immediately behind the detonation front range from
2,700,000 to 4,900,000 psi. Only about one-third of the total chemical
energy available is most high explosive is released in the detonation process.
The remaining two-thirds is released more slowly in explosions in air as the
detonation products mix with air and burn. This after burning process has
only a slight effect on blast wave properties because it is slower than
detonation.
The blast effects of explosions are in the form of a
shock wave composed of a high intensity shock front which expands
outward from the surface of the explosive in to the surrounding air. As the
wave expands, it decay in strength, lengthens its duration, and decrease its
velocity.
1.3.3 Explosive materials:
Explosive materials may be classified according to
their physical state, solid, liquid or gases. Solid explosives are primarily high
explosives however other materials such as flammable chemicals and
propellants may also be classified as potentially explosive materials. Liquid
and gaseous explosives encompass a wide variety of substances used in the
manufacture of chemicals, fuels, and propellants. The blast pressure
environment produced will vary not only among the different materials but
may also differ for a particular material. Such factors as methods and
procedures used in manufacturing, storage, and handling, in addition to
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specific individual physical and chemical characteristics, may alter the blast
effects of an explosive material.
associated with the dynamic pressures, whose maximum values are denoted
q0 or the pressures formed by the winds produced by the passage of shock
front. As the shock front expands into increasingly larger volumes of the
medium, the peak incident pressure at the fronts decrease and the duration of
the pressures increases.
At any point away from the burst, the pressure
disturbance has the shape shown in above fig. The shock front arrives at a
given location at time tA and after rise to the peak value, P so the incident
pressure decays to the ambient value in time to which is the positive phase
duration. This is followed by a negative phase with a duration t 0 that is
usually much longer than the positive phase and characterized by a negative
pressure (below ambient pressure) having a maximum value of p so as well as
a reversal of the particular flow. The negative phase is usually less important
in a design than that of positive phase, and its amplitude P s- must, in all
cases, be less than that of ambient pressure P o. The incident impulse density
associated with the blast wave is the integrated area under the pressure-time
curve and is denoted as is for the positive phase and is- for the negative
phase. An additional parameter of the blast wave, the wave length, is
sometimes required in the analysis of structures. The positive wave length
Lw+ is that length at a given distance from the detonation which, at a
particular instant of time, is experiencing positive pressure. The negative
wave length Lw- is similar defined for negative pressures.
know how to define the blast loading. The structures may be subjected to
blast loading, which comprises blast pressure, ground shock, and fragment
impact, particularly in the near range region, whereas in the far-field region,
structures are subjected to only blast pressure. In case of nuclear blast, the
resulting shock wave produces very high blast pressure and large impulse
loading, which results in destruction of structures situated at even a large
distance from the source. Now mainly explosive induced blast loadings are
studied rather than the nuclear blast.
Blast overpressure is expressed as relative to ambient
condition (P0) rather than the absolute pressure.
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blast
resistant
design
15
16
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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
H. Draganic [12] et al., Studied and describes the process of determining the
blast load on structures and provides a numerical example of a fictive
structure exposed to this load. The aim was to become familiar with the
issue of blast load because of ever growing terrorist threat and the lack of
guidelines from national and European regulations on the verification of
structures exposed to explosions. The blast load was analytically determined
as a pressure-time history and numerical model of the structure was created
in SAP2000.
ZeynepKoccaz
[13]
especially in the last few years has shown that the effect of blast loads on
buildings is a serious matter that should be taken into consideration in the
design process. Although these kinds of attacks are exceptional cases, manmade disasters, blast loads are in fact dynamic loads that need to be carefully
calculated just like earthquake and wind loads.
The objective of this study is to shed light on blast resistant building
design theories, the enhancement of building security against the effects of
explosives in both architectural and structural design process and the design
techniques that should be carried out. Firstly, explosives and explosion types
have been explained briefly. In addition, the general aspects of explosion
process have been presented to clarify the effects of explosives on buildings.
To have a better understanding of explosives and characteristics of
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explosions will enable us to make blast resistant building design much more
efficiently.
ManmohanDassGoel
[14]
19
C.K. Gautam
[16]
[17]
number of terrorist bombings and explosions have led to increased need for
post blast investigators. Numerous advances have been made in the area of
chemical analysis of explosive residues, but little work has been done to aid
post blast investigators in the determination of explosive charge weight
using post blast structural damage.
Ranjan Kumar, S.M.ASCE
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
unnecessary
experimental
tests,
without
requiring
high
computational burden.
JUN LI
[22]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[28]
[29]
[30]
world and the evidence of the threats found especially in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia have prompted the concerned authorities to address the risks
to the critical infrastructure of the Kingdom. Understanding of the
progressive collapse mechanism is an essential step to protect buildings
against blast attacks. Buildings are very vulnerable to progressive collapse if
one or more columns are lost due to extreme loadings.
Bing Li
[31]
[32]
[33]
25
Xiaoli Bao
[34]
structures and exterior columns are probably the most vulnerable structural
components to terrorist attacks. Column failure is normally the primary
cause of progressive failure in frame structures. A high-fidelity physicsbased computer program, LS-DYNA was utilized in this study to provide
numerical simulations of the dynamic responses and residual axial strength
of reinforced concrete columns subjected to short standoff blast conditions.
The numerical results show that the use of seismic detailing techniques
can significantly reduce the degree of direct blast- induced damage and
subsequent collapse of the reinforced concrete columns.
Onur Dogan
[35]
program that was performed at the special explosives training field of the
General Directorate of Security in Ankara, where new residential blocks
are planned to be constructed nearby, are presented. With the objective of
estimating the blast-induced ground vibration effects on the proposed
structures,
various
blasting
parameters
of
nineteen
surface
and
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CHAPTER-3
DETERMINATION OF BLAST WAVE
PARAMETERS
3.1 Introduction to Surface Blast:
A charge located very near to the ground surface is
considered to be a surface burst. The initial wave of the explosion is
reflected and reinforced by the ground surface to produce a reflected wave.
Unlike the air burst, the reflected wave merges with the incident wave at the
point of detonation to form a single wave, similar in nature to the mach
wave of the air burst but essentially hemispherical in shape.
blast parameters other than incident pressure and impulse may be obtained
from the graphs. The scaled ground distance corresponding to the incident
pressure Pso is used to obtain the values of Pr, Pso-, Pr-, tA/ w1/3, U, Lw/ w1/3 and
Lw-/w1/3. In addition, this scaled ground distance Z = R/ w 1/3 is used to
calculate the equivalent TNT design charge weight W for pressure using the
actual ground distance R. The absolute values of the scaled blast parameters
are obtained by multiplying the scaled values by the equivalent TNT design
charge weight.
3.1.1 Procedure for field wave blast parameters of a surface burst:
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31
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CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This project is related to the prediction of blast loads both using
technical manuals and computational methods. Mainly the thesis focused on
the effect of external blast over the facade of structures by a high explosive
detonation (unconfined surface blast) with hemispherical charge. The
reflected pressure contours are prepared as per TM 5-1300 over the front
face of wall. The reflected pressure pr, reflected impulse ir, time of arrival
tA and positive phase time duration for reflected pressure tr are estimated.
Distribution graphs are prepared throughout the height of structure for the
charge weights of 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 kg TNT and the ground
distances (ranges) of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 m (i.e. Twenty Five combinations of
ground distances and charge weights are considered for the determination of
blast loads). Blast force-time curves (impact) are prepared throughout the
height of the frames in order to study the linear and non linear response of
the structures.
Application of blast load in the form of impact load over the
RC frames is discussed in this work. Category of blast explosion considered
in this study is external explosion, where the blast effect is considered over
the face opposite to the detonation. The charge shape considered, for the
calculation of the blast parameters is hemispherical. All the above mentioned
frames are simulated for Five blast load combinations a) 10 m range, 500 kg
TNT charge weight b) 10 m range, 1000 kg TNT charge weight c) 10 m
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The Angle of incidence effect for ranges 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 m with the
height are given in Figure 4.1. Starting at an angle of incidence of
approximately 400, Figure-193 in TM5 1300[36], depending on the static
condition.
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35
36
From Fig 4.18 to Fig 4.22 represents the impulse loading from ground
floor to top floors with charge weight of 4000kg TNT at 10, 20, 30, 40
and 50m respectively.
As the time duration increases from bottom floors to top floors the
impulse loading decreases simultaneously.
If the distance increases from the structure to the detonation material
then the time duration of blast wave increases to reach the structure as
the pressure gets decreases with respect to time.
As the charge weight increases the pressure induced on the structure
gets increased and as the distance increased the effect of pressure
toward structure gets reduced even though the charge weight is
increased.
Impulse loading graphs are useful to find the time history analysis for
that particular structure.
As the distance increase from structure to the charge weight the
37