FROG Chapter01 PDF

Chapter 1.
Water: A Natural Wonder

Faculty Resource and Organizational Guide (FROG)
Table of Contents
Materials for Chapter 1 Activities................................................................................................6
Reagents for Chapter 1 Activities.................................................................................................6
Section 1.1. Phases of Matter.....................................................................................................7
Learning Objectives for Section 1.1: ...........................................................................................7
Consider This 1.1. What do you already know about water? .....................................................7
Consider This 1.2. How do the volumes of liquid and solid water compare? ............................7
Section 1.2. Atomic Models........................................................................................................7
Learning Objectives for Section 1.2: ...........................................................................................7
Investigate This 1.4. What electrical effects can you observe? ..................................................8
Consider This 1.5. Do electrical effects explain your Investigate This 1.4 results?.................10
Consider This 1.6. Can an electrostatic model explain the Investigate This 1.4 results?.........10
Section 1.3. Molecular Models.................................................................................................11
Learning Objectives for Section 1.3: .........................................................................................11
Section 1.4. Valence Electrons in Molecular Models ............................................................11
Personal Tutor relevant to Section 1.4:......................................................................................11
Section 1.5. Arranging Electron Pairs in Three Dimensions................................................11
Investigate This 1.14. What arrangement of balloons around a point is stable? ......................11
Consider This 1.15. What is the geometry of four valence electron pairs? ..............................13
Consider This 1.16. How is a Lewis structure translated into a molecular model?..................13
Section 1.6. Polarity of the Water Molecule...........................................................................14
Consider This 1.17. How might an electric charge affect polar molecules? ............................14
Consider This 1.21. How does molecular geometry affect molecular dipoles? .......................15
Section 1.7. Why is Water Liquid at Room Temperature? ..................................................16
Personal Tutor relevant to Section 1.7.......................................................................................16
Investigate This 1.22. How does boiling point vary with number of molecular electrons? .....16
Consider This 1.23. Do boiling points correlate with number of molecular electrons? ...........17
Consider This 1.24. How can dipole-dipole attractions be visualized?....................................17
Consider This 1.25. How does polarity affect boiling point? ...................................................18
Consider This 1.26. Does hydrogen bonding explain the boiling points of NH3 and HF?.......19
Section 1.8. Further Structural Effects of Hydrogen Bonding in Water ............................20
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ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Investigate This 1.28. What kinds of hydrogen-bonded networks can you construct? ............21
Consider This 1.29. How do the structures of liquid and solid water compare? ......................22
Investigate This 1.30. What are the temperatures in an ice-water mixture?.............................22
Consider This 1.31. How do you interpret the temperatures of an ice-water mixture?............24
Consider This 1.32. What are the connections between water density and temperature? ........25
Section 1.9. Hydrogen Bonds in Biomolecules .......................................................................26
Investigate This 1.33. How do the DNA bases fit together? ....................................................26
Consider This 1.34. How does hydrogen bonding affect the thermal stability of DNA?.........28
Section 1.10. Phase Changes: Liquid to Gas ............................................................................28
Learning Objectives for Section 1.10: .......................................................................................28
Investigate This 1.35. What happens when you sweat?............................................................29
Consider This 1.36. What is the purpose of sweating?.............................................................29
Consider This 1.37. What are the signs of the energy changes for sweating?..........................30
Consider This 1.39. How are energy level diagrams correlated? .............................................30
Investigate This 1.40. Do all liquids evaporate at the same rate?.............................................31
Consider This 1.41. What are the relative energies of vaporization of different liquids? ........32
Section 1.11. Counting Molecules: The Mole...........................................................................33
Personal Tutor relevant to Section 1.11:....................................................................................33
Consider This 1.44. How can you count objects by measuring mass? .....................................34
Consider This 1.50. Which compounds in Table 1.2 form hydrogen bonds? ..........................34
Section 1.12. Specific Heat of Water: Keeping the Earths Temperature Stable.................35
Investigate This 1.53. What is observed when liquids are heated at the same rate? ................35
Consider This 1.54. How does temperature change in heated liquids? ....................................37
Consider This 1.59. Are your calculations related to Investigate This 1.53? ...........................38
Section 1.14. Extension -- Liquid Viscosity ..............................................................................39
Investigate This 1.60. How fast do different liquids flow from a pipet? ..................................39
Consider This 1.61. How are viscosities related to molecular attractions? ..............................40
Consider This 1.62. Does hydrogen bonding explain viscosities in other compounds?...........41
Consider This 1.63. Are the models for specific heat and viscosity of water related?.............42
Solutions for Chapter 1 Check This Activities: .........................................................................43
Check This 1.3. Molecular level representation of boiling water.............................................43
Check This 1.7. Number of valence and core electrons ...........................................................43
Check This 1.9. Trends in atomic sizes ....................................................................................43
Check This 1.11. Writing Lewis structures ..............................................................................43
Check This 1.13. Lewis structure of ethane..............................................................................43
Check This 1.18. Predicting bond dipoles ................................................................................44
Check This 1.20. Predicting molecular dipoles ........................................................................44
Check This 1.27. Predicting relative boiling points..................................................................44
Check This 1.38. Interpreting an energy diagram.....................................................................45
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Chapter 1
Check This 1.43.
Check This 1.46.
Check This 1.48.
Check This 1.49.
Check This 1.52.
Check This 1.56.
Check This 1.58.

Conversion of energy units...........................................................................45
Mass to moles and moles to mass conversions.............................................45
Calculating molar mass ................................................................................45
Comparing amounts of compounds..............................................................46
Vaporization energies in Investigate This 1.40 ............................................46
Specific heat and temperature rise................................................................46
Thermal energy change in ethanol................................................................46
Samples from the Classroom ......................................................................................................47

Daily Class Logs for Principles of Chemistry CH 103..............................................................47
Class Assignments for Principles of Chemistry CH 103 ...........................................................51
Chapter 1 Quizzes for Principles of Chemistry CH 103............................................................54
Chapter 1 Hour Exam for Principles of Chemistry CH 103 ......................................................57
Solutions for Chapter 1 End-of-Chapter Problems....................................................................59
Problem 1.1 ................................................................................................................................59
Problem 1.2. ...............................................................................................................................59
Problem 1.3. ...............................................................................................................................59
Problem 1.4. ...............................................................................................................................59
Problem 1.5. ...............................................................................................................................60
Problem 1.6. ...............................................................................................................................60
Problem 1.7. ...............................................................................................................................60
Problem 1.8. ...............................................................................................................................60
Problem 1.9. ...............................................................................................................................61
Problem 1.10. .............................................................................................................................61
Problem 1.11. .............................................................................................................................61
Problem 1.12. .............................................................................................................................62
Problem 1.13. .............................................................................................................................62
Problem 1.14. .............................................................................................................................62
Problem 1.15. .............................................................................................................................63
Problem 1.16. .............................................................................................................................63
Problem 1.17. .............................................................................................................................63
Problem 1.18. .............................................................................................................................64
Problem 1.19. .............................................................................................................................64
Problem 1.20. .............................................................................................................................64
Problem 1.21. .............................................................................................................................64
Problem 1.22. .............................................................................................................................64
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Problem 1.26. .............................................................................................................................66
Problem 1.27. .............................................................................................................................66
Problem 1.28. .............................................................................................................................67
Problem 1.29. .............................................................................................................................67
Problem 1.30. .............................................................................................................................68
Problem 1.31. .............................................................................................................................68
Problem 1.32. .............................................................................................................................69
Problem 1.33. .............................................................................................................................70
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Chapter 1
Problem 1.34. .............................................................................................................................70

Problem 1.35. .............................................................................................................................71
Problem 1.36. .............................................................................................................................71
Problem 1.37. .............................................................................................................................71
Problem 1.38. .............................................................................................................................72
Problem 1.39. .............................................................................................................................72
Problem 1.40. .............................................................................................................................73
Problem 1.41. .............................................................................................................................74
Problem 1.42. .............................................................................................................................74
Problem 1.43. .............................................................................................................................74
Problem 1.44. .............................................................................................................................74
Problem 1.45. .............................................................................................................................75
Problem 1.46. .............................................................................................................................76
Problem 1.47. .............................................................................................................................76
Problem 1.47. .............................................................................................................................77
Problem 1.49. .............................................................................................................................78
Problem 1.50. .............................................................................................................................78
Problem 1.51. .............................................................................................................................78
Problem 1.52. .............................................................................................................................79
Problem 1.53. .............................................................................................................................79
Problem 1.54. .............................................................................................................................79
Problem 1.55. .............................................................................................................................79
Problem 1.56. .............................................................................................................................80
Problem 1.57 ..............................................................................................................................80
Problem 1.58. .............................................................................................................................81
Problem 1.59. .............................................................................................................................81
Problem 1.60. .............................................................................................................................82
Problem 1.61. .............................................................................................................................82
Problem 1.62. .............................................................................................................................82
Problem 1.63. .............................................................................................................................83
Problem 1.64. .............................................................................................................................83
Problem 1.65. .............................................................................................................................84
Problem 1.66. .............................................................................................................................85
Problem 1.67. .............................................................................................................................86
Problem 1.68. .............................................................................................................................86
Problem 1.69. .............................................................................................................................86
Problem 1.70. .............................................................................................................................86
Problem 1.71. .............................................................................................................................86
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Problem 1.73. .............................................................................................................................87
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Problem 1.75. .............................................................................................................................88
Problem 1.76. .............................................................................................................................89
Problem 1.77. .............................................................................................................................89
Problem 1.78. .............................................................................................................................90
Problem 1.79. .............................................................................................................................90
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Chapter 1
Problem 1.80. .............................................................................................................................90

Problem 1.81. .............................................................................................................................91
Problem 1.82. .............................................................................................................................91
Problem 1.83. .............................................................................................................................92
Problem 1.84. .............................................................................................................................92
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Problem 1.96. .............................................................................................................................95
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Problem 1.103. ...........................................................................................................................98
Problem 1.104. ...........................................................................................................................98
Problem 1.105. ...........................................................................................................................99
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Problem 1.107. .........................................................................................................................100
Problem 1.108. .........................................................................................................................101
Problem 1.109. .........................................................................................................................102
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Materials for Chapter 1 Activities

Activity
Material
Quantity
1.4
1 15 cm of thin plastic sheet
Depends on
class size
1.4, 1.40
Scissors
1.14
Four 8 or 10 round balloons per group
Depends on
number of
groups
1.14
3/4 inch plastic transparent tape
1 roll
1.15, 1.28, 1.29,

1.33, 150
Model kits
1/ student
1.30
2-L plastic beverage container
1.30
Sturdy stirring rod
1.30, 1.53
Laboratory thermometers or computerinterfaced temperature probes
1.30, 1.53
Ring stand with two small clamps
1, 2
1.40
Paper towels
1.40
Pipets or droppers
1.53
250-mL Styrofoam cups
1.53
Beakers
1.53
Electric immersion heaters
1.60
9" glass Pasteur pipets
1.60
Containers
Reagents for Chapter 1 Activities

Activity
Reagent
1.30
Crushed ice
1.30, 1.40, 1.53,

1.60
Water
1.40, 1.60
Hexane, C6H14
1.40
Methanol, CH3OH
1.53
Ethanol
ACS Chemistry FROG
Quantity
120-150 g
Chapter 1
Section 1.1. Phases of Matter

Learning Objectives for Section 1.1:
Describe solids, liquids, and gases in terms of their macroscopic properties and write or draw
molecular-level descriptions that explain these properties.
Consider This 1.1. What do you already know about water?
Goal:
This is an introductory activity to help students focus on the properties of water and how water
is essential for life.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to answer these questions. Then you
can lead the discussion, summarizing answers on the chalkboard or an overhead transparency
or have students do so.
Follow-up discussion:
This activity allows the instructor to discuss the physical properties of water as well as phase
changes.
NOTE: This activity demonstrates to students that they do know a lot about water. Thus, it
helps build their confidence to learn chemistry.
Follow-up activity:
Consider This 1.2. How do the volumes of liquid and solid water compare?
Consider This 1.2. How do the volumes of liquid and solid water compare?
Goal:
Compare the volumes of liquid and solid water.
Classroom options: Web Companion [part (b)]
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to answer these questions and
complete a drawing that illustrates their answers. Then you can lead the discussion,
summarizing answers on the chalkboard or an overhead transparency.
This activity could also be assigned as a homework problem and then discussed at the next
class section.
This activity can be conducted as an open class discussion.
Instructor notes:
Students should reason and conclude:
(a) The volume of the solid ice is larger than the liquid water. The density of the solid is less
than the density of the liquid, so, for a given sample of water, the volume of solid formed must
be greater than the volume of the liquid.
(b) Yes. Water freezing in the plastic bottle has expanded, tearing the label.
Follow-up activities:
End of chapter problems 1.1 through 1.13.
Section 1.2. Atomic Models.

Make drawings that show how the electrical nature of matter explains the results of
electrostatic experiments.
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Use the nuclear atomic model, the shell model for their electrons, and the periodic table to
determine the charge on the atomic core and the number of valence electrons in an atom.
Use the periodic table and the atomic shell model to predict trends in atomic size and
electronegativities.
Investigate This 1.4. What electrical effects can you observe?
Goal:
Students will observe electrostatic interactions that occur from rubbing two pieces of plastic
sheets together.
Set-up time
5 minutes (class demonstration); 30 minutes (class activity)
Time for activity:
5 minutes
Equipment:
1 15-cm strip of thin plastic sheet from a plastic carryout bag.
Scissors.
Procedure:
NOTE: This activity can be conducted as a demonstration. Students can also work in small
groups to complete this activity and then discuss their observations. Also, students could
perform this activity as a take-home assignment that can be discussed at the next class session.
On humid days, this activity may not work very well.
Drape the plastic strip over one finger so that equal lengths hang down on each side.
Place one finger of your other hand between the two halves of the plastic strip.
Quickly slide your hand down the full length of the free ends of the strip, with the plastic
pinched between your fingers and thumb.
Immediately release the free ends.

An alternative procedure:
Dr. Jonathan Mitschele, St. Josephs College, suggests using sticky tape experiments adapted
from R. Chabay and B. Sherwood, Matter & Interactions (Wiley, New York, 2002), Chapter 14.
The tape is charged by sticking it on and then pulling it off a smooth surface. A charged tape is
attracted to neutral objects. Two similarly charged tapes repel each other. Have students discuss
how they could make tapes of opposite charge and then test their properties. If stuck, lead
students to the answer: stick two lengths of tape together, make sure they are not charged, and
then pull them apart.
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Chapter 1
Reference
P. Williams, J. Chem. Educ. 2000, 77, 1520
Clean-up:
Recycle plastic strips.
Anticipated results:
The plastic strips repel each other. Rubbing with the fingers produces the same charge on both
halves of the plastic strips.
Use Consider This 1.5 to facilitate discussion. Students should propose possible explanations
based on their observations.
Consider This 1.5. Do electrical effects explain your Investigate This 1.4 results?
Consider This 1.6. Can an electrostatic model explain the Investigate This 1.4 results?
Sample Student Report Sheet for Investigate This 1.4

Name:
Names of Group Members:
Summary of Procedure: You will observe electrical effects of rubbing two plastic strips
between your fingers.
Observations:
Additional Notes:
NOTE: This student report sheet serves as a sample only. It can be modified according to your
classroom needs. These report sheets can be used for both Investigate This and Consider This
activities.
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Consider This 1.5. Do electrical effects explain your Investigate This 1.4 results?
Goal:
Students discuss whether and how electrical effects explain the results for Investigate This 1.4
and relate them to similar experiences they have had.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to answer the questions. Then you
class session.
Instructor notes:
Students should reason and conclude that electric charges on the strips could be responsible for
their repulsion (most will probably recall that like repels like) and provide examples of scuffing
across a carpet or car seat and then getting an electric shock and/or seeing a spark.
Discuss electrical nature of matter.
Display and discuss Figure 1.4.
Define electrostatic attraction/repulsion.
Follow-up activity:
Goal:
Students sketch an electrostatic model that explains their observations in Investigate This 1.4.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to create their drawings and answer
the questions. Then you can lead the discussion, summarizing answers on the chalkboard or
an overhead transparency or have students do so.
class section.
Instructor notes:
Before conducting this activity, review the results from Investigate This 1.4.
Students should sketch something like this and conclude that after rubbing the plastic strips
between their fingers, like charges build up on the strips. Since like charges repel each other,
the plastic strips move away from each other.
Use this activity to lead into discussing atoms and elements.
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ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Check This 1.7. Number of valence and core electrons.
Worked Example 1.8. Trends in atomic size.
Check This 1.9. Trends in atomic size.
Section 1.3. Molecular Models

Describe the relationships among different molecular models and the information that each of
them provides.
Section 1.4. Valence Electrons in Molecular Models

them provides.
Draw Lewis structures for molecules whose molecular formulas contain only first and second
period elements.
Personal Tutor relevant to Section 1.4:
If students need extra assistance in drawing Lewis structures, please have them study the
Personal Tutor Lewis structure exercises.
Section 1.5. Arranging Electron Pairs in Three Dimensions

them provides.
Use drawings, physical models, and words to describe the geometry of the valence electrons
and nuclei for molecules whose molecular formulas contain only first and second period
elements.
If students need extra assistance in understanding molecular shapes, please have them study the
Personal Tutor molecular shape exercises.
Investigate This 1.14. What arrangement of balloons around a point is stable?
Goal:
Using four round balloons of the same size, students will find the closest packing arrangement
of the balloons around a central point.
Set-up time:
Depends on the size of your class. For students working in small groups, four balloons can be
placed in a zip-closure bag for distributing to your class.
Time for activity:
10-15 minutes.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 1
Equipment:
Four 8- or 10-inch round balloons per group.
3/4-inch plastic transparent tape.
Procedure:
NOTE: Students can work in small groups to complete this activity. If you have a small class,
students can also complete this activity at home and discuss their results at the next class
session. If you have a large class, ask for 2-3 student volunteers to complete this activity or
conduct as an instructor-led activity.
Distribute balloons to student groups.
Inflate all balloons to the same size and tie off their stems so they remain inflated.
Attach two of the balloons together by taping their stems together or twisting the stems
together.
Attach a third and then a fourth balloon in the same way.
Try to make different geometries of the four attached balloons.
For the most stable arrangement you can find, describe and record the geometry of the centers
of the balloons with respect to their mutual point of attachment.
Students should discuss this geometry and conclude that this most stable arrangement of
balloon centers about their point of attachment is tetrahedral (form a tetrahedron if connected).
Use Consider This 1.15 to facilitate discussion.
Discussion should lead to the correlation between arranging the balloons around a central
point and arranging four valence electron pairs around a positively charged central atomic
core.
Consider This 1.15. What is the geometry of four valence electron pairs?
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ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Consider This 1.15. What is the geometry of four valence electron pairs?
Goal:
Students find the geometry of the most stable arrangement of four valence electrons and model
it with their molecular models.
Classroom options:
Allow 5-7 minutes for students, working in small groups, to draw the most stable arrangement
and construct their model.
class session.
Instructor notes:
Students need to bring their model kit to class.
This activity is a follow-up activity and extension to Investigate This 1.14. It links the
geometry of the most stable arrangement of balloons to the most stable arrangement of four
valence electron pairs and represents the latter with a model.
Students should reason and conclude that the tetrahedral arrangement is the most stable
arrangement of four valence electron pairs, as shown in Figure 1.13, ball-and-stick-tetrahedral
array of sticks (representing electron pairs).
Display and discuss Figure 1.12, tetrahedral arrangement of four balls, and Figure 1.13, balland-stick tetrahedral array of sticks (representing electron pairs).
Consider This 1.16. How is a Lewis structure translated into a molecular model?
End of chapter problems 1.39 and 1.40.
Consider This 1.16. How is a Lewis structure translated into a molecular model?
Goal:
Students construct molecular models of water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen fluoride based
on their corresponding Lewis structures.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to complete this activity. Then you
can lead the discussion, summarizing their descriptions on the chalkboard or an overhead
transparency and students can demonstrate their models.
Assign each group one molecule.
class session.
Instructor notes:
Students should use their model kits.
Students should reason and conclude in part (b) that
Water is angular or V-shaped.
Methane is tetrahedral.
Ammonia is tripod (trigonal) shaped or a triangular pyramid with N at the apex.
Hydrogen fluoride is linear.
Students should understand the limitations of using their molecular models. They help
visualize the shape of the molecule, but do not provide information on electron densities
within the models.
ACS Chemistry FROG
13
Chapter 1
Section 1.6. Polarity of the Water Molecule

Use the periodic table and the atomic shell model to predict trends in atomic size and
electronegativities.
them provides.
Predict the direction and relative magnitude of bond dipoles and the direction of the resultant
molecular dipole for simple molecular structures.
Consider This 1.17. How might an electric charge affect polar molecules?
Goal:
Students sketch the orientation of polar molecules between two oppositely charged metal plates.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to answer these questions and
complete a drawing that illustrates their answers. Then you can lead the discussion,
summarizing answers on the chalkboard or an overhead transparency or have students do it.
class session.
Instructor notes:
Before conducting this activity, discuss the following concepts with your students: polar
molecules, electric dipoles, and nonpolar molecules.
Figure 1.15, schematic illustrations of (a) polar and (b) nonpolar molecules, can be shown to
provide students a model for polar molecules.
Students should sketch a drawing similar to Figure 1.16(b).
Explain Figure 1.16 (b).
Discuss why water molecules are polar, perhaps even extending Figure 1.16 to show how
water molecules would align themselves between oppositely charged plates.
Introduce how computer-generated models such as the charge-density model illustrated in
Figure 1.17(a) can demonstrate, based on color-coding, where electrons are found.
The class discussion should provide a transition to the concepts of dipole moments, bond
polarity, and electronegativity can be described.
Keep in mind that molecular models are used throughout this text. It's important for students
to understand their usefulness and limitations and to have these ideas reinforced often.
Check This 1.18. Predicting bond dipoles.
Worked Example 1.19. Predicting molecular dipoles.
Check This 1.20. Predicting molecular dipoles.
Consider This 1.21. How does molecular geometry affect molecular dipoles?
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ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Consider This 1.21. How does molecular geometry affect molecular dipoles?
Goal:
Based on their geometry and bond dipoles determine whether carbon dioxide and boron
trihydride (borane) are polar or nonpolar molecules.
Classroom options: Web Companion component
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to sketch CO2 and to answer these
questions. Then you can lead the discussion, summarizing their answers on the chalkboard or
class session.
Instructor notes:
Before conducting this activity, discuss bond dipoles and molecular dipoles.
Students should reason and conclude that:
(a) In carbon dioxide, the two bond dipoles are equal, but pointing in opposite directions.
The bond dipoles cancel out, resulting in no overall molecular dipole. Thus, by this criterion
(no permanent dipole moment), carbon dioxide is a nonpolar molecule.
(b) The polarity of the BH3 molecule is similar to CO2 because, as in CO2, the individual
bond dipoles, which are identical and pointing at 120 angles, cancel out, resulting in no
overall molecular dipole. By this criterion, BH3 is non-polar. The charge density sketch for
CO2 should be analogous to that for BH3 provided in the Web Companion, Chapter 1, Section
1.6, page 4. The negative charge density is found on the oxygen atoms of CO2.
NOTE: You might draw students attention to the fact that molecules like CO2 and BH3 that
have no permanent dipole moment (and are called nonpolar) still have substantial charge
separation and positive and negative centers that might interact with other positive and negative
centers. This makes these nonpolar molecules different from those that have little of no charge
separation, such as hydrocarbons or nitrogen and oxygen molecules. In Chapter 2, for example,
we will find that CO2 dissolves in water to give an acidic solution because the molecule reacts
with water by a nucleophile-electrophile interaction that will be introduced in Chapter 6. Not
included in this text is the structure of diborane, which can be thought of as the result of the
interaction of the positive boron centers and negative hydrides of borane to form three-center
hydrogen-bridged bonds:
H
H
H
B
B
H
H
H
Important points listed in Reflection and projection, especially the reason why we are
developing molecular models, should be discussed.
ACS Chemistry FROG
15
Chapter 1
Section 1.7. Why is Water Liquid at Room Temperature?

Use drawings, physical models, and words to describe the origin of intermolecular
interactions due to London dispersion forces, dipolar attractions, and hydrogen bonding.
Use intermolecular attractions to predict and/or explain trends in boiling points and energies
of vaporization for a series of compounds whose molecular structures you know or can
determine.
Personal Tutor relevant to Section 1.7
If students need extra assistance in understanding graphs, please have them study the Personal
Tutor understanding graph exercises.
Investigate This 1.22. How does boiling point vary with number of molecular electrons?
Goal:
Determine the relationship between boiling points and number of electrons/molecule from the
data in Figure 1.21.
Set-up time:
0 minutes
Time for activity:
5-10 minutes.
Pre-activity discussion:
Discuss and define boiling point.
NOTE: This activity can be conducted in class with students working in small groups or as an
open class discussion.
Procedure:
Project Figure 1.21, boiling point vs. number of electrons/molecule for group IV hydrides.
Students should:
Describe the relationship between the boiling point and number of electrons/molecule.
Draw conclusions about the relative attractions between molecules in these compounds.
Discuss how you might explain any trends you see.
As the number of electrons/molecule increases, the boiling point increases.
This means that although these molecules are non-polar, the intermolecular attractions among
them become stronger as the number of electrons in the molecules increases.
Non-polar molecules have small transient dipole moments. (At any instant, electron
distribution can be skewed in one direction or another.) These small dipole moments can
induce dipoles in nearby molecules and thus create fleeting attractions between the molecules.
Students should connect this explanation with the changes shown in Figure 1.23, induceddipole attraction between non-polar molecules, and the animations in the Web Companion,
Chapter 1, Section 1.7, page 1.
Induced dipole attractions are categorized as dispersion forces.
Consider This 1.23. Do boiling points correlate with number of molecular electrons?
Consider This 1.24. How can dipole-dipole attractions be visualized?
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Consider This 1.25. How does polarity affect boiling point?

End of Chapter problems 1.53, 1.58, and 1.59.
Consider This 1.23. Do boiling points correlate with number of molecular electrons?
Goal
Correlate the boiling points of alkanes with number of molecular electrons.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to complete this activity. Then you
class session.
Instructor notes:
This activity allows students to apply and extend their knowledge of dispersion forces to
alkanes.
Display Figure 1.21 while students complete this activity.
(a) The more CH2 groups, each adding 8 electrons to the total, in these molecules, the more
induced dipole attractions there will be. Thus, the boiling points will increase.
(b) Yes, as the number of molecular electrons increases, the corresponding boiling points
increase.
(c) The F2 and I2 molecules animated in the Web Companion, Chapter 1, Section 1.7, page 1,
follow the same pattern of volatility as seen for the hydrocarbons and group IV hydrides. F2,
with fewer electrons, is a gas at room temperature and I2, with more electrons, is a solid.
Their boiling points differ by 362 C.
Reiterate that dispersion forces increase as the sizes of the molecules increase because more
electrons are available for instantaneous dipoles.
Goal:
Find and sketch favorable arrangements for dipole-dipole attractions among four dipoles and
compare arrangements among the students.
Classroom options:
Allow 5-10 minutes for students, working in small groups, to sketch their dipolar
arrangements. Then you can lead the discussion, summarizing the sketches on the chalkboard
or an overhead transparency or have students do so.
class section.
Among the possibilities students might sketch are arrangements like these:
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Chapter 1
Discuss with students that individual polar attractions are stronger than dispersion forces in
small molecules, but that dispersion forces are quite large for molecules with many electrons
(as they have seen previously) and often dominate their interactions.
Set the stage for introducing the concept of hydrogen bonds as another attractive interaction
that accounts for the high boiling point of water.
Consider This 1.26. Do hydrogen bonds explain the boiling points of NH3 and HF?
Check This 1.27. Predicting relative boiling points.
Goal:
Determine and analyze the patterns of boiling points vs. number of electrons/molecule for the
group IV through VII hydrides shown in Figure 1.24.
Time for activity:
5-10 minutes.
Classroom options:
This activity can be conducted in class with students working in small groups or as an open
class discussion.
Instructor notes:
Remind students that the polarity of the hydrides generally increases from group IV through
group VII.
Students should suggest patterns such as these:
The first member of each series (the second-period hydride) of groups V through VII is out of
line with the others in that series.
The remaining members of each series increase in boiling point as the number of molecular
electrons increases, just as for group IV.
The series tend to parallel one another with the group boiling points in the order IV < VII < V
< VI.
HCl has a little higher boiling point than would be predicted by the trend of the heavier group
VII hydrides.
Students should reason along these lines to search for explanations:
(a) The electronegativities of the elements in a group (column) of the periodic table decrease
as we go down the group (shown for the second and third periods in Figure 1.20). Thus, the
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difference in electronegativity between the hydrogen atom and the elemental atom to which it
is bonded will decrease and, hence, the polarity of the hydrides will tend to decrease. The
boiling points in Figure 1.24 are plotted as a function of increasing electrons per molecule,
which is the direction going down the groups of the periodic table, so we expect the polarities
of the molecules generally to decrease from left to right on the graph. If the major factor
influencing the boiling points of the hydrides were polarity, we would, therefore, expect the
boiling points to decrease from left to right.
(b) Dispersion forces depend on the number of electrons in a molecule: the more there are,
the greater the possibilities for induced dipole attractions. Since the number of electrons per
molecule increases from left to right on the graph, we would expect to see generally
increasing boiling points as the molecules attract one another more strongly.
(c) Since the general trend in boiling points (ignoring the second period hydrides, except
CH4) is increasing with greater number of electrons per molecule, it appears as though the
major contributor to these values is the attraction due to dispersion forces. The hydrides of
period 2 are out of line with the general trend (as is the third period hydride, HCl, which
seems a bit higher than we would expect from the other halogen halides). Perhaps for these
quite polar molecules (except CH4), there is some polar interaction that dominates dispersion
effects. (We will see in the subsequent discussion that this interaction is the formation of
hydrogen bonds.)
Revisit the concept of dipole-dipole attractions as an introduction to hydrogen bonding.
Consider what factors (highly electronegative atoms bonded to hydrogen) might enter into an
explanation of the high boiling points of the second period hydrides (except CH4).
Consider This 1.26. Does hydrogen bonding explain the boiling points of NH3 and HF?
End of Chapter problems 1.50 through 1.60.
Consider This 1.26. Does hydrogen bonding explain the boiling points of NH3 and HF?
Goal:
Use models (drawings) of hydrogen bonding in NH3 and HF to frame an explanation of their
relatively high boiling points and why these are lower than the boiling point of water.
Classroom options:
Allow 5-10 minutes for students, working in small groups, to sketch their hydrogen-bonded
structures. Then you can lead the discussion, summarizing the sketches on the chalkboard or
an overhead transparency or have the students do it.
The instructor can assign half the groups to sketch hydrogen bonding among NH3 molecules
and the other half to sketch the hydrogen bonding among HF molecules.
class section.
Instructor notes:
As a prelude to this activity, show Figure 1.24 and remind the class of the trends shown.
This is an extension of the text discussion of hydrogen bonding in water.
Student sketches might look something like these to show the maximum number of molecules
that can be hydrogen bonded to a single central molecule:
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Chapter 1
F
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
(a) The above hydrogen-bonded models explain why the boiling points of NH3 and HF are
higher than they should be, if they followed the trend of the other group V and VII hydrides
in Figure 1.24. The hydrogen bonds are strong attractive interactions that keep the molecules
together. Higher temperatures are required to provide enough energy to free molecules to
enter the gas phase.
(b) Individual NH3 and HF molecules are capable of forming four H bonds each, as we have
shown in the sketches for part (a). However, N NH3 molecules have 3N hydrogen atoms, but
only N nonbonding electron pairs, so they are limited to a maximum of N hydrogen bonds. A
similar analysis applies to HF for which the single H on each molecule limits the number of
hydrogen bonds.
(c) There is less overall H bonding possible for NH3 and HF and hence less overall attraction
among their molecules, so their boiling points are lower than for H2O.
NOTE: Anticipating the next section, we could construct two cyclic hexamers of HF, and find
that there is now no way to join the hexamers together with hydrogen bonds because all of the
available hydrogens are already hydrogen bonded. This is also true of the cyclic hexamers of
ammonia where the nonbonded electron pairs on the nitrogen are the "limiting reactant".
The follow-up discussion should set the stage for introducing further effects of hydrogen
bonding in water in Section 1.8.
Section 1.8. Further Structural Effects of Hydrogen Bonding in Water

Use drawings, physical models, and words to describe how the structure of the water molecule
is responsible for the densities of solid and liquid water, the temperature dependence of the
density of liquid water, and the consequences for life on Earth.
If students need extra assistance in understanding graphs and molecular structures, please have
them study the Personal Tutor exercises in these areas.
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Investigate This 1.28. What kinds of hydrogen-bonded networks can you construct?
Goal:
Using their model kits, students will construct a network of hydrogen-bonded water molecules
to help visualize the three dimensional hydrogen-bonded structure.
Set-up:
During the previous class session, remind students to bring their model kits to the next class
session.
Time for activity:
10-15 minutes
Materials:
Model kits.
Procedure:
NOTE: Students work in small groups to complete this activity. Before beginning this activity,
you might project Figure 1.25(c) to show the complexity of the three-dimensional ice structure.
A model can be made more nearly to scale if the long yellow sticks are used instead of the white
ones. However, two students will have to combine kits in order to get 24 yellow sticks needed to
construct the models shown in Figures 1.28(b) and (d), if you wish to extend the activity to do
this. These structures will be a little less rigid than those made with the white sticks.
Construct about a dozen ball-and-stick models of water molecules.
Us the shortest (pink) sticks for the hydrogen-oxygen bonds.
Connect one of your water molecules to four others by hydrogen bonds using the longer
(white) sticks for the hydrogen bonds.
Continue to add water molecules to see how a network of hydrogen-bonded water molecules
might form.
Constrain the construction by trying to form a ring of hydrogen-bonded molecules in which
no bond sticks are bent and all hydrogen bonds are linear (pink and white sticks in a line).
Students should:
Determine how many molecules are required to form an unstrained ring.
Compare their structure to the representation shown in Figure 1.28(a).
Draw conclusions about the connections in the ice structure.
Alternate procedure: Molecular modeling software can be used. The instructor can create the
hydrogen bond network of water molecules for the students or have the students create this
network as a homework assignment.
Students should have constructed a model similar to Figure 1.28(a).
Discuss the extended structure of ice, focusing on the hydrogen bond network that creates the
stacked six-member rings. If you wish, have students combine their rings, as in Figure 1.28(b)
and (d) to get a further feel for the three-dimensional structure that is hard to get just from
drawings or photos.
Consider This 1.29. How do the structures of liquid and solid water compare?
Investigate This 1.30. What are the temperatures in an ice-water mixture?
Consider This 1.31. How do you interpret the temperatures in an ice-water mixture?
Consider This 1.32. What are the connections between water density and temperature?
End of chapter problems 1.61 and 1.64.
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Consider This 1.29. How do the structures of liquid and solid water compare?
Goal:
Relate the breaking of the models made in Investigate This 1.28 to the collapse of the ice
structures presented in Figure 1.28 and the relative densities of ice and water.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to answer these questions. Then
you can lead the discussion, summarizing answers on the chalkboard or an overhead
transparency or have students do it.
Show the animation of ice melting from the Web Companion, Chapter 1, Section 1.1, page 3.
Instructor notes:
This activity is appropriate for follow-up discussion to Investigate This 1.28.
Before conducting this activity, review the models shown Figure 1.28 and those students
constructed in Investigate This 1.28.
If the hydrogen bonds are broken, the water molecules can move closer together (rather than
being held apart in the rigid ice structure).
Yes, this collapse is related to the relative densities of ice and water. As ice melts and some of
the hydrogen bonds break, the open ice structure begins to collapse and water molecules can
move closer together. The liquid is now denser than the ice (there are more molecules per unit
volume).
Try to be sure students understand the reason for the relative densities of ice and liquid water.
This discussion is preparation for the next activities where we find that water molecules
continue to move closer together in the liquid as the temperature increases and reach a
maximum density at a temperature of 3.98 C. Above this temperature, the increasing motion
of the water molecules results in larger distances between them and the density decreases.
Consider This 1.31. How do you interpret the temperature in an ice-water mixture?
End of chapter problems 1.61, 1.64, and 1.65.
Goal:
Correlate liquid water density with temperature in a column of ice and water. The activity
models the seasonal turnover of water/nutrients in a lake by examining the temperature changes
in an ice/water mixture over a time period of 30-60 minutes.
Set-up time:
10 minutes
Time for activity:
30-60 minutes.
Equipment:
One 2-L plastic beverage container, cut off at the shoulder.
Sturdy stirring rod.
Two standard laboratory thermometers or temperature probes.
Ring stand with two small clamps.
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Chemicals:
Crushed ice.
Water.
Instructor notes:
This activity is recommend as a class activity. It might be difficult to conduct during lecture
due to recording the temperature every 5 minutes for 30-60 minutes, but students could be
assigned this task without interrupting the class discussion. With temperature probes and
automated data collection, the results can be collected and displayed as convenient. Students
might be given these data as a handout or via the Web and do an analysis as a homework
assignment. The activity can also be conducted in the laboratory with the results and data
discussed there or in class.
Procedure:
SAFETY NOTE
Wear safety goggles
Fill a tall narrow transparent container with crushed ice and add cold water until it is full.
Place two thermometers or other temperature probes in the mixture with one measuring the
temperature near the top and the other near the bottom of the mixture.
Stir the mixture vigorously for about a minute to get the temperature of the mixture uniform at
0 C. Both thermometers should read 0 C.
Picture of set-up:
Allow the system to remain undisturbed while you record the temperature of both
thermometers every 5 minutes for 30-60 minutes (the longer the better).
Plot the data.
If time is short, students can plot their data outside of class and discuss their results at the next
class session.
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Chapter 1
Results:
For a 2-L plastic beverage bottle filled completely with a water/ice mixture. At longer times
the bottom temperature remains at about 4-5 C as long as there is still a several centimeter
layer of ice at the top.
Time,
min
Top water temp,

C
Bottom water temp,

C
10
15
20
25
2.5
30
35
40
45
Clean up:
Dispose ice/water mixture down the drain.
Consider This 1.31 can be used for follow-up discussion.
Students should note that the temperature at the bottom of the bottle rises to 4-5 C and stays
at that temperature as long as ice is present at the top, where the temperature remains at 0 C.
The importance of this activity is that it demonstrates how nutrients and oxygen are
distributed in a lake throughout the seasons.
Consider This 1.31. How do you interpret the temperatures of an ice-water mixture?
Goal:
Based upon their observations from Investigate This 1.30, students reason that the density of
water is higher at 4-5 C than at 0 C.
Classroom options:
transparency or have students do so.
This activity could be conducted as an open class discussion.
Instructor notes:
This discussion should be conducted immediately after completing Investigate This 1.30.
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The denser water is at the bottom of the beaker. As the ice melts, the dense water sinks to the
bottom of the beaker. At the bottom of the beaker, the temperature is approximately 4-5 C,
indicating that this is the temperature at which water is most dense.
Goal:
Students connect their results from Investigate This 1.30 to water density as a function of
temperature.
Classroom options:
can lead the discussion, summarizing their explanations on the chalkboard or an overhead
class session.
Instructor notes:
Yes, the density properties of water and ice do support the observation that the 4-5 C water at
the bottom of the bottle is densest.
In the summer, the sunlight warms lake water so the less dense water (temperature greater
than 4 C) is on the surface of the water. As the temperature decreases in the fall, the water
temperature falls, its density increases, and winds can stir the water more uniformly dense
water column. The nutrients in the lake mix. In the winter, the less dense water (temperature
less than 4 C) freezes over the surface of the lake. As it melts in the spring, the mixing of
nutrients occurs again as the water column warms and the more uniformly dense water
column again can be stirred.
Point out that, as energy (heat) enters the bottle in Investigate This 1.30, some of the ice melts.
Water that is formed is denser than ice and sinks as it warms slightly. As the water continues
to warm, it continues to sink, as noted by the initial temperature increase at the bottom of the
bottle. Finally, the temperature at the bottom stabilizes when the water density is a maximum.
As long as ice is present, the top and bottom temperatures remain constant, even though
energy from the surroundings continues to enter the bottle.
The water at the bottom must continue to absorb energy and some of it must begin to warm
above 5 C. What happens to this warmer water? It must be less dense and begins to rise in
the bottle, but exchanges energy with the colder water sinking from the top, so there is a
continuous exchange of energy among the water molecules that maintains a temperature
gradient down the bottle.
Students might be challenged to prove or disprove the model just described, beginning with a
hypothesis about the way the gradient would change with time.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 1
Section 1.9. Hydrogen Bonds in Biomolecules

Describe some of the places where hydrogen bonding occurs in biomolecules and explain how
hydrogen bonding is important for the functions of these molecules.
Investigate This 1.33. How do the DNA bases fit together?
Goal:
Students, working in small groups, will use their model kits to build adenine, guanine, cytosine,
and thymine and then model DNA base pairing.
Set-up time:
0 minutes. Remind students to bring their model kits to the class session when this activity is
to be done. Or, assign students to build a base pair as a homework assignment prior to
conducting this activity in class.
Time for activity:
15-20 minutes.
Equipment:
Molecular model kits.
NOTE: There are two nonequivalent sets of holes in the light blue and dark gray polyhedra.
There are two apical holes that are 180 apart and three equatorial holes that are 120 from
each other and perpendicular to the axis of the apical holes. Students will use only the
equatorial holes. (See www.iupac.org/goldbook/A00415.pdf for a brief discussion of this
geometric nomenclature).
Procedure:
Have students should work in groups of four and each student build one of the bases.
Project Figure 1.34 so students can visualize how to construct their models.
Use the dark gray and light blue polyhedra for the Cs and Ns (equatorial trigonal holes),
respectively, in the rings.
Use the standard black, dark blue, and red polyhedra for the other Cs, Ns, and Os. These C
and N atoms have tetrahedral (sp3) holes.
Show how the A-T and G-C pairs can be held together by two and three hydrogen bonds,
respectively.
Try to make the alternative pairs, A-C and G-T.
NOTE: All the N atoms in the DNA base pairs are trigonal (sp2). Students have been instructed
to use the tetrahedral N atoms (dark blue) for the non-ring Ns. If you choose to have students
use the light blue (trigonal) N atoms for all Ns in the molecules, pairs of students will need to
share the light blue Ns in their model kits to make a base pair. Whichever N is used has to be
turned so that the N and two of its bonds are in the plane of the ring in order to make the correct
hydrogen bond connection.
Alternative procedure: Use molecular modeling software to build DNA base pairs and to model
hydrogen bonding between base pairs.
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Anticipated results: Dotted lines indicate hydrogen bonds (for which students can use their
yellow sticks to show how the pairs fit).
Guanine-cytosine base pair (sp3 non-ring N atoms):
Adenine-thymine base pair (sp3 non-ring N atoms):
Guanine-cytosine base pair (sp2 non-ring N atoms):
Adenine-thymine base pair (sp2 non-ring N atoms):
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Chapter 1
Discuss the critical role of hydrogen bonds in the overall structure of DNA as well as their
role in determining the active forms of other biomolecules such as proteins, as shown in
Figure 1.31 for the a-helix.
Point out the different roles that hydrogen bonds and stronger covalent bonds play in these
molecules.
Consider This 1.34 -- How does hydrogen bonding affect the thermal stability of DNA?
Consider This 1.34. How does hydrogen bonding affect the thermal stability of DNA?
Goal:
Students apply their knowledge of hydrogen bonding to determine how it affects the thermal
stability of DNA.
Classroom options:
class session.
Instructor notes:
Before completing this activity, complete Investigate This 1.33 and discuss hydrogen bonding
in DNA, Figure 1.33.
Discuss what denaturation means for DNA and relate to protein denaturation.
Each G-C pair forms three hydrogen bonds, while each A-T pair forms two hydrogen bonds
as shown in Figure 1.33 and found in Investigate This 1.33. DNA helices with a higher G-C to
A-T ratio are more thermal stable. More energy will be required to break three hydrogen
bonds per DNA base pair than two hydrogen bonds.
Discuss the role of hydrogen bonding in determining the active forms of biomolecules.
Section 1.10. Phase Changes: Liquid to Gas

Describe and use energy diagrams to illustrate the direction of energy transfer from one
substance to another when phase changes occur.
Use the relationship among energy change, temperature change, mass, and specific heat to
make quantitative comparisons between two substances that gain or lose thermal energy.
If students need extra assistance understanding graphs, please have them study the Personal
Tutor graphing exercises.
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Investigate This 1.35. What happens when you sweat?

Goal:
Students experience and observe the evaporation of water.
Set-up time:
0 minutes.
Time for activity:
1 minute.
Procedure:
NOTE: Students' hands should be clean and dry.
Each student should wet a finger on one hand and then wave that hand in the air.
Have students report any difference they note between the wet finger and the others.
Use Consider This 1.36 to initiate discussion of the observations from this activity.
Consider This 1.37. What are the signs of the energy changes for sweating?
Check This 1.38. Interpreting an energy diagram.
Consider This 1.39. How are energy level diagrams correlated?
Investigate This 1.40. Do all liquids evaporate at the same rate?
Consider This 1.36. What is the purpose of sweating?
Goal:
Students reason that evaporation of water (liquid to gas phase change) requires energy, because
the evaporation in Investigate This 1.35 took energy from their skin and made their wet fingers
feel cool.
Classroom options:
Instructor notes:
Investigate This 1.35 should be completed prior to this activity.
Remind students about the phase changes introduced earlier in the chapter and, in particular,
the energy required for the liquid to gas change that was an important part of the argument
about intermolecular forces and boiling points in Section 1.7.
The wet finger feels different as your hand is waved in the air, because energy from the skin is
used to evaporate the saliva on the finger. The loss of energy required to make the gaseous
molecules leave the skin, makes the finger felt cool.
Discussion should reinforce the concepts of vaporization and phase changes. Although
students are generally quite familiar with concept of evaporation and cooling by evaporation,
most lack a firm grasp of the molecular level events that are responsible. Try to focus the
discussion at this mechanistic level, including the energetics, and the source of the energy (the
skin).
Discuss how energy is involved in phase changes.
Specifically, introduce students to the E nomenclature.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 1

End of chapter problem 1.72.
Goal:
Based on their results from Investigate This 1.35 and understanding of phase changes, students
reason out the signs of the energy changes, E, for sweating.
Classroom options:
Allow 5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to answer the questions. Then you can
lead the discussion, summarizing answers on the chalkboard or an overhead transparency or
the students can do so.
Instructor notes:
Complete Investigate This 1.35 and Consider This 1.36 before conducting this activity.
(a) When you waved your finger in the air in Investigate This 1.35, the water evaporated.
Energy must enter the water to cause evaporation. The sign of the energy change in the water
is positive.
(b) Energy leaves your skin. The sign of this energy change is negative. Yes, the difference
between the wet finger and the dry fingers is that the wet finger felt cool upon evaporation
because energy was leaving it to provide the energy for the liquid to gas phase change.
Discuss and reinforce the signs for energy changes.
Introduce energy level diagrams using Figure 1.35.
NOTE: At this point in the text, these diagrams are to be used mainly qualitatively, although we
do ask for a quantitative result in Consider This 1.39(b).
Consider This 1.41. What are the relative energies of vaporization of different liquids?
Goal:
Students understand how the sign of E is related to the direction of its representation as an
arrow on an energy level diagram and get a feel for the conservation of energy.
Classroom options:
Instructor notes:
Before doing this activity, discuss the interpretation of energy diagrams, Figure 1.35, and have
students do Check This 1.38.
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(a) A downward pointing arrow represents a negative E, that is, a decrease in energy from
the initial to the final conditions.
(b) The length of the energy-change arrow should be the same length as the energy-change
arrow shown in Figure 1.35 (An energy diagram for evaporation of the same amount of as is
evaporated from the skin in this process water). The energy lost by the skin to cause
evaporation is equal (but opposite in sign) to the energy required for the evaporation.
End of chapter problems 1.72, 1.74, and 1.75.
Goal:
Determine if equal volumes of water, methanol, and hexane evaporate at the same rate or what
their order of evaporation is.
Set-up time:
5-10 minutes.
Time for activity:
Less than 5 minutes.
Materials:
Three identical paper towels.
You can use small sponges attached to wooden splints as an alternate. Using a scissors, make
a point at one end of the splint and insert one sponge.
Three pipets or droppers.
Chemicals:
Hexane, C6H14.
Methanol, CH3OH.
Water.
Procedure:
This should be conducted as a class activity. Request three student volunteers to conduct this
activity.
SAFETY NOTES
Wear safety goggles
Hexane and methanol are flammableno flames, fire
extinguisher
Simultaneously place 10 drops of water on one paper towel, 10 drops of methanol on a second
paper towel, and 10 drops of hexane on a third one.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 1
Hold the towels up so that the class can see the liquid spot and students can time how long it
takes each of the spots to disappear completely.
Students should note which liquid evaporates fastest and which slowest.
Alternate procedure: You can use this procedure if you have a chalkboard in your classroom.
Place the equal amounts of liquid on three small sponges and simultaneously wipe the liquids
onto the chalkboard in three places. It is easy to observe the order in which the liquid films
disappear.
Hexane evaporates almost before the towel can be shown.
Methanol evaporates within a few seconds.
Water evaporates within about a minute or two.
Clean-up:
Methanol and hexane sponges should be allowed to dry completely before being stored or
properly disposed of.
Worked Example 1.42. Conversion of energy units.
Check This 1.43. Conversion of energy units.
Goal:
Based on their results from Investigate This 1.40, students determine the relative energies of
vaporization of water, methanol, and hexane as well as sketch energy diagrams for their
vaporization.
Classroom options:
Instructor notes:
Point out to students that all the liquid films in Investigate This 1.40 gained energy from the
towels (or sponges or chalkboard). We assume that each liquid gained energy at the same rate,
but they did not vaporize at the same rate. This means that different quantities of energy of
vaporization are required for each sample.
(a) E is positive because all the liquids evaporated. Efinal (gas) is greater than Einitial (liquid).
(b) Since hexane evaporated first, it requires the least energy and has the smallest value of
E for vaporization. Since water evaporated last, it has the largest value of E for
vaporization.
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(c) This is an energy diagram that compares the energy changes for the hexane, methanol,
and water evaporation in Investigate This 1.40. NOTE: We are not implying that the energies
of the three liquids are the same. (We have no information about their absolute energies.)
They are put at the same level, to make it easy to compare the changes upon evaporation.
Discuss what occurred in Investigate 1.40 and the answers for this activity.
Reiterate that the paper towels (sponges or chalkboard) supplied the energies for vaporizing
the liquids and we assume that the liquids gained energy at the same rate. Their varying rates
of evaporation indicate that different amounts of energy are required for each sample to
evaporate.
Introduce energy units and conversion of units.
Raise the issue about the number of molecules that evaporate in each sample and whether the
comparisons made thus far are fair indications of the energy required to evaporate the same
quantity of each liquid. What quantity is appropriate to compare?
Worked Example 1.42. Conversion of energy units.
Check This 1.43 -- Conversion of energy units.
Section 1.11. Counting Molecules: The Mole

Become familiar with the chemists unit of quantity, the mole, Avogadros number of
particles.
Be able to define, calculate, and use the molar mass of a compound, determined from the
relative atomic masses of its constituent atoms, to calculate the number of moles in a given
mass of the compound.
Use intermolecular attractions to predict and/or explain trends in boiling points and molar
energies of vaporization for a series of compounds whose molecular structures you know or
can determine.
make quantitative comparisons between two substances that gain or lose thermal energy.
If students need extra assistance in understanding the mole concept and/or graphs and tables,
please have them study the Personal Tutor exercises.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 1
Consider This 1.44. How can you count objects by measuring mass?
Goal:
Students determine how to count objects by measuring their mass.
Classroom options:
This activity can be assigned as a homework exercise and then discussed as part of the
introduction to this session.
Instructor notes:
Use this activity to introduce the concept of the mole.
Students should calculate:
12.7 dozen (= 24.1 g divided by 1.9 gdozen1)
152 tickets (= 12.7 dozen multiplied by 12 ticketsdozen1)
Discuss answers and use the analogy of dozen to introduce the concept of the mole. Use
student results from the follow-up activities to spark class discussion about mass to mole
conversions.
Assign the Web Companion, Chapter 1, Section 1.11, as homework or use it in lecture to
reinforce the mole concept and mass and mole relationships.
Worked Example 1.45. Calculating numbers of moles.
Check This 1.46. Mass to moles and moles to mass conversions.
Worked Example 1.47. Calculating molar mass.
Check This 1.48. Calculating molar mass.
Check This 1.49. Comparing amounts of compounds.
End of chapter problems 1.77 through 1.82 (after concept of mole is discussed).
Consider This 1.50. Which compounds in Table 1.2 form hydrogen bonds?
Goal:
By analyzing the molecular structures of the liquids listed in Table 1.2, students will determine
which ones form hydrogen bonds.
Classroom options:
or have the students do so.
Each group can be assigned one liquid.
This activity can be assigned as a homework exercise and then discussed at the next class
session.
Preparation:
Remind students at the previous class session to bring their molecular model kits to class for
this activity.
Instructor notes:
(a) A molecule of methanol (or ethanol) can form hydrogen bonds to three other methanol
(or ethanol) molecules.
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(b) Build molecular models to show these hydrogen bonding interactions in three dimensions
and to show that no such interactions are possible for the other two molecules which do not
contain OH, NH, and/or FH bonds that are required to form hydrogen bonds.
O
CH3
H
O
H 3C
H
O
H
CH 2CH 3
CH 3
H3CH2C
H
O
CH3
CH 2CH 3
CH2 CH3
Use this follow-up discussion to review the molecular attractions previously introduced and
apply them to the compounds presented in Table 1.2, noting the differences between alcohols,
ethers, and alkanes (hexanes) and the effects on molar vaporization energies.
Check This 1.52. Vaporization energies in Investigate This 1.40.
Section 1.12. Specific Heat of Water: Keeping the Earths Temperature

Stable
make quantitative comparisons between two substances that gain or lose thermal energy
Use drawings, physical models, and words to describe the molecular basis for the differences
in specific heats among different compounds.
Understand the relationship between the properties of water and the stable temperature of the
Earth.
Investigate This 1.53. What is observed when liquids are heated at the same rate?
Goal:
Provide data to guide a discussion that will lead to the concept of specific heat.
Set-up time:
5-10 minutes. This activity should be conducted as a class activity.
Time for activity:
4-6 minutes.
Materials:
Two 250-mL Styrofoam cups.
Two beakers (Styrofoam cups should fit snugly into beakers for support).
Two electrical immersion heaters.
Two standard laboratory thermometers or computer-interfaced temperature probes.
Two ring stands and small clamps to support the thermometers and immersion heaters in the
liquids.
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Chemicals:
120-150 g (preweighed) of water at room temperature.
120-150 g (preweighed same as mass of water) of ethanol at room temperature.
Procedure:
This should be conducted as a class activity. Use two student volunteers for each sample to
conduct this activity. One student will be the timer and recorder and the other should read the
thermometer at 10-second intervals. (If computer-interfaced temperature probes are used, the
parallel data can be projected as they are taken.)
SAFTY NOTES:
Wear safety goggles
Ethanol is flammableno flames, fire extinguisher
Add the weighed 120-150 g of room temperature water to a 250-mL Styrofoam cup.
Add the same mass of room temperature ethanol to a second identical cup.
Clamp identical immersion heaters and thermometers in each cup with the thermometers
about one centimeter from the heaters.
Read and record the temperature of the liquids every 10 seconds for about one minute.
Simultaneously plug both heaters into electrical outlets. This is easiest to do if both heaters are
plugged into the same multiple-outlet extension cord that is plugged into the outlet to start the
heating.
Continue reading the temperature every 10 seconds until one of the liquids reaches about
70 C.
Unplug the heaters.
Plot the temperatures as a function of time. If time is short, students could plot their data
outside of class and bring their plots and interpretations to discuss at the beginning of the next
class session.
Alternative procedures: Use two beakers for the liquids and place them simultaneously on a hot
plate. This set-up eliminates the need for Styrofoam cups and immersion heaters. Instead of
beakers, aluminum muffin cups can be used.
NOTE: Immersing a test tube of water and a test tube of ethanol into a hot water bath and
monitoring the temperature change does not work.
Sample data for water and 91% 2-propanol (rubbing alcohol):
Temperature/C
36
time/sec
water
alcohol
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
21.1
21.1
21.1
21.1
21.1
21.1
21.1
21.1
22.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
22.0
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40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
21.1
21.1
21.4
21.7
22.3
23.3
24.2
25.1
26.4
27.9
29.2
30.7
32.3
33.8
35.4
37.0
38.5
39.8
41.6
42.9
44.4
22.0
22.3
22.6
23.6
24.8
26.4
28.6
30.7
33.2
35.7
38.5
41.3
44.1
46.9
50.0
52.8
55.6
58.7
61.5
64.6
68.4
Clean-up:
Dispose ethanol down the drain with copious amounts of water.
This activity can be used to introduce and discuss the concept of specific heat.
Students should note that water does resist change in temperature when thermal energy is
added. This is reflected in its high specific heat. Most of the thermal energy is used to break
hydrogen bonds, not to increase molecular motion.
Worked Example 1.55. Specific heat and temperature rise.
Check This 1.56. Specific heat and temperature rise.
Worked Example 1.57. Thermal energy change in water.
Check This 1.58. Thermal energy change in ethanol.
Consider This 1.59. Are your calculations related to Investigate This 1.53?
Consider This 1.54. How does temperature change in heated liquids?
Goal:
From their results for Investigate This 1.53, students will consider how temperature changes in
heated liquids.
Classroom options:
Allow 3-5 minutes for students, working in small groups, to answer the questions. Several
minutes longer time will be required, if the students have not plotted the data outside of class.
Alternately, use an overhead transparency with a grid lines and have a student plot the data for
ACS Chemistry FROG
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the entire class. Then you can lead the discussion, summarizing answers on the chalkboard or
This activity can be assigned as a homework activity after Investigate This 1.53 is completed.
Instructor notes:
Before getting into the discussion, review the data plot to be sure everyone is working from
the same representation of the data.
(a) The temperature increased in both liquids. However, the alcohol (91% 2-propanol shown
here) reached higher temperatures than water during the same time interval. Alternatively, as
shown on this plot (begun at 60 seconds in the table presented with Investigate This 1.53
above), it takes longer, that is, requires more energy, to raise water than to raise the alcohol
to the same temperature.
(b) The specific heat of water (the energy required to raise one gram of the liquid by one
degree) is greater than the specific heat of alcohol (ethanol or 2-propanol). More energy is
required to raise the water temperature a given amount than to raise the alcohol temperature
the same amount.
Worked Example 1.55. Specific heat and temperature rise. (Draw attention to the discussion
of the implementation.)
Check This 1.56. Specific heat and temperature rise.
Worked Example 1.57. Thermal energy change in water.
Check This 1.58. Thermal energy change in ethanol.
Goal:
Find out whether specific heat calculations for water, Worked Example 1.57, and ethanol,
Check This 1.58, are consistent with the results from Investigate This 1.53.
Classroom options:
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class session.
This activity could be completed as an open class discussion.
Instructor notes:
Review results from Investigate This 1.53, Check This 1.58, and temperature change for the
same mass of water from Worked Example 1.57 before conducting this activity.
The specific heat calculations are related to the results from Investigate This 1.53. The amount
of energy required to raise the temperature of the water by 23.4 C is calculated to raise the
temperature of the same mass of ethanol by 40.0 C. The specific heat of ethanol is lower, so
the same amount of energy will make it warmer.
Have students explain (from a molecular point of view) in their own words why water has a
high specific heat and why it is important for conditions of Earth.
Review outcomes for the chapter and/or continue on with Section 1.14.
Follow-up activity:
Section 1.14. Extension -- Liquid Viscosity

Use the background from the chapter to develop a molecular level explanation for viscosity,
another property of liquids.
Investigate This 1.60. How fast do different liquids flow from a pipet?
Goal:
Students observe and compare the rates of outflow of water and hexane from a pipet and
develop a picture of how viscosity is related to molecular attractions.
Set-up time:
10 minutes. This activity should be conducted as a class activity.
Time for activity:
10-15 minutes.
Materials:
Two 9" glass Pasteur pipets.
Two containers to catch the outflow from the pipets.
Chemicals:
Approximately 10 mL of water, H2O.
Approximately 10 mL of hexane, C6H14.
Procedure:
This should be conducted as a class activity. Use two student volunteers to conduct the activity.
SAFETY NOTES
Wear safety goggles
Hexane is flammableno flames, fire extinguisher
Use two identical glass Pasteur pipets for this investigation.
Mark each pipet at the same place about 3 cm from the top.
Draw water into one pipet until it is above the mark.
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Hold the pipet vertical with its tip over a container to catch the water.
Time how long it takes the water to drain out of the pipet, starting from the time its top
surface passes the mark.
Repeat to be sure the time is reproducible to 1 or 2 seconds.
Use the second pipet to repeat the same procedure with hexane.
It takes less time for hexane to flow out of the pipet.
Clean-up:
Water can be disposed down the drain. Hexane should be placed in a properly labeled waste
container or stored for further use in other activities/experiments.
Use Consider This 1.61 to stimulate discussion of the results from this activity.
Discuss the concept of viscosity and how relative viscosities are related to the outflow times
from the pipets.
Consider This 1.62. Does hydrogen bonding explain viscosities in other compounds?
Consider This 1.63. Are the models for specific heat and viscosity of water related?
Consider This 1.61. How are viscosities related to molecular attractions?
Goal:
Students reason out a molecular model to relate the observed relative viscosities to molecular
interactions.
Classroom options:
Each group can be assigned one question to answer.
Instructor notes:
This activity is based on the observations in Investigate This 1.60 and what students have
previously learned about molecular attractions.
(a) The outflow of hexane is much faster than the outflow for water. Water has the higher
viscosity due to its slower outflow rate compared to hexane: the higher the viscosity the
slower the flow.
(b) Yes, since most of the individual water molecules are hydrogen bonded with other water
molecules, they are not moving freely and independently. The presence of hydrogen bonding
means that many molecules have to move together to flow out of the pipet and makes the
flow rate relatively slow. We interpret the slow flow as due to a high viscosity.
(c) No, hexane does not form hydrogen bonds. Dispersion forces among the molecules are
not directed, so the molecules can move relatively independently of one another. Thus, the
hexane molecules do not interfere much with one another as they flow out of the pipet and
the flow is relatively fast. We interpret the fast flow as due to low viscosity.
(d) The relative viscosity of hexane without directional attractions among the molecules is
less than that of water with its highly directional network of hydrogen bonds around each
molecule.
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Use Consider This 1.62 to stimulate further discussion based on the data in Table 1.4 and the
model just developed.
Goal:
Using the data presented in Table 1.4, students determine if hydrogen bonding (or lack thereof)
explains the viscosities in other compounds.
Classroom options:
If necessary, assign question (a) to half the groups and question (b) to the remaining groups.
class session.
Instructor notes:
Refer students to the data in Table 1.4 as they do this activity.
Draw attention during the discussion of the answers to the fact that acetone and diethyl ether
both are polar and have an oxygen atom that could participate in hydrogen bonds, but do not
have a hydrogen atom bonded to N, O, or F, so have no hydrogen to form a hydrogen bond.
(a) Water, methanol, ethanol and ethylene glycol can form hydrogen bonds. Yes, there is a
correlation between viscosity and a molecule's ability to form hydrogen bonds. Those
compounds that form hydrogen bonds have higher viscosities, presumably because the
molecules interact strongly with one another and have to move more or less together (getting
in one anothers way) in order to flow.
(b) The much high viscosity of ethylene glycol can be explained by the fact that each
molecule can form a maximum of six hydrogen bonds, compared to the three for methanol
and ethanol and four for water. The clusters of hydrogen-bonded ethylene glycol molecules
will be larger than those in the simple alcohols and water and will get in one anothers way
even more, thus providing greater resistance to flow.
OH OH
H
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Goal:
Students correlate the models for specific heat and viscosity of water.
Classroom options:
class section.
Instructor notes:
Recall to students our model that says that water's high specific heat is due to breaking of
hydrogen bonds. As temperature increases, more of the hydrogen bonds must be broken (in
order to keep the specific heat high), so the number of hydrogen bonds between water
molecules decreases as temperature increases.
As the temperature increases, the viscosity decreases. Our model predicts that there are fewer
hydrogen bonds between water molecules at higher temperatures. Fewer hydrogen bonds
should mean that the water molecules are somewhat more free to move independently. At
higher temperatures there should be less resistance to flow, that is, lower viscosity, just as
Figure 1.41 shows.
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Solutions for Chapter 1 Check This Activities:

Check This 1.3. Molecular level representation of boiling water
Answer for part (a) can be found in the Web Companion, Chapter 1, Section 1.1, pages 5 and 6.
The intent of this activity is to have the students learn that the gas inside the bubbles of boiling
water is composed only of water molecules that are far apart and moving almost independently
of one another. Thus, the sketches should show the same representation of molecules in the
liquid and solid. Prevalent misconceptions are that the gas in the bubbles is air (which will be
gone from the liquid by the time it boils) or a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen (decomposition
products of water). The idea that most of the bubble is empty space is often hard for students to
appreciate fully.
Check This 1.7. Number of valence and core electrons
(a) Bromine in group VII has 7 valence electrons similar to other halogen atoms. Students
might/should wonder about the 10 extra electrons added across the middle of the period (the
transition elements) and ask why they are not counted as valence electrons. We invoke the shell
model and indicate that these 10 electrons are in a shell closer to the nucleus where they are
held so tightly by the high nuclear charge that they do not participate in bonding of bromine to
other atoms.
(b) Strontium in group II has 2 valence electrons.
(c) Selenium in group VI has 6 valence electrons. The same comment as for bromine applies
here as well.
Check This 1.9. Trends in atomic sizes
Arsenic, selenium, and bromine are found in groups V, VI, and VII, respectively, of the same
period. Atomic size decreases across a period from left to right (lower to higher atomic
number), so the sizes of these atoms are in the order: arsenic > selenium > bromine.
Check This 1.11. Writing Lewis structures
(a) NH3 has 8 valence electrons, so we place this octet around the N and then add Hs to form
three electron-pair bonds:
H
N
H
(b) HF has 8 valence electrons, so we place this octet around the F and then add the H to form an
electron-pair bond:
H
Check This 1.13. Lewis structure of ethane

H
Table 1.1 shows that C forms four covalent bonds in its compounds and each C in the ethane
Lewis structure has four electron-pair covalent bonds. A possible line formula for ethane that
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 1
more clearly expresses its connectivity is CH3CH3. We see that three Hs are associated with
each C and the remaining connection on the Cs must be to one another. Another possible line
formula is H3CCH3, although this is less commonly used.
Check This 1.18. Predicting bond dipoles
(i)
(iv)
Cl
(ii)
(v)
(iii)
(vi)
Li
(a) If the electronegativity difference is greater than 0.5 EN units, a significant bond dipole
exists between the two atoms that form a covalent bond. For H-F, there is a 1.78 EN unit
difference so a significant bond dipole exists between these two atoms. This is also the case for
N-H (0.84 EN unit difference), C-Cl (0.61 EN unit difference), N-F (0.94 EN unit difference),
and H-Li (1.2 EN unit difference). A small bond dipole exists between H-S (0.38 EN unit
difference).
(b) The charge density model for LiH in the Web Companion, Chapter 1, Section 1.6, page 2,
shows high electron density on the H end of the molecule, which is what our bond dipole arrow
predicts. Similarly, for HF, there is high electron density on the F, as we would predict from the
bond dipole arrow shown in part (a).
Check This 1.20. Predicting molecular dipoles
Check This 1.27. Predicting relative boiling points

In order of increasing boiling point:
CH3CH2CH2CH3 < CH3CH2OCH3 < CH3CH2CH2OH
Butane is a non-polar molecule whose molecules are held together in the liquid only by
dispersion forces (induced dipole attractions). Butane is a relatively small molecule with only
34 electrons, so these intermolecular attractions are not very strong and do not require much
energy to vaporize into the gas phase; the boiling point is low (see the graph in Consider This
1.23). Ethyl methyl ether also has 34 electrons, but also has a permanent molecular dipole that
adds to the attractions among its molecules and gives it a higher boiling point than butane (but a
lower boiling point than propanol). Propanol is a polar molecule, also with 34 electrons, which
can hydrogen bond with itself. Thus, molecules of propanol need more energy to break their
hydrogen bonds and enter the gas phase, so its boiling point is the highest of the three.
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Check This 1.38. Interpreting an energy diagram

(a) Energy leaves the water when the water changes from 50 C to 25 C. The arrow is pointing
down because the energy of the sample at 25 C is lower than its energy at 50 C.
(b) E < 0, because energy leaves the water. (Think of this as subtraction process and we use a
negative sign to designate subtraction, so the change in energy has a negative sign -- is less than
zero.) It is represented on the diagram by the arrow pointing down, indicating that the change in
energy has a negative sign.
Check This 1.43. Conversion of energy units
4.184 J
2
-1
(a) 92 calg-1 = (92 calg-1)
1 cal = 3.8 10 Jg of hexane. The result shown suggests that
the uncertainty in the result is about 1 part in 38. The value we start with, 92 calg-1, has an
implied uncertainty of about 1 part in 90. Thus, our answer is given with a bit less precision than
is justified, but to give it as 385 Jg-1 suggests much better precision than we have. The number
of significant figures to show in a calculated result is not always clear-cut.
(b) Since it requires 8 times more energy to vaporize 1 g of H2O, we might conclude that the
molecular attractions among water molecules are much stronger than those among hexane
molecules. This is consistent with the models in Section 1.7. Water molecules can hydrogen
bond with one another. Hexane molecules are attracted to one another only by dispersion forces.
For a relatively small molecule like hexane (50 electrons), the overall attraction may not be very
large. The problem here, as we will see in the next section, is that the hexane molecule is a good
deal more massive than the water molecule: the ratio is 86 to 18 (or 4.8 to 1). Thus, in equal
masses of hexane and water, there are only about one-fifth as many hexane molecules as water
molecules and this may be the reason it takes less energy to vaporize them.
Check This 1.46. Mass to moles and moles to mass conversions
1 mol
(a) 0.5 g = (0.5 g)
= 0.03 mol H2O
18 g
1000 g 1 mol
(b) 2.26 kg = (2.26 kg)
= 6.61 mol of sugar
1 kg 342 g
58.5 g
(c) 12.6 mol NaCl = (12.6 mol)
1 mol = 737 g of NaCl (sodium chloride)
Check This 1.48. Calculating molar mass
(a) There are 12 moles of carbon atoms, 22 moles of hydrogen atoms, and 11 moles of oxygen
atoms in one mole of sucrose (C12H22O11).
12.01 g
= 144.1 g (mass of C in one mole C12H22O11)
12 mol C = (12 mol C)
1 mol C
1.008 g
22 mol H = (22 mol H)
= 22.2 g (mass of H in one mole C12H22O11)
1 mol H
16.00 g
11 mol O = (11 mol O)
= 176.0 g (mass of O in one mole C12H22O11)
1 mol O
molar mass C12H22O11 = 342.3 g
(b) There is one mole each of sodium atoms and chlorine atoms in one mole of sodium chloride.
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Chapter 1
23.0 g
1 mol Na = (1 mol Na)
= 23.0 g (mass of Na in one mole NaCl)
1 mol Na
35.5 g
1 mol Cl = (1 mol Cl)
= 35.5 g (mass of Cl in one mole NaCl)
1 mol Cl
molar mass NaCl = 58.5 g
These are the molar masses given in Check This 1.46.
Check This 1.49. Comparing amounts of compounds
1 mol CH 3OH
0.4 g CH3OH = (0.4 g CH3OH)
= 0.01 mol CH3OH
32 g
1 mol C6 H14
0.3 g C6H14 = (0.3 g C6H14)
= 0.003 mol C6H14
86 g
In Investigate This 1.40 the largest number of moles evaporating was water (0.04 mol) and the
smallest number of moles evaporating was hexane (0.003 mol), with methanol intermediate.
Check This 1.52. Vaporization energies in Investigate This 1.40
(a) Energies required to vaporize the methanol and hexane samples in Investigate This 1.40 are:
39 kJ
0.01 mol CH3OH = ( 0.01 mol CH3OH)
= 0.4 kJ for CH3OH
1 mol CH 3OH
32 kJ
0.003 mol C6H14 = ( 0.003 mol C6H14)
= 0.1 kJ for C6H14
1 mol C6 H14
(b) Hexane requires the least energy to vaporize the sample and should evaporate first followed
by methanol and then water (1 kJ). This is the pattern observed in Investigate This 1.40.
Check This 1.56. Specific heat and temperature rise
Hexane will reach the higher temperature because it has a lower specific heat. The same amount
of energy (same time of heating) increases the temperature of hexane (sp. ht. = 2.27 Jg1C1)
more than that of an equal mass of methanol (sp. ht. = 2.53 Jg1C1). The effect is not as large
as we found for water and alcohol, which have a larger difference in specific heats.
Check This 1.58. Thermal energy change in ethanol
T = (11700 J)/(120 g)(2.44 Jg1C1) = 40.0 C
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Samples from the Classroom

The following Class Logs (notes and records of the class for that day), Assignments, Quizzes,
and Chapter Hour Examination were contributed by Dr. Jonathan Mitschele, Saint Josephs
College, Standish, ME. These are meant to give a flavor for the way one instructor with a
relatively small class structured his course as he began the year with Chapter 1. Some editing
has been done to tighten up spacing (leaving out the spaces for answers in quizzes and tests, for
example), but none of the content has been changed.
Daily Class Logs for Principles of Chemistry CH 103
GenChem Class Notes 9.04.02
Introduction to the course.
Daily reading (typically about seven or eight pages per class) and problem assignments:
essential that these be done before coming to class.
Weekly homework (due Mondays) and quizzes (Fridays).
Group activities for most of each period: brief problems, interactive demonstrations, class
experiments.
Using the text:
Use embedded exercises to check your understanding; answers will be posted.
Examinations (one per chapter) will be scheduled outside of class time.
1.1Consider This: What do you know about water

Student list:
H2O
solid liquid vapor showed samples of ice, water, and condensation on a beaker placed in
freezer for a few minutes to illustrate that all three phases can exist at ordinary temperatures
and pressures
FP 0C
BP 100C
Makes up a large fraction of body
Density of phases g < s < l students knew ice less dense than water (showed ice floating in
water to make the point), but when probed about the density of the gas were puzzled. Referred
to Fig. 1.2, and again asked about relative density. Could see that gas was less dense. Asked
about salient differences between liquid and solid ordered solid/disordered liquid. Asked
how microscopic order in solid is reflected macroscopically (snowflakes). Asked which were
closer, molecules in ice or in water. Students again confused, so discussion of the significance
of lower density of ice: led students to see that you can fit more H2O molecules as water into a
given volume than H2O molecules as ice into the same volume (Dwater = Mwater/V > Dice =
Mice/V). An example of reasoning from the macroscopic to the microscopic.
Evaporates, condenses from s, l, and g.
Wetting properties surface dependence.
Covalent bonding in molecule.
Polarity.
Universal solvent.
Acid/base.
Catalyst (no specific example given).
Osmosis.
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Chapter 1
Meniscus.
1.2
Consider This: How do the volumes of solid and liquid water compare?
1.4
Investigate This: What electrical effects can you observe?
Demonstrate creating a U-tape, show that it is attracted to neutral objects, and ask for
explanation (electrical charge discussion).
Make a second U-tape and ask what the charge on it is (same discussion about why and how
to prove). Show two U-tapes repel each other.
Ask how we could make a tape of opposite charge and then prove it had opposite charge
(discussion noting carefully charged objects attract neutral objects!). If stuck, lead students
to the answer, and make L-tape.
Determine charge on U- and L-tapes. Use the fact that a plastic comb or ruler rubbed on hair
creates a negative charge on the plastic.
Demonstrate with gold leaf or equivalent electroscope the difference between conductors and
insulators plastic is a good insulator, metal objects good conductors, but on a humid day
many things conduct well enough to discharge an electroscope, e.g. paper!
END OF CLASS
Reading Quiz over Sections 1.3-1.5 (5 minutes)
Discussion of homework within groups, reporting to class on consensus for each. (20 minutes
total)
1.3 Check This Molecular level representation of boiling water.

http://www.whfreeman.com/acsgenchemhome
1.5 Consider This Do electrical effects explain your Investigate This 1.4 results?
1.6 Consider This Can an electrostatic model explain the Investigate This 1.4 results?
1.7 Check This Number of valence and core electrons.
1.9 Check This: Trends in atomic sizes. (5 minutes)
Class Discussion: What are valence and core electrons? How do we count them? What are
Lewis structures? How are core and valence electrons represented in a Lewis structure? How
do you write correct Lewis structures? (25 minutes)
1.11 Check This: Writing Lewis structures. (5 minutes)
1.13 Check This: Lewis structure of ethane. (10 minutes)
1.14 Investigate This: What arrangement of balloons around a point is stable? ("Carbon"
atoms instead of balloons.) (10-15 minutes)
5 Minute Break.
What is the meaning of measurement, precision, accuracy, and uncertainty? 3 electronic
balances with different precision and a centimeter/inch meter stick. (25 minutes)
Back-of-the-Envelope Calculations: How many ping-pong balls would it take to fill the lab?
(remaining time)
END OF CLASS
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Reading Quiz over Section 1.6 (1.19 Worked Example)
(5 minutes) Molecular Model: convert from ammonia to methane by substituting N (dark blue)
atoms for H atoms.
Discussion of homework results. (10 minutes)
1.15 Consider This What is the geometry of four valence electron pairs? (We did this in class
Thursday.)
1.16 Consider This How is a Lewis structure translated into a molecular model? (Bring each of
your models to class with you Friday for the reading quiz.)
Class Discussion: The consequences of unequal sharing of bonding electrons. (25 minutes)
(1) Lewis structures for Cl2 and HCl.
(2) Define homonuclear and heteronuclear.
(3) Define electronegativity (EN) and EN.
(4) How are bonding electrons shared in Cl2 and HCl? In HCl there is a permanent charge
separation, + and -.
(5) Define dipole moment, polar and nonpolar molecules.
(6) Define bond dipole; examples C-H, C-Cl, H-Cl
(7) Define molecular dipole; tug-of-war analogy for adding bond dipoles; examples HCl,
H2O, BCl3, NH3, CH3Cl, CCl4.
1.17 Consider This How might an electric charge affect polar molecules? (remaining time)
Weekly Quiz 1 (15 minutes)
END OF CLASS
Reading Quiz over Section 1.7 (5 minutes)
Weekly Homework is due: 1.12, 1.21, 1.25, 1.34-1.36
Results for Ping Pong Lab are due.
Review Quiz 1: Sticky tape, electroscope, conductors and insulators. (10-15 minutes)
Discussion of homework results. (10-15 minutes)
1.18 Check This Predicting bond dipoles. C-H C-O N-O

1.20 Check This Predicting molecular dipoles. H2S PCl3 BeCl2
1.21 Consider This How does molecular geometry affect molecular dipoles?
1.22 Investigate This How does boiling point vary with number of molecular electrons? (5
minutes group/510 minutes class)
Class Discussion: What are induced dipoles? Can a permanent dipole induce a dipole in another
molecule? What effect will this have on intermolecular attractions? (5 minutes)
1.24 Consider This How can dipole-dipole attractions be visualized? (remaining time)
END OF CLASS
Reading Quiz over Section 1.8 (5 minutes)
ACS Chemistry FROG
49
Chapter 1
Class Discussion: What are hydrogen bonds? When and how are they formed? Why do they
form? (continued from previous class, 30 minutes)
1.23 Consider This Do boiling points correlate with number of molecular electrons?
1.25 Investigate This How does polarity affect boiling points?
I begin by asking why I had done the sticky tape demonstration. (Answers: to show existence
of electric charge of two varieties + and -; to demonstrate that neutral objects are not attracted
to each other but are attracted to charged objects, because of polarization of neutral objects by
charged ones; to show how the amount of charge and the distance between charges determines
the strength of the interaction; and because all attractive interactions of interest in chemistry
involve the attraction of opposite charges.)
I suggest then that if electrically neutral molecules can attract each other to form liquids and
solids, there must be transient dipoles involved. I show a graph of the boiling points of Cl2,
Br2, I2, and ICl and ask (1) What is the significance of the results for Cl2, Br2, and I2?
(Answers: BP, and presumably the strength of attractive forces, increase with increasing
numbers of electrons.) I then ask for (2) an explanation of the BP for ICl, which has the same
number of electrons as Br2. (Answer: ICl is a polar molecule; presumably the increase in BP
over that of Br2 is due to a small dipole contribution to the attractive forces.)
Finally, I show BP vs. number of electrons for Group IV hydrides and, after discussing
polarity of all substances involved (hydrides of elements in Groups IV and V), ask for a
prediction of the BP vs. number of electron graph of Group V hydrides, with justification.
They should make similar predictions for hydrides of Group V and VI elements: BP vs.
number of electron plots for Groups V, VI, and VII should be parallel to Group IV plots, but
displaced to higher BP's. Showing Fig. 1.24 not at all in agreement with reasonable
predictions - makes clear the necessity of introducing a new kind of intermolecular
interaction, the hydrogen bond.
At this point we discuss what elements X one would select to make an H-X bond highly polar
(answers: F, O, Cl, N), and ask about the reason Cl is not involved in H-bonding (answer:
size). We also discuss why H is involved: it is the smallest atom that forms bonds.
We ran out of time so I assigned the remaining exercises for homework. Tomorrow is a lab
day, so we can catch up.
1.26 Consider This Does hydrogen bonding explain the boiling points of NH3 and HF? Hint:
Use your model kits to make six-membered rings for H2O, NH3, and HF. (10 minutes)
1.27 Check This Predicting relative boiling points. (5-10 minutes)
1.28 Investigate This What kinds of hydrogen-bonded networks can you construct?
1.29 Consider This How do the structures of liquid and solid water compare? (remaining time
for both activities)
END OF CLASS
50
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Class Assignments for Principles of Chemistry CH 103

Chapter 1 Reading, Problem, and Experiment Assignments
Class/Date
Discussion/Demonstration/Activity/Laboratory
Reading/Problems/HW
Start of Week 1
1 September 4 Introduction to the course, assign groups, hand
out materials for the day's activities. (15 minutes)
1.1 Consider This: What do you already know
about water? (5 minutes group/5-10 minutes
class)
Class Discussion: What is meant by the terms
density, solid, liquid, and gas? (10 minutes)
1.2 Consider This: How do the volumes of liquid
and solid water compare? (5 minutes Part (a), 510 minutes Part (b))
1.4 Investigate This: What electrical effects can
you observe? (remaining time)
Reading for today: Sections 1.1-1.2

HW for discussion Thursday:
1.3 Check This Molecular level
representation of boiling water.
1.5 Consider This Do electrical
effects explain your Investigate This
1.4 results?
1.6 Consider This Can an
electrostatic model explain the
Investigate This 1.4 results?
1.7 Check This Number of valence
and core electrons.
HW for September 9: 1.12, 1.21
Read for class: Sections 1.3-1.5
2 September 5 Reading Quiz over Sections 1.3-1.5 (5 minutes)
Lab Session Discussion of homework within groups, reporting HW for discussion Friday:
to class on consensus for each. (20 minutes total) 1.15 Consider This What is the
1.9 Check This: Trends in atomic sizes. (5 minutes) geometry of four valence electron
Class Discussion: What are valence and core
pairs?
1.16 Consider This How is a Lewis
electrons? How do we count them? What are
Lewis structures? How are core and valence
structure translated into a molecular
electrons represented in a Lewis structure? How model? (Bring each of your models
to class with you Friday for the
do you write correct Lewis structures? (25
reading quiz.)
minutes)
HW for September 9: 1.25, 1.34,
1.11 Check This: Writing Lewis structures. (5
minutes)
1.35, 1.36
1.13 Check This: Lewis structure of ethane. (10
minutes)
1.14 Investigate This: What arrangement of
balloons around a point is stable? (10-15
minutes)
5 Minute Break.
What is the meaning of measurement, precision,
accuracy, and uncertainty? (25 minutes)
Back-of-the-Envelope Calculations: How many
ping pong balls would it take to fill the lab?
(remaining time)
ACS Chemistry FROG
51
Chapter 1
3 September 6 Reading Quiz over Section 1.6 (5 minutes)

polar molecule, dipole moment, electronegativity,
bond dipole, and molecular dipole? (25 minutes)
1.17 Consider This How might an electric charge
affect polar molecules? (remaining time)
Start of Week 2
4 September 9 Reading Quiz over Section 1.7 (5 minutes)
Review Quiz 1. (10 minutes)
1.22 Investigate This How does boiling point vary
with number of molecular electrons? (5 minutes
group/510 minutes class)
Class Discussion: What are induced dipoles? Can
a permanent dipole induce a dipole in another
molecule? What effect will this have on
intermolecular attractions? (5 minutes)
1.24 Consider This How can dipole-dipole
attractions be visualized? (5 minutes)
Class Discussion: What are hydrogen bonds?
When and how are they formed? Why do they
form? (remaining time)
5 September Reading Quiz over Section 1.8 (5 minutes)
11
1.26 Consider This Does hydrogen bonding
explain the boiling points of NH3 and HF? (10
minutes)
1.27 Check This Predicting relative boiling
points. (5-10 minutes)
1.28 Investigate This What kinds of hydrogenbonded networks can you construct?
1.29 Consider This How do the structures of
liquid and solid water compare? (remaining time
for both activities)
52
ACS Chemistry FROG
Read for class: Section 1.6

HW for discussion Monday:
1.18 Check This Predicting bond
dipoles.
1.20 Check This Predicting
molecular dipoles.
1.21 Consider This How does
molecular geometry affect molecular
dipoles?
HW for discussion Wednesday:
1.23 Consider This Do boiling points
correlate with number of molecular
electrons?
1.25 Investigate This How does
polarity affect boiling points?
1.59, 1.60

HW for September 16: 1.65
Chapter 1
6 September
12
Lab Session
7 September
13
Reading Quiz over Sections 1.9-1.10 (5 minutes)

Using a Computer for Data Collection: Starting,
calibrating probes, collecting data, saving, and
stopping. (30 minutes)
1.30 Investigate This What are the temperatures
in an ice-water mixture? - start (15 minutes to
begin data collection)
Class Discussion: What are proteins and nucleic
acids? What does denaturation mean? (15
minutes)
1.33 Investigate This How do the DNA bases fit
together? (15-20 minutes)
1.34 Consider This How does hydrogen bonding
affect the thermal stability of DNA? (5-10
minutes)
5 Minute Break.
1.35 Investigate This What happens when you
sweat?
1.36 Consider This What is the purpose of
sweating? (10-15 minutes for both activities)
Class Discussion: What is meant by the symbol
E? (5-10 minutes)
1.37 Consider This What are the signs of the
energy changes for sweating? (5-10 minutes)
Class Discussion: What are energy diagrams? (510 minutes)
1.38 Check This Interpreting an energy diagram.
(5 minutes)
1.40 Investigate This Do all liquids evaporate at
the same rate? (5-10 minutes)
1.30 Investigate This What are the temperatures
in an ice-water mixture? conclusion. (remaining
time)
Reading Quiz over Section 1.11 Part 1 (5
minutes)
Reminder: Chapter 1 Hour Examination
Counting by Weighing: Large (P) and small (p)
paper clips that "react" 1:1 to form Pp
"molecules." Defining a paper clip "mole" and a
paper clip "atomic mass unit (u)." (remaining
time)
ACS Chemistry FROG

HW for discussion Friday:
1.31 Consider This How do you
interpret the temperatures in an icewater mixture?
1.32 Consider This What are the
connections between water density
and temperature?
1.39 Consider This How are energy
diagrams correlated?
1.41 Consider This What are the
relative energies of vaporization of
different liquids?
1.43 Check This Conversion of
energy units.
1.66, 1.67, 1.75, 1.76
Read for class: Section 1.11 to end of

p. 1-62
1.44 Consider This How can you
count objects by measuring mass?
1.46 Check This Mass to moles and
moles to mass conversions.
1.48 Check This Calculating molar
mass.
1.49 Check This Comparing amounts
of compounds.
1.81
53
Chapter 1
Start of Week 3
8 September Reading Quiz over Section 1.11 Part 2 (5
16
minutes)
Review Quiz 2. (10 minutes)
1.50 Consider This What compounds in Table 1.2
form hydrogen bonds? (remaining time)
18
1.53 Investigate This What is observed when
liquids are heated at the same rate?
1.54 Consider This How does temperature change
in heated liquids? (10-15 minutes for both
activities)
specific heat and heat capacity? (10-15 minutes)
Class Discussion: What properties of water
account for its large specific heat? (remaining
time)
19
Schedule Chapter 1 Hour Examination (10
Lab Session minutes)
Class Discussion: What is viscosity? How might
we measure relative viscosities? (5-10 minutes)
1.60 Investigate This How fast do different liquids
flow from a pipet?
1.61 Consider This How are viscosities related to
molecular attractions? (20-25 minutes for both
activities)
5 Minute Break.
Time remaining in this lab session will be devoted
to catch-up or review for the Chapter 1 Hour
Examination.
11 September Discussion of homework. (10 minutes)
20
Catch-up or review of Chapter 1 (40 minutes)
Read for class: Complete Section

1.11
HW for discussion Wednesday:
1.52 Check This Vaporization
energies in Investigate This 1.40.
HW for discussion Thursday:
1.56 Check This Specific heat and
temperature rise.
1.58 Check This Thermal energy
change in ethanol.
1.59 Consider This Are your
calculations related to Investigate
This 1.53?
1.97
HW for discussion Friday:
1.62 Consider This Does hydrogen
bonding explain viscosities in other
compounds?
1.63 Consider This Are the models
for specific heat and viscosity of
water related?

2.1 Consider This What water
soluble and water insoluble
substances do you know?
HW for September 30: 1.108
Revised 8/25/02
Chapter 1 Quizzes for Principles of Chemistry CH 103

CH 103 Quiz 1
Name:_____________
How could you use sticky tape and a comb to prove that:
54
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
1. An object had an electrical charge on it? Be clear and complete leave no wiggle room
for doubt!
2. An object had a positive electrical charge on it? Be clear and complete leave no wiggle
room for doubt!
3. An object had no electrical charge on it? Be clear and complete leave no wiggle room
for doubt!
CH 103 Quiz 2
Name:_____________
1. Draw the Lewis structure of ethanol, CH3CH2OH.
2. Kryptonite is an unusual metal. For one thing, it renders Superman (but evidently not
Superwoman) helpless; for another, there are two exceedingly dense crystal structures of
kryptonite that exist at room temperature, the -form that has a density of 18.3 g mL-1, and the
-form that has a density of 23.7 g mL-1.
(a) Are there more, fewer, or the same number of kryptonite atoms in 1.00 g of the -form
than in 1.00 g of the -form? Circle your answer.
(b) Are there more, fewer, or the same number of kryptonite atoms in 1.00 mL of the -form
than in 1.00 mL of the -form? Circle your answer.
(c) Are there more, fewer, or the same number of kryptonite atoms in 1.00 cm3 of the -form
than in 1.00 cm3 of the -form? Circle your answer.
(d) What are the volumes of 1.00 g of the -form and 1.00 g of the -form?
CH 103 Quiz 3
Name:_____________
1. Define accurately the following essential terms:
(a) atomic mass unit (amu)
(b) dipole moment
(c) electronegativity
(d) melting point
2. Draw Lewis structures for N2O (NNO), NO2, and NO2-. Identify which structures violate
which "rules" for Lewis structures.
3. Draw Lewis structures for H2S and H2Se.
(a) What is the shape of each of these molecules?
(b) Clearly label bond dipoles for each molecule. Which of these molecule(s) are polar?
Explain your reasoning clearly.
CH 103 Quiz 4
Name:____________
1. Three intermolecular forces can exist between molecules. Describe (a) the cause of each
force, (b) what kinds of molecules are involved for each, and (c) the relative strength of each.
dispersion forces
dipole forces
hydrogen bonds
2. Draw Lewis structures for propane, CH3CH2CH3, methyl ether, CH3OCH3, and ethanol,
CH3CH2OH.
(a) Predict which of these compounds has the highest and which the lowest boiling points
and give a complete explanation of your reasoning.
(b) Which of these compounds can form hydrogen bonds in the pure liquid?
(c) Which pair(s) (propane-methyl ether, propane-ethanol, methyl ether-ethanol) of these
compounds can form hydrogen bonds with each other? For those pairs, choose one molecule
of the pair as the acceptor and draw a Lewis structure of this molecule hydrogen bonded to as
many of the other molecule as possible.
ACS Chemistry FROG
55
Chapter 1
CH 103 Quiz 5
Name:____________
1. If you weigh out 1.00 g of ethanol (CH3CH2OH),
(a) how many moles of ethanol do you have?
(b) how many moles of carbon do you have?
(c) how many grams of carbon do you have?
2. Sketch energy diagrams that describe the following processes. Make sure you draw an
arrow that represents the direction of the change and that you indicate the sign of E for these
processes.
(a) Freezing water.
(b) Burning a sample of methanol (CH3OH) in oxygen (O2) to produce water and carbon
dioxide. This process can be described by the equation:
CH3OH(l) + 3/2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) + energy
CH 103 Quiz 6
Name:____________
1. What is the difference between heat and temperature? You can use a clear example to
answer this question.
2. Distinguish between a mixture and a solution.
3. The overall solution process for dissolving ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, in water is
endothermic. Draw an energy diagram for this process that includes all energy changes
involved.
56
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Chapter 1 Hour Exam for Principles of Chemistry CH 103

CH 103
Chapter 1 Hour Examination
Name:____________
A total of 100 points is possible. You may use the periodic table provided with this examination,
a modeling kit, and a calculator.
1.
2.
3.
Give a non-trivial explanation for each of the following:

(a) You experience a cooling effect when you leave a pool on a breezy day. (5 points)
(b) Ice is less dense than liquid water. (5 points)
(c) Lakes freeze from the top to the bottom. (5 points)
Complete the following table: (0.5 points for each answer)
Atom or Ion # of
# of electrons
# of valence
protons
electrons
Mg
Mg2+
O
O2Al
Al3+
Core Charge
# of core
electrons
Consider the two molecules H2O and CO2.

(a) Draw Lewis structures for each molecule. (5 points)
(b) Compare the shape of each of these molecules. You will find making a model of each
very helpful. Use black atoms for carbon and red atoms for oxygen in CO2. Use red atoms
for oxygen and light blue atoms for hydrogen in H2O. Use two blue curved rods to make
double bonds if needed, white rods for single bonds, and paddles for non-bonding electron
pairs. (5 points)
(c) Compare the bond dipoles in each molecule (treat bond dipoles for double bonds as
identical to those for single bonds in a given molecule). (5 points)
(d) Compare the overall electric dipole of each molecule. (5 points)
4. Explain in terms of intermolecular forces and the effects of periodic trends on those forces
the boiling points of HF (292.7 K), HCl (189.5 K), HBr (206.8 K), and HI (237.8 K). (5 points)
5. Give a plausible explanation in terms of hydrogen bonding for each of the following
observations. You may find molecular models useful.
(a) The boiling point of water, H2O, (100 C) is greater than that of methanol, CH3OH, (65
C). (5 points)
(b) Ordinary proteins denature at somewhat lower temperatures than does ordinary DNA. (5
points)
6. Sketch energy diagrams that describe the following processes. Make sure you draw an
arrow that represents the direction of the change and that you indicate whether E is positive or
negative for these processes.
(a) The evaporation of naphthalene (mothballs). (5 points)
(b) The condensation of moisture in your breath on a mirror. (5 points)
7. Explain why it requires less energy to evaporate water at its boiling point than at room
temperature. (5 points)
ACS Chemistry FROG
57
Chapter 1
8. If the specific heat of methanol is 2.53 J g-1 C-1, what will the temperature change of 1.50
mole of methanol (CH3OH) be if you add 75 J of energy to it? (5 points)
9.
58
If you have 1.50 grams of propanol (CH3CH2CH2OH),

(a) How many moles of propanol do you have? (5 points)
(b) How many moles of carbon do you have? (5 points)
(c) How many grams of carbon do you have? (5 points)
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
Solutions for Chapter 1 End-of-Chapter Problems

Problem 1.1
(a) __P__
(b) __C__
(c) __P__
(d) __P__
(e) __C__
(f) __P__
Water is clear and colorless.

Some metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas.
Water has a density of 1.0 gcm3 at 4 C.
Water boils at 100 C.
Water is the product of a reaction between an acid and a base.
Water is a polar molecule.
The distinction between physical and chemical properties is not always clear-cut. Some would
classify the polarity of the water molecule as a chemical property, since this property is not
apparent to our senses, but is interpreted from various measurements and models of matter.
Problem 1.2.
Solids
Liquids
Gases
Definite volume?
Yes
Yes
No
Definite shape?
Yes
No
No
Fixed or changing
position of
molecules?
Fixed
Changing
Changing
Small or large
average distance
between molecules?
Small
Small
Large
Problem 1.3.
Solids and liquids are called condensed phases. In both of these phases, molecules are relatively
close together and are likely to interact with one another. The molecules in the gas phase, by
contrast, are spread apart with significantly less chance for interaction. While the process of
condensation usually refers to the production of liquid from the gas (vapor) phase, both liquid
and solid phases are termed condensed phases.
Problem 1.4.
(a)
(b) Upward pointing arrows (vaporization and melting) represent processes that absorb or
require energy. In the energy diagrams in the text, these arrows are shown in red. Downward
ACS Chemistry FROG
59
Chapter 1
pointing arrows (condensation and freezing) represent processes that release or give off energy.
In the energy diagrams in the text, these arrows are shown in blue.
Problem 1.5.
Many common substances, including gasoline, rubbing alcohol, and cooking oil are liquid at
STP, that is, at one atmosphere (now one bar) pressure and 0 C (273 K).
Problem 1.6.
Many substances, including the components of the Earths atmosphere, nitrogen (N2), oxygen
(O2), argon (Ar), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water vapor, are gases at STP.
Problem 1.7.
When water freezes the volume of the solid is greater than the volume of the liquid. If a closed
glass bottle initially filled entirely with water is kept outside at a temperature below the freezing
point of water, the water will freeze, expand, and break the bottle. Note that this is what is
shown in these pictures from Web Companion, Chapter 1, Section 1.1, page 3, in which a plastic
bottle filled with water ruptures when the water freezes:
Problem 1.8.
(a) If one boils a solution of NaCl(aq) and water, the water will evaporate (vaporize) and the
salt will be left behind due to the fact that water has a much lower boiling point than table salt,
which is a solid at 100 C.
(b) A laboratory distillation apparatus for the separation of a sodium chloride solution is shown
here. Boiling the solution evaporates the water, which is condensed in the inner tube of the
condenser, and runs down to be collected in the receiving flask. After all the water has boiled
away, NaCl(s) remains in the boiling flask.
60
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
A much simpler apparatus is a solar still, that is, a distillation apparatus that uses the energy of
sunlight to separate pure water from salt water. The picture here shows a very simple version
consisting of a clear, colorless container, a piece of plastic wrap secured to the top of the
container, a cup to catch the pure water, and a small object to weight the center of the plastic
wrap covering. Salt water is placed in the container and then it is set up as shown and placed in
the sun. As the sun warms the salt water, water molecules leave the surface and the inside of the
container fill with invisible water vapor. The plastic wrap remains at about the temperature of
the surrounding air and eventually there is enough water vapor in the container to begin to
condense on the cooler surface of the plastic wrap. The condensate flows down the inside of the
plastic wrap and forms droplets at the lowest point. As the droplets grow, they become heavy
enough to drop off into the cup, which fills up with pure water. If the process is allowed to go
on until all the water in the salt solution has evaporated, condensed, and collected in the cup,
solid salt will be left behind in the larger container. Note that the water never boils in this still,
but simply evaporates at a somewhat elevated temperature (compared to room temperature) due
to the greenhouse effect of this enclosed system.
Problem 1.9.
A very direct experiment to determine the relative densities of two immiscible liquids (liquids
that do not dissolve in one another) is to pour a few drops of either one into the other. If the
added liquid sinks, then it is more dense. If the added liquid remains on the surface, then it is less
dense.
Problem 1.10.
Mixing samples of a solid and its liquid will quickly allow you to determine their relative
density. If the solid is more dense, then it will sink in the liquid (which is the case for most
substances). If the solid is less dense, then it will float in the liquid [as is the case for solid water
(ice) in liquid water].
Problem 1.11.
Figure 3.1 shows that the density of solid paraffin is greater than that liquid paraffin but that the
density of liquid water is greater than that of solid water (ice). What is not known is how the
density of solid paraffin compares with that of liquid water, which is what we need to know to
predict if the solid paraffin will sink, float, or remain just buoyantly suspended when dropped
into liquid water. The relative density values could be determined experimentally (a variant on
the previous problem) or by looking up the densities in a reference handbook.
ACS Chemistry FROG
61
Chapter 1
Problem 1.12.
NOTE: This problem is somewhat poorly and ambiguously stated, because there is no
indication what the uncertainty might be in the dimensions given. If we assume that the zero in
the 20 cm measurements is significant, in the sense that it is uncertain to about one unit, then
the dimensions are known to about one part in 20 or 5% in this case and our resulting volume
should be reported to about 5%.
The volume of block of ice is:

V = (20cm)(20cm)(20 cm) = 8 103 cm3 = 8 103 mL
The implication of the result reported like this is that the volume is known to about one part in
eight or is uncertain by about 12%. Reporting the volume as 8.0 103 mL would imply much
less uncertainty, closer to about 1%, and this is not justified by the assumption above. To find
the mass of this amount of ice (and the water it produces) we use its density, d, and rearrange
the equation that defines density to determine mass (from the density of ice):
m
d=
is rearranged to m = dV = (8 103 mL)( 0.917 gmL1) = 7 103 g
V
To find the volume of the liquid puddle, we again rearrange the equation that defines density to
determine volume (from the density of water):
3
m
m
7 10 g
3
d=
is rearranged to V =
=
3 = 7 10 mL
1.000 g mL
V
d
Problem 1.13.
We only need to know that a phase change from solid to liquid (or from liquid to gas) does not
change the amount of matter involved in the phase change. Mass is conserved in all phase
changes, so the mass of the molten iron must be 100.0 g.
Problem 1.14.
All the atoms of a chemical element are the same and the names of the elements are listed in the
periodic table in the front of the text or the alphabetical list in the back. Use this criterion to
decide which of the listed substances is an element.
(a) We know that water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, so it cannot be a chemical
element.
(b) Salt water consists of two substances, neither of which is an element, mixed together, so it
cannot be a chemical element.
(c) Iron is listed in the periodic table, so it must be an element.
(d) The name iron oxide tells us that this substance must be made up of iron atoms and some
other atoms (oxide tells us its oxygen atoms).
(e) Nitrogen is listed in the periodic table, so it must be an element.
(f) Diamond is a tricky one. The name diamond does not appear in the periodic table and the
name gives no clue to its composition, so we have to recall some information we learned
someplace or go to a reference book, like the dictionary. The dictionary says that diamond is a
mineral consisting of nearly pure carbon. Carbon is in the periodic table, so diamond (pure
carbon) must be an element.
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Chapter 1
Problem 1.15.
Valence electrons are electrons in the outermost shell of an atom. Core electrons are electrons in
the inner shells closer to and strongly attracted by the nucleus, so they do not interact with
electrons from other atoms. Valence electrons are furthest from the nucleus and interact with
other atoms.
Problem 1.16.
Use the information in Figure 1.7, which shows the number of valence and core electrons in the
first 20 elements, and analogies of this figure to the periodic table in the front of the text to get
the number of core and valence electrons in these elemental atoms.
(a) The sodium atom has one valence electron and 10 core electrons that balance the charge of
the 11 protons in the nucleus (Figure 1.7).
(b) The bromine atom is in family (column) of the periodic table with fluorine and chlorine,
each of which has seven valence electrons (Figure 1.7). Thus, we reason that bromine also has
seven valence electrons. To balance the 35 protons in the nucleus (bromine is atomic number
35), there must be 28 more electrons in the inner shells, so there are 28 core electrons.
(c) The barium atom is in the family (column) of the periodic table with beryllium, magnesium,
and calcium, each of which has two valence electrons (Figure 1.7). Thus, we reason that barium
also has two valence electrons. To balance the 56 electrons in the nucleus (barium is atomic
number 56), there must be 54 more electrons in the inner shells, so there are 54 core electrons.
(d) The phosphorus atom has five valence electrons and 10 core electrons that balance the
charge of the 15 protons in the nucleus (Figure 1.7).
(e) The sulfur atom has six valence electrons and 10 core electrons that balance the charge of
the 16 protons in the nucleus (Figure 1.7).
Problem 1.17.
(a) The number of protons in each ion is given by the atomic number of the elemental atom from
which the ion is formed. The number of electrons is then the number needed to cancel off enough
of the nuclear charge (protons) -- or add more than enough -- to give the overall charge on the
ion. As we did in Problem 1.17, we use Figure 1.7, which shows the number of valence and core
electrons in the first 20 elements, and analogies of this figure to the periodic table in the front of
the text to get the number of core electrons (last column of the table) in the elemental atoms from
which these ions are formed. The total number of electrons minus the number of core electrons is
the number of valence electrons. The number of protons (atomic number) minus the number of
core electrons is the core charge.
Ion
# of
protons
# of
electrons
# of valence
electrons
Core
charge
# of core
electrons
Na+
11
10
+1
10
K+
19
18
+1
18
Mg2
12
10
+2
10
Ca2+
20
18
+2
18
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Chapter 1
Cl
17
18
+7
10
Br
35
36
+7
28
(b) The ions commonly formed by the metallic elements on the far left of the periodic table, Na+,
K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+, have zero valence electrons. These elemental atoms lose all their valence
electrons when they form the ions we find in their compounds. The ions commonly formed by
the elements on the far left of the periodic table (halogens), Cl and Br, have eight valence
electrons. These elemental atoms gain a valence electros when they form the ions we find in their
compounds. To form ions, metals lose valence electrons and non-metals gain valence electrons.
NOTE: The number of electrons for each ion in column three of this table is the number in the
noble gas that just precedes (for the metals) or comes just after (for the non-metals) the elemental
atom. This correlation sometimes leads to the idea that there is some special stability associated
with the electronic structures of the noble gases. Keep in mind that correlation does not
necessarily imply causation.
Problem 1.18.
Elements in the same period of the periodic table have the same number of core electrons.
Problem 1.19.
Elements in the same group of the periodic table have the same number of valence electrons.
Problem 1.20.
Recall that chemical reactions and interactions directly involve only the valence electrons.
Therefore, elements in the same group (column or family) have similar chemical properties,
since they have identical numbers of valence electrons.
Problem 1.21.
Use the periodic table to get the number of protons (= atomic number) in each elemental ion and
then subtract the charge on the ion to get the number of electrons left after enough have been
removed to give the positive charge on the ion.
Mn2+
Fe2+
Fe3+
Cu2+
Zn2+
# of protons
25
26
26
29
30
# of electrons
23
24
23
27
28
Ion
Problem 1.22.
The octets of electrons have been circled for each of the products. Note that each covalent bond
is composed of two electrons, one formally contributed by the atoms at each end of the bond.
(a) HF (hydrogen fluoride)
(b) NH3 (ammonia)
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(c) CH3OH (methanol)

H
H
H
(d) H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide)

H
Problem 1.23.
The (b) bond angle, (c) bond length, and (f) number of nonbonding pairs of electrons on oxygen
are not directly observable and are therefore microscopic (or better, molecular) properties
characteristic of individual water molecules. The (a) boiling point and (e) density of water and
its (d) ability to dissolve salt are directly measurable or observable with bulk samples of water
and are therefore macroscopic properties. These macroscopic properties are not properties of
individual water molecules, only large (macroscopically observable) collections of water
molecules. Of course, the molecular structure and macroscopic properties are related and much
of the chemistry we will study is concerned with these relationships.
Problem 1.24.
Model 1
NH3
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
H N H
H
(a) These are all models of the ammonia molecule. Model 1 is a molecular formula, sometimes
called a line formula; Model 2 is an electron-dot model (also called a Lewis structure, Section
1.4); Model 3 is a ball and stick representation; and, Model 4 is a computer-generated model.
(b) The molecular formula or line formula tells you there are 3 atoms of hydrogen combined
with one atom of nitrogen, forming one molecule of ammonia. The electron-dot model shows
the composition of the molecule and also shows the connectivity within the ammonia molecule
and locates the valence electrons. The ball and stick model shows the composition and
connectivity and also gives some information about the bond angles within the molecule. Note
that this model does not show the pair of nonbonded electrons. The computer-generated model
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Chapter 1
shows the composition, the connectivity and bond angles, and a boundary surface for the
valence electrons that is color-coded to show net electrical charge on various parts of the
molecule.
(c) The paddle model can be used to show the location of nonbonded electron pairs in a balland-stick model (see Figure 1.14 and the marginal figure with Worked Example 1.19). Space
filling models [see Figure 1.8(f)] show connectivity, bond angles and give approximate
representations of the space (volume) occupied by electrons around each atomic core in the
ammonia molecule.
Problem 1.25.
The molecular formula (line formula) is given with the models of the compounds represented:
(a) SF4
(c) PCl3
(b) CH4
(d) CH3COOH
Problem 1.26.
(a) The molecular formula for glucose, C6H12O6, is given in the Index of the textbook under the
heading glucose.
(b) The molecular formula for nitrous oxide, N2O, is given in the dictionary with its definition.
(c) The molecular formula for methanol, CH3OH, usually used by chemists is given in the Index
of the textbook under the heading methanol. Sometimes you might find the formula written as
CH4O, but this formula gives no indication how the atoms are joined in the molecule. The
connectivity is better represented by the first formula.
(d) The molecular formula for acetylene, CHCH, is given in the Index of the textbook under its
scientific name ethyne (which is the reference given under acetylene). The formula is often
written C2H2, because we know that there is only one way to connect these four atoms, but the
first formula does better represent the connectivity of the atoms.
Problem 1.27.
(a) From a Lewis structure, you can determine the number of atomic cores of each kind that are
bonded together in a molecule of the compound of interest and the connectivity among these
atomic cores. The distribution of valence electrons among the atomic cores in two-electron
bonds or as nonbonding electrons is also represented.
(b) Without further information about the geometric distribution of valence electron pairs
(Section 1.5 and Chapter 5) about atomic cores, Lewis structures convey no information about
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the shape of a molecule (bond lengths and bond angles) and its associated properties (molecular
dipoles and polarity).
Problem 1.28.
+
H
H N H
H
(a) The electron dot model for the ammonium ion,
, shows that there are four
hydrogen atomic cores combined with one nitrogen atomic core and that there are eight valence
electrons. There is a positive charge on the ion because the sum of the atomic core charges is 9
[= 4(1+) + (5+)] and there are only 8 electrons to balance this charge. The connectivity and twoelectron bonds within the molecule are clearly shown by this model.
(b) The electron dot model provides no information about bond angles, bond lengths, or
distribution of charge (although the equivalence of the four bonds suggests that the charge is
probably symmetrically distributed) within the ammonium ion.
(c) When rewritten using dashes for two-electron bonds, the model is:
H
H N H
H
This substitution of dashes for pairs of dots does not in any way change the information found
in the model. It is just a convenience to replace each pair of dots with a dash.
(d) The methane and ammonium ion structures are very similar electronically.
+
H
H
Ammonium ion:
H N H
H
Methane: H C H
H
Both show four pairs of electrons and four hydrogen atomic cores grouped around the central
atomic core. The nitrogen atomic core has one more positive charge than the carbon atomic core
(atomic number 7 compared to atomic number 6) and therefore one too few valence electrons to
balance the core charges, leaving the ion with a positive charge.
Problem 1.29.
The two third period examples cited in this problem statement, silicon and sulfur, are in the
carbon and oxygen families (columns), respectively, of the periodic table. They might be
expected to have properties (such as typical number of covalent bonds) that are similar to the
atoms in the second period. Thus, it makes sense that silicon typically forms four covalent
bonds and sulfur typically forms two covalent bonds, because Table 1.1 shows us that this is
what happens for the second period elements, carbon and oxygen. We might extend this
reasoning to other third period and also to fourth period elements.
(a) Phosphorus is the third period element in the nitrogen family, so we expect it typically to
form three covalent bonds.
(b) Chlorine is the third period element in the fluorine (halogen) family, so we expect it
typically to form one covalent bond.
(c) Selenium is the fourth period element in the oxygen family, so we expect it typically to form
two covalent bonds.
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(d) Bromine is the fourth period element in the fluorine (halogen) family, so we expect it
typically to form one covalent bond.
NOTE: Almost all covalent compounds of C, N, O, and F follow the pattern shown in Table 1.1,
but their third and higher period counterparts do not, as we will explain in Chapter 5. The
objective of this problem is to think about predictions that can be made from the periodicity of
the periodic table. Later we can delve more deeply into the nature of bonding and its variation
down a family.
Problem 1.30.
(a) If the pattern in Table 1.1 is extended to the next period two element, neon, the result is zero
covalent bonds (since their number decreases monotonically across the table) and four
nonbonding pairs of electrons (since their number increases monotonically across the table).
The implication here is that neon can form no compounds.
(b) In chemistry, inert means incapable of reacting. Chemical reactions are defined by the
making and breaking of chemical bonds. If it is true, as is implied by the answer in part (a), that
neon cannot form covalent bonds, it could be characterized as inert. For many years, textbooks
said that the elements He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn, all in the same family (group) of the periodic
table, were inert, because no compounds containing these elements had ever been made.
Calculations by some chemists, including Linus Pauling, suggested that it should be possible to
synthesize some compounds of these gases, but none had been. In 1962, reasoning about why
these elements were inert was upset by the synthesis of the first compound of xenon by Neil
Bartlett, then in the Chemistry Department at the University of British Columbia. Since that
time compounds of argon, xenon, krypton, and radon have been synthesized and studied. The
most recently discovered compounds are formed at low temperatures with uranium atoms.
Although these gases are not inert, they are not highly reactive and require very reactive
partners to get the reactions to go. Now, these gases are usually called noble, which implies
that they do not react with just any other reactant, but are a bit aloof.
Problem 1.31.
The first steps in writing a Lewis structure for a molecule are to determine the total number of
valence electrons in the molecule and the possible connectivity of the atomic cores. Then place
two valence electrons between each pair of atomic cores and distribute any that are left over to
give every second-period element eight electrons surrounding its atom symbol. Each carbon has
4 valence electrons, each hydrogen has 1 valence electron, and oxygen has 6 valence electrons.
The total number of valence electrons in C2H6O is:
2(4) + 6(1) + 1(6) = 20 valence electrons
There are two possible ways to connect these second-period atomic cores: C-C-O or C-O-C.
The alternative formulas given in the problem, C2H5OH and CH3CH2OH, show us that the first
of these connectivities is the correct one. Place the hydrogen atomic cores around the carbon
and oxygen cores so that each carbon core has 4 covalent bonds and each oxygen core has 2
covalent bonds:
H H
68
H H
H C C O
or H C C O
H H H
H H H
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Chapter 1
This structure uses 16 of the 20 valence electrons to form the covalent bonds. The oxygen
atomic core has only four valence electrons, so the remaining four valence electrons are placed
on the oxygen core as nonbonding pairs to give the oxygen core eight valence electrons.
H H
H C C O
H H H
or
H H
H C C O
H H H
Problem 1.32.
NOTE: This problem and the next two go a step beyond the material presented in this chapter
because they involve multiple bonds, which are not formally introduced until Chapter 5. The
next two problems have the double bonds included in Lewis structures already written, but this
one requires writing them de novo, which is a big leap. In addition, the structures in this
problem do not obey the pattern shown in Table 1.1, because one of the oxygen atomic cores in
each molecular structure must be shown with one covalent bond and three nonbonding pairs.
Additionally, the central atomic core in O3 and SO2, must have three covalent bonds and one
nonbonding in pair, again in contradiction to Table 1.1 (and its extrapolation to the third period,
as in Problem 1.29). Thus, this is a much more difficult problem than the others and certainly
should have been located following the other two or perhaps under General Problems as a
challenge problem.
Start solving this problem by determining the number of valence electrons in each of the
molecules or ions:
O3:
3(6) = 18 valence electrons
SO2:
6 + 2(6) = 18 valence electrons
NO2 : 5 + 2(6) + 1 = 18 valence electrons

Thus, all three species have the same number of valence electrons and the same number of
second- or third-period elements. Molecules and/or ions that have the same number of valence
electrons and the same number of second- or higher-period elements are often called
isoelectronic molecules and/or ions because they have the same (= iso) number of electrons. For
this problem, we will assume that sulfur acts like oxygen in its bonding characteristics, so the
Lewis structures for the three isoelectronic species are likely to be very similar. This is the case
for all isoelectronic species [see Problem 1.28(d)]. First write a Lewis structure for ozone, O3,
and then apply it to sulfur dioxide, SO2, and nitrite ion, NO2. The connectivity and bonding
between the oxygen atomic cores in O3, gives:
OOO
This structure uses four of the 18 valence electrons, so we have 14 more to distribute to try to
give each oxygen atomic core eight valence electrons. We might try to put enough nonbonding
pairs on each oxygen core to give each eight electrons, but we would need 16 electrons to do
this and we have only 14. When we meet a situation like this, as we will find in Chapter 5, the
solution is to place more than a single pair of electrons into covalent bonds between the atomic
cores. This gives each of the cores another pair of electrons, because, as we know, electrons
shared between a pair of atoms count toward satisfying the octet rule for both atoms. Thus, the
next step in writing the Lewis structure is to place two electron pairs between two of the oxygen
cores:
O O O
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Chapter 1
Now we have used six of the valence electrons to form covalent bonds and we have 12 left over
that we can distribute as nonbonding pairs:
O O O
All 18 valence electrons are accounted for in this Lewis structure and each oxygen atomic core
has an octet of electrons. For the isoelectronic species sulfur dioxide, SO2, and nitrite ion, NO2,
we have:
O S O
O N O
Note carefully that the rightmost oxygen atom in each of these structures does not fit the pattern
in Table 1.1, but has one covalent bond and three nonbonding electron pairs. The central oxygen
atom on ozone and the sulfur atom in sulfur dioxide also do not fit the pattern for oxygen-family
elements in Table1.1. These are not the only problems with these Lewis structures. We will
learn how to deal with molecules and ions like these in Chapter 5.
Problem 1.33.
(a) This Lewis structure, N C C
each of the nitrogen atomic cores.
(b) This Lewis structure, N C C
each of the nitrogen atomic cores.
(c) This Lewis structure, N C
rightmost nitrogen atomic core.
(d) This Lewis structure, N C
octet of electrons.
(e) This Lewis structure,
the nitrogen atomic cores.
, is not good, because it has only seven electrons around
, is not good, because it has only six electrons around
C N
, is not good, because it has only six electrons around the
C N
, is satisfactory, because all the atomic cores have an
N C C N
, is not good, because it has only four electrons around
(f) This Lewis structure, N C C N , is not good, because it has only six electrons around the
leftmost nitrogen atomic core and rightmost carbon atomic core.
Problem 1.34.
Lewis structures for molecules (a) and (c) are correct. Each structure has the correct number of
valence electrons and each of the second- or higher-period atomic cores is shown with an octet
of electrons. The others are incorrect:
(a) HOCl
H O Cl
S C S
(b) CS2
CS2 has 16 valence electrons [= 2(6) + 4] and this structure has only 12. In addition, none of the
atomic cores has an octet of electrons. These deficiencies can both be solved by placing another
pair of bonding electrons between the carbon core and each of the sulfur cores :
S
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Chapter 1
(c)
NH3
H N H
H
O
(d)
(HO)2CO
C
H O
O H
The number of valence electrons represented is correct, but the carbon core is shown with 10
valence electrons. Move one of the double pair between the carbon core and the lower left hand
oxygen core onto the oxygen core (so it has the same electronic configuration as the oxygen
core on the right):
O
O H
(e)
H2Se H Se H
H2Se (like H2O and H2S) has eight valence electrons [= 2(1) + 6], but only six are shown here
and the Se atomic core has only a sextet of electrons. The appropriate structure is:
H
Se H
Problem 1.35.
With respect to the central atomic core, tetrahedral orientation requires a total of four pairs of
bonding and nonbonding electrons arrayed around this core. For this problem, all have five
molecules and ions shown have eight valence electrons (four pairs) and a tetrahedral orientation
of the bonding and nonbonding pairs about the central atomic core.
Problem 1.36.
Although the bonding and nonbonding electron pairs are arranged tetrahedrally around each
central atomic core in the molecules in Problem 1.35, the shape of each molecule is described
by the position of the atomic cores with respect to one another. In particular, we are concerned
here with the orientation of the H atomic cores with respect to the central atomic core.
(a) H2S is bent, like the water molecule.
(b) NH4+ is tetrahedral with the H atomic cores arranged tetrahedrally around the nitrogen core.
(c) NH3 has a trigonal (or triangular) pyramidal structure, with the nitrogen atomic core at the
apex of a triangular pyramid and the H atomic cores at the vertices of the triangular base of the
pyramid.
(d) NH2 is bent, like the water molecule.
(e) CH4 is tetrahedral with the H atomic cores arranged tetrahedrally around the carbon core.
Problem 1.37.
Use the Pythagorean theorem to find, c, the length of the diagonal of
the square with sides of length 2r:
c2 = (2r)2 + (2r)2 = 4r2 + 4r2 = 8r2
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Chapter 1
c = 2r 2
The distance from the center of any of the balls to the center of the square is half the length of
the diagonal:
c
distance from ball to center of square = = 2 r
2
( )
Problem 1.38.
(a) Use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the cube edge,
e, where the diagonal of each face of the cube has a length 2r:
e2 + e2 = (2r)2 = 2e2 = 4r2
e=
( 2 )r
Use the Pythagorean theorem again to find the length of the cube
diagonal, d:
( 2 )r
d2 = (2r)2 +
d=
( 6 )r
= 4r2 + 2r2 = 6r2
The distance from any corner of the cube, that is, the center of any of the balls, to the center of
the tetrahedron is one-half the length of the diagonal:
d
distance from ball to center of tetrahedron = = 6 2 r
2
(b) Call the distance calculated in part (a) the tetrahedral distance and the distance calculated in
Problem 1.37 the square distance and compare them:
6 r
tetrahedral distance
2
=
square distance
( 2 )r
6
=
2 2
6
=
8
6
<1
8
This result shows that the distance from the center of a ball to the center of a tetrahedral
arrangement is shorter than the distance from the center of a ball to the center of a square
arrangement and helps to justify the statement in the text that the tetrahedral arrangement puts
all the balls as close as possible to the central point.
Problem 1.39.
(a) Silicon atoms, in the carbon family (group), have 4 valence electrons and chlorine atoms
have 7 valence electrons. The total number of valence electrons in SiCl4 is:
4 + 4(7) = 32 valence electrons.
Assume that the silicon atomic core is the central atom core and connect each chlorine atom
core to this central silicon atom core. This gives silicon 4 covalent bonds (like carbon in its
compounds) and gives each chlorine one covalent bond. Each chlorine core also has 3 pairs of
nonbonding electrons:
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Chapter 1
Cl
Cl Si Cl
Cl
Cl
or
Cl
Si
Cl
Cl
(b) This Lewis structure is similar to that for methane, CH4, in that the central atom in each case
has four covalent bonds bonding it to four other identical atom cores. Silicon is in the same
family of the periodic table as carbon, so also brings 4 valence electrons to the structure. Each
hydrogen atom core in methane can have only one bonded pair of electrons. Similarly each
chlorine atomic core in silicon tetrachloride has one bonded pair of electrons. The chlorine
atomic cores also have three nonbonding pairs of electrons that do not affect the geometry of the
molecule.
Methane
Cl
H C H
Cl Si Cl
Silicon tetrachloride
Cl
(c) The shape of SiCl4, like that of CH4, is tetrahedral with the four covalent bonding pairs of
electrons (and four identical atom cores) arranged symmetrically about the central core.
Problem 1.40.
(a) Borane, BH3, has only six valence electrons [= 3 +3(1)]. Thus, the central boron atomic core
can have only a sextet of electrons (shown here as lines each representing a bonding electron
pair):
Because the boron atomic core does not have the full octet (eight electrons) we associate with
the succeeding second period elements in their compounds, it is called electron deficient.
Electron deficiency has to be defined relative to some standard (the octet, in this case), but this
is somewhat arbitrary. There is nothing magic about the octet.
(b) The best arrangement of three spheres (or balloons, as in Investigate This 1.14) as close as
possible to a central point is in a triangular array where the centers of the spheres lie at the
vertices of an equilateral triangle. This would be the arrangement of the three electron pairs
making up the three electron pair bonds in borane. The hydrogen cores would also take up
positions symmetrically arranged about the boron core, as shown in the structure in part (a). As
shown in the drawing, borane is trigonal planar (all four atomic centers in the same plane) with
the HBH bond angles all equal to 120. This is also the structure represented in the Web
Companion, Chapter 1, Section 6, pages 3 and 4, by ball-and-stick and charge density models:
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Chapter 1
Problem 1.41.
Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction of an atomic core for the bonding electrons it
shares with another atomic core in a molecule. There are several ways to assign numeric values
to relative electronegativies. Linus Pauling developed one of the most common and it is his
values that are given in Figure 1.20 in the textbook.
Problem 1.42.
(a) Fluorine is the element with the highest electronegativity value.
(b) The elements with the lowest electronegativities are found at the bottom lower left of the
periodic table on the inside front cover of the textbook.
(c) The elements with the highest electronegativities are found at the top right (excluding noble
gases) of the periodic table.
(d) Electronegativity generally decreases as you go from the top to the bottom within a group of
the periodic table.
(e) Electronegativity generally increases as you go from the left to the right across a period of
the periodic table.
(f) Generally, as electronegativity increases atomic size decreases. This makes sense; the more
tightly an atomic nucleus holds/attracts its electrons (higher electronegativity), the closer they
will be to the nucleus (smaller size).
Problem 1.43.
(a) F has greater electronegativity than S. F is the most electronegative element, so it must have
a greater electronegativity than any other. Based on trends in electronegativity, F is in period
two compared to S in period three and electronegativity increases going up a group. F is further
to the right in the periodic table than S and elements increase in electronegativity from left to
right across a period. Both of these trends give an element that lies above and to the right of
another in the periodic table a higher electronegativity.
(b) Based on our interpretation of periodicity represented in the periodic table on the inside
front cover of the textbook, C and H can be considered to be in the same group in many of their
properties. Since H is in the first period and C in the second, we would predict greater
electronegativity for H. Figure 1.20 indicates that this prediction is incorrect: C has a somewhat
higher electronegativity than H.
(c) O has greater electronegativity than H. Although O is a second period element and H a first
period element, O is two elements further to the right on the periodic table next to F, the most
electronegative element.
(d) O has greater electronegativity than C. These elements are both in the second period and O
is further to the right than C.
Problem 1.44.
One of the elements in each of the pairs here is the same, so it is the other element in each pair
that we first have to compare. Then we can compare each of these to the atom that is the same to
see which electronegativity difference is largest and, hence, which bond will be more polar.
(a) The H-F bond is more polar than the H-Cl bond. F is more electronegative than Cl (higher in
their group of the periodic table), and both are more electronegative than H, so the difference in
electronegativity between F and H is greater than the difference between Cl and H.
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Chapter 1
(b) The N-H bond is more polar than the C-H bond. N is more electronegative than C (to the
right in their period of the periodic table), and both are more electronegative than H, so the
difference in electronegativity between N and H is greater than the difference between C and H.
(c) The K-S bond is more polar than the Na-S bond. K is less electronegative than Na (lower in
their group of the periodic table), and both are less electronegative than S, so the difference in
electronegativity between K and S is greater than the difference between Na and S.
(d) The N-O is more polar than the O-O bond. Since there is zero electronegativity difference
between the two O atoms in O-O, the larger electronegativity difference is between the
dissimilar atoms in N-O.
Problem 1.45.
NOTE: This problem is probably misplaced and ought to go into the General Problems at the
end of the rest of the problems, since many of the important properties of water, including
hydrogen bonding, have not been discussed at this point in the text.
There is no single answer to this problem, but answers ought to involve an understanding that a
linear water molecule will have no permanent dipole moment, since the bond moments will be
pointing in opposite directions and cancel one another out. If the hydrogen atomic cores are on
opposite sides of the oxygen atomic core, the nonbonding electron pairs are also likely to be on
opposite sides (for symmetry), so the array of bonding and nonbonding pairs might be
visualized as square planar:
A charge density model might resemble an ellipse with high negative charge density (red)
around its middle and positive charge density (blue -- positive charges not completely cancelled
by the electron density) at its ends. Hydrogen bonds would probably still be possible and could
form planar sheets of molecules in which each hydrogen is bonded to four others, as in the lefthand picture below. Such layers could stack on one another or small arrays of them could
jumble together like potato chips in a bag in the liquid phase. Three-dimensional structures are
also possible, as in the right-hand picture, also with four hydrogen bonds to each molecule, but
this three-dimensional structure must be quite open with large holes. Small numbers of linear
water molecules might come together this way, but an extended structure would probably not be
stable.
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Chapter 1
Without a permanent dipole moment, the attractions among linear water molecules would not be
as strong and water would melt and boil at lower temperatures. The liquid might exist on Earth
at the present temperature and still be compatible with the development and evolution of life,
although the polar nature of water has a strong role in the development of the biomolecular
structures required for life, as we know it. The hydrogen bonding possible for linear water,
would lead to a higher energy of vaporization and specific heat than if hydrogen bonding was
not possible, but the lack of a permanent dipole would probably mean lower values than for the
bent molecule. In turn, the lower energy of vaporization and specific heat would make linear
water less efficient at trapping radiant energy from the sun and would probably result in a colder
Earth, which might not be compatible with the evolution and maintenance of complex life
forms. What other possibilities did you envision?
Problem 1.46.
(a) Water, H2O, and hydrogen sulfide, H2S, both have eight valence electrons and similar Lewis
structures:
H O
H S
(b) Both H2O and H2S have bent or angular shapes, which describe the arrangement of the
atomic cores. (The two bonding and two nonbonding pairs of electrons on these molecules are
arranged roughly tetrahedrally about the central atomic core, but the nonbonding electrons are
not considered when describing the shape.)
(c) The bond dipoles are different in H2O and H2S. The electronegativity (EN) of oxygen is 3.4,
while that of hydrogen is 2.2. The difference in EN is 1.2, making each hydrogen to oxygen
bond very polar. The valence electrons are not shared equally between the oxygen core and each
hydrogen atomic core; oxygen has a much greater attraction for the shared electrons. This is
represented in Figure 1.19. The EN of sulfur is 2.6 and that of hydrogen is 2.2. The difference
in EN is only 0.4. The rule of thumb stated in the text is that a significant bond dipole exists for
a covalent bond between the atoms of two elements that differ by 0.5 or more EN units, so these
HS bonds are essentially nonpolar.
(d) Both H2O and H2S have nonbonding electrons on the central atom that create an
unsymmetric charge distribution in the molecule. The asymmetry is less for the larger sulfur
atom because the electrons occupy a larger volume of space so their charge is not as
concentrated. The affect of the nonbonding electrons is less for H2S than for H2O. In addition,
the smaller HS bond dipoles contribute less to the dipole in H2S than the larger HO bond
dipoles in H2O. Overall, therefore, we expect the H2S to be polar, but with a considerably
smaller dipole moment than H2O.
Problem 1.47.
Draw the Lewis structures for carbon tetrachloride, CCl4, chloroform, CHCl3, and
dichloromethane, CH2Cl2. Clearly label the bond dipoles for each molecule. Which molecules
are polar and which are non-polar? Explain your answer.
Structures for carbon tetrachloride, CCl4, chloroform, CHCl3, and dichloromethane, CH2Cl2 are
given here (with the nonbonding electrons on the Cl cores not shown, in order to make the
pictures less messy). The lines representing the bonding electron pairs are shown in a way that
is designed to help us visualize the three dimensional structures of the molecules (see Chapter 5,
Section 5.8).
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When the individual bond dipoles cancel out, then there is no net dipole and the molecule is
nonpolar. If the individual bond dipoles do not cancel out, then there is a net dipole.
Problem 1.47.
We are given molecular formulas and asked why all the molecules have dipole moments = 0.
The dipole moment of any molecule is simply the sum of all the individual bond dipoles with
their directions with respect to one another taken into account. In order to have no net
(molecular) dipole moment, the bond dipoles must either all equal zero or be symmetrically
oriented to exactly cancel out. [If you have studied vectors in math, we can restate this more
simply: the molecular dipole is the vector sum of the bond dipoles.] Before attempting an
analysis of dipole moments, we need to know the three-dimensional shape of the molecule.
Write a Lewis structure and use it to determine the geometric orientation of the bonds. Note any
special symmetry.
(a) N2 (molecular nitrogen) has a triple bond between the two nitrogen atoms, N N . Since
the two nitrogen atoms obviously have the same EN (electronegativity) value, the bond dipole
must be zero. As is true for all diatomic molecules the bond dipole is equal to the molecular
dipole moment.
(b) BH3 (borane) has a trigonal (triangular) planar geometry with all the HBH bond angles =
120. Hydrogen is more electronegative than boron, as illustrated. The cancellation of the bond
dipoles is due to the three-fold symmetry of the molecule.
H
B
(c) SiCl4 (silicon tetrachloride) has its four equivalent SiCl bonds pointing to the four corners
of a tetrahedron. Chlorine is more electronegative than silicon. The cancellation of the bond
dipoles is due to the tetrahedral symmetry of the molecule.
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Cl
Cl
Si
Cl
Cl
(d) BeH2 (beryllium hydride) is a linear molecule, with the two BeH bond dipoles 180 apart
opposing one another.
In order to figure out the net dipole for any molecule, there are a number of steps required.
Each step is essential in order to arrive at the correct answer. First, draw a Lewis structure.
With the exception of the left hand elements and their molecules (such as BH3 and BeH2),
second row elements should satisfy the octet rule. Next, figure out the three-dimensional shape
of the molecule that will place the negatively charged valence pairs of electrons as close as
possible to the positively charged atomic core(s). Use the electronegativity differences between
atoms to estimate the relative magnitudes of individual bond dipoles and, from their geometric
sum, predict (qualitatively) a molecular dipole direction and magnitude.
Problem 1.49.
The electronegativity of the element nitrogen is relatively large, so the NH bond dipole is
substantial, with its negative end pointing toward the nitrogen atomic core. The nonbonding pair
of electrons on the nitrogen adds to the negative charge at the nitrogen vertex of the pyramidal
structure to give NH3 a substantial molecular dipole moment. The elements phosphorus and
hydrogen have approximately the same electronegativity, so the PH bond dipole is almost zero.
This leaves only the nonbonding pair of electrons on the phosphorus atomic core as principal
contributor to the PH3 molecular dipole moment, which will be rather small. We predict
(correctly) that NH3 has a larger molecular dipole moment than PH3.
Problem 1.50.
(a) The motion of electrons in molecules creates transient partial polar regions even in nonpolar
molecules. Polarity in one molecule induces polarity in neighboring molecules as the electrons
in the neighbors move toward the positive regions in inducing molecule and away from its
negative regions. The transiently polarized molecules attract one another. These attractions are
called induced-dipole attractions.
(b) Dipole-dipole attractions exist between neutral polar molecules, that is, molecules with a
permanent molecular dipole moment. Polar molecules attract each other because the positive
and negative ends of different molecules are attracted toward one another.
(c) Hydrogen bonding is a special type of intermolecular attraction that exists between the
hydrogen atom in a polar bond (particularly an HF, HO, or HN bond) and an unshared
electron pair on a nearby electronegative atom (usually an F, N or O atom) on another molecule
(or within the same molecule, as in proteins).
Problem 1.51.
Both intramolecular covalent bonds and intermolecular hydrogen bonds involve sharing of a
pair of electrons between two atomic cores. The difference is that the hydrogen atomic core in
an intermolecular hydrogen bond is originally bonded to an atomic core in one molecule by a
covalent intramolecular bonding electron pair and ends up still bonded (albeit by a longer
somewhat weaker bond) via this electron pair and in addition shares a second pair of bonding
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electrons from another molecule in the hydrogen bond. The strength of this second bond, an
intermolecular hydrogen bond, is approximately five to ten percent the strength of an
intramolecular covalent bond. The relative weakness of hydrogen bonds means that they can
break and form rapidly, whereas covalent bonds are much harder to break and are responsible
for the permanent structures of molecules.
Problem 1.52.
(a) There are induced-dipole dispersion forces among all molecules.
(b) There are dipole-dipole attractions between polar molecules as well as dispersion forces
among them.
(c) There is a hydrogen bonding attraction between a hydrogen atom in a water molecule and a
nitrogen atom in ammonia (in a mixture of ammonia and water).
Problem 1.53.
The boiling points from the fourth to fifth period hydrides in Figure 1.24 increase by about 3540 C as the number of electrons per molecule increases by 18 from 36 to 54. This increase is
roughly 2 C per electron. The increase in number of electrons from HI to HAt is 32 (from 54 to
86). If the trend continues, we might expect HAt to have a boiling point of about 30 C, that is,
about 64 C [= (2 C/electron)(32 electrons)] higher than the HI boiling point, 35 C.
Problem 1.54.
Methane, CH4, molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds with one another because the molecules
have no nonbonding electron pairs that could attract a positively polarized hydrogen atom. Even
if the molecules had nonbonding electron pairs, the electronegativity of carbon is so low that the
CH bond is almost nonpolar, so the hydrogen atomic core would not have enough positive
character to be attracted. This is the reason that hydrogen sulfide, H2S, molecules do not form
hydrogen bonds with one another. Even though the molecules have nonbonding electron pairs
the electronegativity of S is so low that the SH bond is almost nonpolar, so the hydrogen
atomic core does not have enough positive character to be attracted to the nonbonding pairs. For
hydrogen bonds to form, H atoms must be bonded to a very electronegative atom, usually
fluorine, nitrogen or oxygen.
Problem 1.55.
Three properties of water that can be attributed to the existence of the hydrogen bond are:
(1) Water is a liquid at room temperature (or the average temperature at the surface of the
Earth). At room temperature, the hydrogen bonds in water are strong enough to hold the
molecules together. If the hydrogen bonds were not present, small molecules like water would
be a gas at room temperature.
(2) The lower density of solid ice compared to liquid water is a consequence of hydrogen
bonding. The extended hydrogen-bonded structure in ice produces more open space between
water molecules than in liquid water, where some of this structure has collapsed. This structure,
which extends in all directions in space, permits the maximum number of hydrogen-bonding
interactions between the H2O molecules. Because the structure has large hexagonal holes, ice is
more open and less dense than the liquid. If the hydrogen bonds were not present, ice would
probably be more dense than the liquid, as is the case for most substances.
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(3) The high specific heat of liquid water is a consequence of extensive hydrogen bonding in the
liquid. Because of the hydrogen bonds, more energy is needed to disrupt the intermolecular
attractions between the molecules in the liquid phase, so addition of energy raises the
temperature of water less (produces less increase in the motion of the molecules) than if the
these bonds did not have to be broken.
Other consequences of the presence of hydrogen bonds among water molecules include high
energy of vaporization and high energy of fusion (melting).
Problem 1.56.
Four hydrogen bonds are possible for one water molecule in a sample of water. The diagram
shows that two of these are formed by the molecules own hydrogen atomic cores attracted to
the nonbonding electrons on two other molecules and two are formed by the attraction of its
nonbonding electrons to the hydrogen atomic cores of two more molecules.
Problem 1.57
(a) Four hydrogen bonds are possible for one ammonia molecule in a sample of liquid
ammonia. This diagram shows that three of these are formed by the molecules own hydrogen
atomic cores attracted to the nonbonding electrons on three other molecules and one is formed
by the attraction of its nonbonding electrons to the hydrogen atomic cores of another molecule.
H
N
H
H
H
H
H
80
N H
H
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(b) Compare Figure 1.27 or the diagram above in Problem 1.56, which show the maximum
hydrogen bonding for water, with the drawing in part (a), which shows the maximum hydrogen
bonding for an ammonia molecule. Every water molecule in a collection of water molecules is
capable of forming four hydrogen bonds because it donates as many nonbonding pairs (2) as
hydrogen atomic cores (2). The situation for ammonia is quite different. While an individual
ammonia molecule is capable of forming four hydrogen bonds, not all molecules in a sample of
liquid ammonia can do this. It requires a nonbonding pair of electrons to form a hydrogen bond
and there is only one nonbonding pair per ammonia molecule. The imbalance of hydrogen
atomic cores (3) to nonbonding pairs of electrons (1) means that, on average, a mole of
ammonia molecules will form only one mole of hydrogen bonds. There simply arent enough
nonbonding pairs of electrons for every available hydrogen atomic core.
Problem 1.58.
In order to exist as a liquid at room temperature, a substance must have a boiling point above
room temperature, which is about 20-25 C. The smallest linear hydrocarbon to fit this
description is pentane (CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3), which the data on the graph in Consider This
1.23 show has a boiling point of about 35 C. The next smaller hydrocarbon, butane
(CH3CH2CH2CH3), has a boiling point of about 0 C.
Problem 1.59.
(a) The plot in Figure 1.24 with the noble gases added looks like this:
100
IV
Boiling Point, deg C
50
VI
VII
-50
VIII
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
0
10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Number of Electrons/Molecule
90
The periods 2 through 5 group-VIII noble gases follow a trend that is remarkably similar to the
group IV hydrides except 50-80 C lower in boiling point. The trend continues to period 6, but
there are no hydrides for comparison. (The period 6, group IV element is bismuth, which is
metallic and does not form a tetrahydride.) There is, of course, no period 1, group IV element,
so no comparison with helium is possible either.
(b) The symmetry (spherical or near-spherical) of the group VIII noble gases and the group IV
hydrides gives them small surface areas and charge symmetry, which makes the induced dipole
attractions among the atoms or molecules relatively weak and accounts for their low boiling
points. The nuclear charge on the noble gases is four units higher than the central atom in the
corresponding period hydride, which holds the electrons closer to the nucleus, reduces the
surface area of the atom relative to the hydride and results in even weaker induced dipole
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attractions, so the boiling points are substantially lower. This is the trend we see also in the
group VII hydrides, which might have been expected to have higher boiling points than either
the group V or VI (if the trend from IV to V to VI was followed), but have lower boiling points
(at least for periods 4 and 5) than the group V hydrides.
Problem 1.60.
pentane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
bp = 36 C
H HH H
H
H
C
C
C
C
C
H
H
H H H H
isopentane
(CH3)2CHCH2CH3
bp = 28 C
neopentane
C(CH3)4
bp = 10 C
H H
C HH H
H
C
C
C
H
H C
H H H
H H
H
H
C
C
H
H
C
H
C
C
H
H H H
Although the molecular masses (and molecular volumes) are the same for all three isomers,
their surface areas are not. As the degree of branching of the carbon skeleton increases, the
surface area decreases. As the surface area decreases, the contact with neighboring molecules
decreases, thus reducing the dispersion forces between molecules. Boiling points of
hydrocarbons are a consequence of dispersion forces and those forces exist across the entire
surface of a molecule (page 27). You may recall from geometry that a sphere is the geometric
solid with the lowest surface area to volume ratio. Examine your molecular models of the three
isomers and you will find that neopentane most nearly resembles a sphere. Pentane has no
skeletal branches and has the greatest surface area and the greatest boiling point of the three.
Problem 1.61.
Figure 1.29 shows that the density of liquid water at 85 C is about 968 g L1 (= 0.968 g cm3).
The density of ice is 0.917 g cm3. Ice is much less dense even than hot water and will float
(until it melts) in hot water. Try the experiment.
Problem 1.62.
(a) 4 C is the temperature at which liquid water at normal atmospheric pressure has its
maximum density, Figure 1.29, which explains why it sinks to the bottom of the container.
(b) Warming the water will reduce its density, and the warmer water would be buoyed up and
rise. Since the thermal energy is entering the water at the walls of the container, it is the water
next to the walls that increases in temperature and rises until it gets near the top where it
encounters the ice and is cooled as it melts some of the ice. When water near the top of the
container, which is close to 0 C, is warmed, its density increases and it sinks in the container.
The net effect of these actions is to create currents of sinking water in the temperature range 0
to 4-5 C and rising water with a temperature above about 5 C. The rising warmer water is
cooled as it mixes with water near the top of the container and, when its temperature falls below
4 C, it begins to sink. The net effect is a circulation of the water in the container with rising
warmer water near the walls of the container and sinking colder water near the middle of the
container. The circulation is driven by the thermal energy from the warmer surroundings of the
room entering the ice-water mixture.
(c) If the explanation above is correct, the constant temperature measured at the bottom of the
container is not the temperature of the same batch of water molecules, but of a constantly
changing batch of water molecules as the warmed water is buoyed up and the cooler water
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sinks. If the temperatures at the walls and in the center of the container are measured at the same
height in the container, there might be a detectable difference, with the wall water at
temperature above 5 C and the center below 5 C. If a drop of dye could be added to the water
without disturbing whatever circulation has been set up, the movement of the dye could trace
the circulation over time. More elaborate set ups have been devised to check whether this
circulation occurs. A search of the web could turn up some of them for you.
Problem 1.63.
Investigate This 1.30 partially mimics the situation represented for Winter in this figure, with
ice at the top of the lake/container and the densest 4 C water at the bottom. This is a relatively
stable system with less dense ice and water floating on more dense water. When the sun gets
higher in the sky and the air warms up in the spring, the ice melts, water at the surface begins to
warm and become more dense as it approaches 4 C and begins to sink (as described for
Investigate This 1.30 in the solution for Problem 1.62). As the temperature of the lake water
rises to about 4 C, winds at the surface can begin to stir the water, all of which is now of about
the same density. This causes the mixing of nutrients shown in the Spring panel of the figure.
In the Summer, the sunlight and the warm air continue to warm the water and a new relatively
stable layering of the water occurs with the water that is warmer, above 4 C, in the top layers of
the lake. This layering is stable enough that winds do little to disturb it and there is little mixing
within the lake. As the sun gets lower in the sky and the air temperature decreases in the Fall,
the top layers of the lake cool once again and sink and mix as the water again comes to its most
dense temperature, 4 C. During this period, the density and temperature profile of the lake are
changing to the more uniform distribution shown and wind at the surface is again effective in
stirring the water and producing another nutrient turnover. The upshot of all this is that the
nutrients from the surface (including oxygen) and from the bottom of the lake (minerals) mix
with one another and help to provide what is necessary to sustain life throughout the lake.
Without this mixing, the lake would become stagnant and dead.
Problem 1.64.
(a) The shorter bond length, 100 pm, is associated with the
intramolecular covalent bonds within the water molecule. The
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longer bond length, 180 pm, is associated with the intermolecular hydrogen bonds between
partial positively and partial negatively charged regions of different molecules.
(b) In an isolated water molecule, the covalent OH bond length is 94 pm. This represents the
bond length associated with sharing of a pair of electrons between the hydrogen and oxygen
atomic cores without attractions to other charge centers. The hydrogen bond forms when the
hydrogen atomic core is attracted to a nonbonding pair of electrons on another water molecule.
There is already strong attraction by its covalent electron pair, so the atomic core is pulled only
a small distance, about 6 pm, from this pair and shares only a small amount of the electron
density from the second water molecule, so is not attracted as close to the second pair of
electrons. Thus, the hydrogen bond is considerably longer and weaker than the covalent bond.
Compound
mp, C
Problem 1.65.
CH4
182
Essentially the same explanation is possible for the variation of the
NH3
77.7
melting points of the second period hydrides as for their boiling
points. The structure of solid water, Figure 1.28(c), shows that each
H2O
0
water molecule is hydrogen bonded to four others. Methane forms
HF
83.1
no hydrogen bonds and is only held together by induced dipole
attractions (weak in this small molecule) in the solid (and liquid), so it melts at quite a low
temperature. Ammonia and hydrogen fluoride form hydrogen bonds, but cant form as many (per
mole) as water. Any individual molecule could form four hydrogen bonds, but an extended
structure for these molecules is not possible (see Problem 1.57 solution). A plot of the melting
point data as a function of number of nonbonding electron pairs in the molecule looks like this:
0
H2O
-40
NH3
-80
HF
-120
-160
CH4
0
1
2
3
Number
-200of nonbonding electron pa
One could argue that H2O is in line with CH4 and NH3. The melting points increase as the
number of nonbonding electron pairs, which means, more importantly, the amount of hydrogen
bonding increases. HF might be seen as out of line, but only if the extent of hydrogen bonding
is neglected. On the other hand, the similar melting points of NH3 and HF can be explained as a
result of about the same amount of hydrogen bonding possible in the two substances. In this
case, H2O is out of line because it has a higher melting point, but, since it has more hydrogen
bonding, it would be expected to have more attractions and a higher melting point. Arguments
about what value is out of line are all based on predictions or trends that look at only one
causative parameter (number of electrons, number of nonbonding electron pairs, number of H
bonds, etc.). Since observable properties are the result of many molecular-level interactions and
phenomena, it isnt surprising to find that any one of them cant explain everything.
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Problem 1.66.
At the Tm, many of the hydrogen bonds holding together the two strands of the DNA helix,
Figure 1.34, break and the strands begin to come apart to
form more flexible chains that can curl upon themselves
to form structures that are more globular and less
resistant to flow. Thus, the viscosity of the solution
decreases. The spectroscopic properties (light
absorption) by base pairs stacked one upon the other in
the double helix are quite different than the free bases.
The absorption of light (in the ultraviolet) changes
markedly as the double helix comes apart and the bases
are no longer stacked.
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Chapter 1
Problem 1.67.
In Section 1.9, you learn that there are three hydrogen bonds
between GC base pairs and two between AT base pairs.
Therefore, more energy is required to break a GC pairing than
an AT pairing. Higher temperatures (greater thermal energy in
the solution) are required to melt DNA with higher
proportions of GC (or lower proportions of AT) pairs. Thus
the Tm decreases as the proportion of AT increases, as shown in
the figure.
Problem 1.68.
When a solid such as ice melts, the temperature of the solid-liquid mixture remains constant
until all of the solid has melted. The change from the hydrogen-bonded double helix to separate
strands occurs over a rather short temperature range when the hydrogen bonds in DNA break at
the melting temperature. This relatively sharp change in properties, especially the change in
flow characteristics, within a few degree temperature change is the DNA analogy to melting.
Problem 1.69.
The larger the number of interactions among the amino acids along the protein chain, the more
energy will be required to disrupt the folded structure of the protein. These interactions could be
hydrogen bonds, ionic attractions between charged groups (Chapter 2), and/or hydrophobic
interactions that stabilize the folded structure by keeping hydrophobic groups inside the
structure away from water (Chapters 2 and 6). The more such interactions, the higher the
temperature required to provide enough thermal energy to disrupt the protein structure. We
might predict that microorganisms that live in hot springs and organisms that live near deep
ocean thermal vents survive at high temperatures because their proteins have evolved structures
that have more of these interactions, including hydrogen bonds. [See Burg, Vriend, Veltman,
Venema, and Eijsink, Engineering an enzyme to resist boiling, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 1997,
95, 2056-2060, for a discussion of this point.]
Problem 1.70.
The same kind of reasoning as in Problem 1.69 applies to thermophilic DNA. The more
attraction between strands, the more thermally stable the DNA (as in Problem 1.67). Thus, you
expect the thermophiles to have a high proportion of GC (with three H bonds). This is
observed.
Problem 1.71.
(a) Cotton clothing gets wrinkled by
being worn and forced to conform to
the shape of its wearer and other forces
like chair seats. These forces on the
fibers cause them to be bent and pushed and pulled into shapes that breaks some H-bonds and
makes others. When the forces are no longer acting, say when the clothing is removed, the new
H-bonds hold the fibers in the positions they had taken during the time the clothing was worn.
Since many of these involve the folding and creasing that goes with our movements, the fabric
is now folded and creased on a small scale, that is, wrinkled.
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(b) Ironing has two effects. The heat of the iron helps to make the H-bonds break more readily.
The mass of the iron forces the fabric flat so that H-bonds that are remade are now holding the
fabric flat. Thus the wrinkles are removed and the press restored.
(c) To make the fabric permanent press, you want to keep the cellulose chains in the positions
they have in the fiber in the unwrinkled fabric. Since the H-bonds are too weak to accomplish
this, you need to find a way to bond the chains to one another. You might do this with reagents
that react with OH groups that are close to one another to form a permanent bond holding
them together.
(d) Since the softness of cotton comes from the ability of the cellulose chains and fiber made
from them to change shape easily, preventing these easy changes will make the fabric less soft.
Thus, bonding the chains together, as suggested in part (c) would probably make the fabric less
soft.
Problem 1.72.
Energy is required to overcome the intermolecular forces that hold molecules in position with
respect to one another when a substance changes from a solid to a liquid or in close proximity in
the change from a liquid to a gas. In the reverse processes (freezing and condensation), energy
is released as the intermolecular forces again begin to dominate. The reverse process is like
making bonds between the molecules. Although these are transient bonding interactions like
dispersion interactions and hydrogen bonding, there are many such interactions and can result in
a substantial release of energy to the surroundings as the system goes to lower energy.
Problem 1.73.
In each case, the conversion from one unit to another can most easily be made using a unit
conversion factor (or factors) to convert the numeric value of the quantity.
1 kJ
(a) 4550 J = (4550 J)
= 4.55 kJ
1000 J
1 cal
(b) 250. J = (250. J)
= 59.8 cal
4.184 J
1000 cal 4.184 J
(c) 500. Cal = (500. Cal)
= 2.09 106 J
1 Cal 1 cal
Problem 1.74.
(a) Following across the diagram at the normal atmospheric
pressure of 760 mmHg, we observe, as expected, that water will
be in the solid phase below 0 C, in the liquid phase from 0 C
up to a temperature of 100 C, and then in the gaseous phase
from 100 C and above. The phase diagram represents a great
deal more information about the phase of water at different
temperatures and pressures than these with which we are most
familiar.
(b) As water changes from the gaseous phase to the liquid phase, its energy decreases. This
means that E (= El Eg) will be less than zero; its sign is negative.
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(c) As water changes from the liquid phase to the solid phase, its energy decreases. This means
that E (= Es El) will be less than zero; its sign is negative.
Problem 1.75.
Energy diagrams are shown that represent each process. Red arrows are used to represent
changes that require energy (E > 0) and blue arrows for changes that release energy (E < 0).
(a) H2O(s) H2O(l), at 0 C. E > 0 for the sample.
(b) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) + energy
(c) energy + 2HgO(s) 2Hg(l) + O2(g)
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(d) 2Hg(l) + O2(g) 2HgO(s) + energy
(e) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l): E < 0
Problem 1.76.
See Worked Example 1.42 and Check This 1.43 in which similar calculations were done for
water and hexane. Since 1 kJ = 103 J and 1 kcal = 103 cal, the numerical relationship between
kilojoules and kilocalories is the same as that between joules and calories, 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ. If
the amount of energy required to vaporize methanol is 1.22 kJg1, the number of kcal required
to vaporize one gram of methanol is:
1 kcal
= 0.292 kcalg1
energy = 1.22 kJg1 = (1.22 kJg1)
4.184 kJ
Problem 1.77.
Note that a formula unit of dimethyl ether and a formula unit of ethanol both contain the same
number of moles of the elements: carbon (2), hydrogen (6), and oxygen (1), that is, C2H6O.
Therefore, the molar mass is identical for each substance:
12.01 g
= 24.02 g
2 mol C = (2 mol C)
1 mol C
1.0079 g
6 mol H = (6 mol H)
= 6.05 g
1 mol H
16.00 g
1 mol O = (1 mol O)
= 16.00 g
1 mol O
molar mass of (a) CH3OCH3 or (b) CH3CH2OH = 46.07 g
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Chapter 1
Problem 1.78.
(a) The number of molecules of water in exactly one mole of water is:
6.022 10 23 molecules
23
1 mol H2O = (1 mol H2O)
= 6.022 10 molecules
1 mol
(b) The number of grams of water in exactly one mole of water is:
18.02 g
1 mol H2O = (1 mol H2O)
= 18.02 g
1 mol H2 O
Problem 1.79.
(a) The molar mass acetone, C3H6O, (to the uncertainty of this mass datum) is:
12.01 g
1.0079 g
16.00 g
+ (6 mol H)
+ (1 mol O)
molar mass = (3 mol C)
1 mol C
1 mol H
1 mol O
= 36.03 g + 6.05 g + 16.00 g = 58.08 g

Thus, the number of moles in 100.0 g of acetone is:
1 mol acetone
= 1.722 mol acetone
100.0 g acetone = (100.0 g acetone)
58.08 g acetone
(b) The number of moles in 100.0 g of methanol, CH3OH (or CH4O), is:
1 mol methanol
100.0 g methanol = (100.0 g methanol)
= 3.121 mol methanol
32.04 g methanol
(c) The number of moles in 100.0 g of dimethyl ether, CH3OCH3 (or C2H6O), is:
1 mol dimethyl ether

100.0 g dimethyl ether = (100.0 g dimethyl ether)
46.07 g dimethyl ether
= 2.171 mol dimethyl ether
(d) The number of moles in 100.0 g of sucrose, C12H22O6, is [see Check This 1.48(a)]:
1 mol sucrose
100.0 g sucrose = (100.0 g sucrose)
= 0.2921 mol sucrose
342.3 g sucrose
Problem 1.80.
The number of molecules in one gram of a pure substance is proportional to the number of
moles of the substance in one gram. The unit conversion factor is obtained from the relationship
between moles and molecules: 1 mol = 6.022 1023 molec. For 1 gram (assumed to be an exact
value to at least four significant figures of uncertainty) of water (H2O), methanol (CH4O),
acetone C3H6O), ethanol (C2H6O), and dimethyl ether (C2H6O), we have:
23
1 mol 6.022 10 molec

= 3.342 1022 molec
1 g H2O = (1 g H2 O)
1 H2 O
18.02 g H2 O
6.022 10 23 molec
1 mol
1 g CH4O = (1 g CH4O)
= 1.880 1022 molec
32.04 g CH4 O
1 mol
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6.022 10 23 molec
1 mol
22
1 g C3H6O = (1 g C3H6O)
= 1.037 10 molec
58.08 g C 3H 6 O
1 mol
6.022 10 23 molec
1 mol
1 g C2H6O (ethanol) = (1 g C2H6O)
1 mol
46.07 g C2 H6 O
= 1.307 1022 molec

1 g C2H6O (dimethyl ether) = 1.307 1022 molec
Problem 1.81.
To find the length of the line formed by a mole of argon atoms (each with a diameter of
approximately 100 pm) lined up one after another, we have to multiply the number of atoms in a
mole times the diameter of each atom (converted to meters):
23
100 pm 1 m 6.022 10 molec
length =
= 6.02 1013 m
1 molec 1012 pm
1 mol
To give a little concrete meaning to this length, it can be compared with the distance to our Sun:
1.5 1010 m (= 93 million miles). The percentage that the length of the line of argon atoms is to
the distance to the sun is:
6.02 1013 m
(100%) = 4 105% the distance to our Sun
% of sun distance = =
10
1.5 10 m
Another way to state this result is to think about the number of times the line of argon atoms
could be folded back and forth to make round trips from the Earth to the Sun. Our line of argon
6.02 1013 m
atoms would be able to make about 2 103 =
round trips to the Sun!
10
2 (1.5 10 m )
Problem 1.82.
(a) If each H atom in ice stopped hydrogen bonding, all the H bonds would be gone. Anything
that is true of relative numbers of molecules is also true of relative numbers of moles of those
molecules. Each H atom represents one H bond; each mole of H atoms represents one mole of H
bonds. Each molecule of water(ice) has two H atoms; each mole of water(ice) has two moles of
H atoms. Therefore, there are two moles of H bonds in one mole of ice.
(b) Assume that the energy required to break H bonds is approximately 21 kJ(mol H bonds)-1.
Further, assume that the energy required to melt ice, 6.02 kJ(mol ice)-1, is all used to break H
bonds. The number of moles of H bonds broken by this much energy is then:
1
6.02 kJ (mol ice)

-1
mole H bonds broken =
1 = 0.29 (mol H bond)(mol ice)
21 kJ (mol H bond)
Thus, 0.29 mol of H bonds is broken when one mole of ice melts. Since there are two moles of
H bonds in a mole of ice, the percentage of total H-bonds broken is:
mol H bond broken
% H-bonds broken =
100%
mol H bond total
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0.29 (mol H bond) (mol ice) 1

=
1 100% = 15%
2 (mol H bond) (mol ice)
Our approach has been to assume that the ratio of the energy required to melt ice to the energy
required to break all the H bonds in the ice would give the fraction of H bonds broken in the
melting process. Our result indicates that only 15% of the total number of hydrogen bonds is
broken when ice melts. That means most of the H-bonds are still present even though the water
has changed from a solid to a liquid. This is one of the results that leads to an ice cluster (or
iceberg) model of liquid water (see Problem 1.103).
Problem 1.83.
Self hydrogen bonding requires that a molecule of the compound have both (1) a nonbonding
pair of electrons on an oxygen or a nitrogen atom and (2) an OH or NH bond (or bonds).
Water(a), methanol(b), and ethanol(d) can self hydrogen bond, because the molecules of each
compound have these essential features for hydrogen bonding. Acetone(c) and dimethyl ether(e)
molecules lack OH bonds. (They are capable of hydrogen bonding with water or other
molecules with OH or NH bonds, but not with themselves.) The solution to Problem 1.56
shows the hydrogen bonding among water molecules. The hydrogen bonding among methanol
(and ethanol) molecules is shown here:
Ethanol is like methanol with the CH3 group replaced by CH2CH3.

Problem 1.84.
Since molecules of dimethyl ether (CH3OCH3) and diethyl ether (CH3CH2OCH2CH3) cannot
hydrogen bond with themselves, intermolecular interactions are limited to dipole attractions and
dispersion forces. On a molar basis, both ethers have an equal number of polar CO bonds.
Therefore, dipolar interactions cannot be responsible for the 60 C difference in boiling points.
Dispersion forces (induced dipole interactions) must be the factor largely responsible for the
higher boiling point of the larger ether, which has 16 more electrons than the smaller.
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Problem 1.85.
Dipole-dipole attractions must be a major contributor to the forces holding acetone molecules
together in the liquid. Because the acetone dipole moment (2.88 D) is so much larger than that
of dimethyl ether (1.30 D), the polar attractions are much stronger between acetone molecules
and its boiling point is 81 degrees higher. The presence of the extra atom of carbon and its six
electrons cannot increase the induced dipole attractions enough to account for such a large
difference in boiling points, although they do contribute some to the difference. The energy of
vaporization for acetone is intermediate between dimethyl ether and ethanol. The ethanol dipole
moment is smaller than that of acetone, but the hydrogen bonding in ethanol raises its boiling
point and energy of vaporization above those of acetone. Although acetone has a molar mass
that is lower than that of hexane, its energy of vaporization and boiling point are comparable to
hexane. The dipole-dipole attractions in acetone (with a total of only 32 electrons) add to the
induced dipole attractions among its molecules to make the attractions comparable to the larger
number of induced dipole attractions among hexane molecules (with a total of 50 electrons).
Problem 1.86.
Specific heat is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1C (or
1 K).
Problem 1.87.
An intensive property is independent of the amount of the substance present; examples are
density and temperature. An extensive property depends on the amount of substance present;
examples are mass and thermal energy.
Problem 1.88.
(a) The boiling point of water is an intensive quantity, since it is independent of the amount of
water we have.
(b) The density of water is an intensive quantity, since it is independent of the amount of water
we have. Often, an intensive property can be the ratio of two extensive properties. Density
(intensive), for example, is the ratio of mass and volume (both extensive properties).
(c) The specific heat of water is an intensive quantity, since it is independent of the amount of
water we have.
(d) The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in a sample of water (two) is an intensive quantity,
since it is independent of the amount of water we have.
(e) The (maximum) solubility of salt in water is an intensive quantity, if the solubility is
expressed as a ratio of the quantity of salt to a standard quantity of water. Solubility is typically
expressed as a ratio of mass (or moles) of substance dissolved to volume of substance in which
it is dissolved (see Chapter 2). It is an extensive quantity, if the solubility is expressed simply as
the quantity of salt dissolved, since then the amount of water we have makes a difference.
Problem 1.89.
To convert t C = 37.0 C to kelvin, use the conversion shown in the marginal note on page 54
of the textbook:
37.0 C = (37.0 + 273.15) K = 310.2 K
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Problem 1.90.
The specific heat of water is used to calculate the amount of energy required to increase the
temperature of a given mass of water by a given amount. The specific heat can be expressed as
4.18 Jg1C1 or 4.18 Jg1K1, because 1 C = 1 K. The thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of 1.0 gram of water by:
(a) 10.0 C is (4.18 Jg1C1)(1.0 g)(10.0 C) = 41.8 J = 42 J
The final result is given to only two figures, because the uncertainty in the mass of water is
about 1 part in 10 (10%), if we assume that the final place in its numeric value is good to about
one digit.
(b) 25.0 C is (4.18 Jg1C1)(1.0 g)(25.0 C) = 104.5 J = 1.0 102 J
(c) 25.0 K is (4.18 Jg1K1)(1.0 g)(25.0 K) = 1.0 102 J
Problem 1.91.
The use of the specific heat of water to calculate the amount of energy required to increase the
temperature of a given mass of water by a given amount is shown in Problem 1.90. Here we
calculate the thermal energy required to raise the temperature of two samples by 10.0 C.
(a) A 10.0 g sample of water requires (4.18 Jg1C1)(10.0 g)(10.0 C) = 418 J
(b) A 25.0 g sample of water requires (4.18 Jg1C1)(25.0 g)(10.0 C) = 1.05 103 J
Problem 1.92.
The same approach as in Problems 1.90 and 1.91 is applicable here, using the specific heat of
1-propanol, 2.39 Jg1C1, from Table 1.3 in the textbook. The thermal energy required to raise
the temperature of 20.0 grams of 1-propanol by 15.0 C is (2.39 Jg1C1)(20.0 g)(15.0 C) =
717 J.
Problem 1.93.
The air conditioning system described in this problem is based on the principle of evaporative
cooling. As the hot air flows over the mats, heat is transferred from the air molecules to the
water, the air loses heat energy, and the temperature of the air falls. The heat energy transferred
to the water causes some of the water to evaporate into the air. The heat required to vaporize the
water is quite substantial (recall the high energy of vaporization of water) so a relatively small
amount of evaporation can remove a lot of heat from the air. In areas of low humidity this
system would have the added advantage of increasing the humidity in the air in the building.
Conversely in regions of high humidity this method of air conditioning might not be as
advantageous since increasing the humidity could result in increased levels of mold and mildew
and might cause damage to sensitive instrumentation from the damp. It also wouldnt work well
in high humidity;
Problem 1.94.
Evaporative cooling should be more effective on dry days than humid days since the amount of
water that can evaporate into the atmosphere depends upon the amount of water already in the
atmosphere. If theres a lot of water there already, on a humid day for example, then the amount
of sweat that can evaporate will be relatively low. This is because at a given temperature the
atmosphere can only hold a certain amount of water, on humid days the atmosphere is near
this saturation limit. (If the limit is exceeded, water condenses or precipitates out of the air. The
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relative humidity that your TV weatherperson talks about is the percent of water the air
contains relative to the maximum amount it can contain at that temperature.) Little water will
evaporate and therefore not much evaporative cooling will occur.
Problem 1.95.
Our model of liquid water says that heat energy added to the water makes the molecules move
faster (increases the temperature) and causes some H bonds to be broken. The temperature rise
is not as large as it would be in the absence of the H-bond breaking and the specific heat (or
heat capacity) is high because it takes more heat to make a given change in temperature. Heat
energy added to ice at temperatures below 0 C (so the solid does not melt), breaks no H-bonds;
the energy only causes the molecules to move faster as they vibrate and jiggle in the position
they are held by their four H bonds. All the energy added goes to raising the temperature
(increasing molecular motion); it takes less heat to make a given change in temperature and the
heat capacity is lower than for liquid water.
Problem 1.96.
The high heat capacity of liquid water is reviewed in the solution to Problem 1.95. Gases
occupy so much more space than the same amount of liquid, that we either have to assume that
the molecules get a lot bigger or that they are far apart and probably not interacting with each
other very much. Gases are all completely miscible (they mix in any proportion) with one
another, so the model that has a lot of empty space between molecules seems to fit this property
better. If this model is correct, then we would expect essentially no H bonds between water
molecules in the gas phase. If there are no H bonds all the heat energy we put into the gas goes
into increasing the speed of molecular motion (temperature). It takes less heat energy to make a
given change in temperature and the heat capacity of the gas is less than that of the liquid. Note
that the heat capacities of solid and gaseous water are similar (about half that of liquid water, as
given in this problem and in Problem 1.95). This similarity is fortuitous; the molecular motions
involved in the temperature changes in the solid and the gas are different. In the solid, the
molecular motion is mainly vibration and rocking in place in the crystal. In the gas, the motions
are mainly translation (movement from one place to another) and rotation.
Problem 1.97.
At higher temperatures, water molecules have greater energy of motion and fewer H bonds. It
takes less energy to vaporize water at a higher temperature because there are fewer H bonds to
break. For water molecules to vaporize they must escape from the liquid. The more hydrogen
bonds holding them in the liquid phase, the more energy this process will take. In addition to
understanding the direction of this phenomenon, you should also note its magnitude. The heat
of vaporization decreases from about 10.7 kcalmol1 at 0 C to about 9.7 kcalmol1 at 100 C.
This is only a 10% change over the entire liquid range. The plot shown with this problem might
give the impression that the change is much larger. What choice of scale would you use to show
that the change is actually a relatively small percentage of the total?
Problem 1.98.
The expression slow as molasses in January owes its truth to viscosity. Viscosity measures the
resistance of fluids to flow. The greater the viscosity, the more slowly the liquid flows. The
viscosity of a liquid usually decreases as temperature increases. Therefore, molasses would flow
faster in June than it does in January.
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Problem 1.99.
[The sticky-ended molecules in this problem were described in Science 1997, 278, 658.]
(a) The scale on both axes of the first plot shown in the problem is logarithmic. The
concentration axis covers a factor of 10 in concentration, while the viscosity axis covers a factor
of 104 (from about 0.1 to 1000 for the experimental results shown). The viscosity increases from
about .08 to about 800 on this scale, which is a factor of 104. As more and more of the stickyended molecules are dissolved, longer and longer chains of them are formed. The chains attract
one another by dipole and induced-dipole interactions and also can become entangled with one
another. All these attractions make it harder for the chains to move past one another, so the
viscosity increases.
(b) For the same reasons that the viscosity of water decreases with increasing temperature, these
solutions should show decreasing viscosity with temperature. The hydrogen bonding is
disrupted as the molecules become more energetic and move faster.
(c) The second plot in the problem shows that, as the fraction of molecules with only one sticky
end increases, the viscosity decreases. There is a competition among the sticky ends for one
another. If molecules with two sticky ends hydrogen bond to one another, a longer chain is
formed that has a higher viscosity and could add more double-ended molecules to make even
longer chains. But, if a molecule with one sticky end hydrogen bonds to a molecule with two
sticky ends, the chain can no longer continue to grow at the end where the bonding occurs. As
more and more of the molecules present have only one sticky end, the probability that chain
growth will be stunted grows and the chains are smaller. The smaller chains give the solution a
lower viscosity. The rapid decrease in the viscosity for rather small amounts of the single-ended
molecule added, show that it doesnt take much stunting of the growth of the chains to have a
large effect on the viscosity.
Problem 1.100.
The data for viscosity of heptane (left-hand plot) and for water (right-hand plot) are shown
together here for ease of comparison.
The axes on both plots are identical as is the reference point (viscosity at 20 C) for the relative
viscosity. Therefore, the shape and placement of the two curves can be directly compared. The
viscosity of both substances decreases with temperature. Higher temperature means more
average energy per molecule; it is easier for the molecules to overcome the attractions between
them and therefore move past one another more readily. The low temperature relative viscosity
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of heptane is low compared to water and its decrease with temperature is less pronounced than
for water. The attractions among heptane molecules are induced dipole interactions (dispersion
forces), which are relatively weak to begin with and remain about the same as the temperature
increases the motions of the molecules, so there is a relatively gradual decrease in viscosity. The
relative viscosity of water undergoes a much steeper decrease with temperature. The stronger,
more directed hydrogen bonds, that are responsible for much of the high viscosity at low
temperatures are disrupted at higher temperatures and the increased motion of the water
molecules makes these directed bonds less likely to form at higher temperatures. Thus, the drop
in relative viscosity for water is more than twice what is observed for heptane.
Problem 1.101.
(a) Water needs heat from your skin to evaporate. You experience a cooling effect after walking
out of the ocean onto a warm, sandy beach, especially on a breezy day, because, while
supplying the heat for water to change from a liquid to a gas, you feel a cooling effect on your
skin.
(b) The molecules in liquids are attracted to one another and stay close together, which is
similar to the way they behave in solids. But describing a liquid as a "disordered" solid could be
a bit misleading, because this might cause us to think that the molecules in the liquid remain
pretty much in the same location (although tumbling about and not as firmly attracted to one
another), as they do in the solid. However, the molecules in liquids are free to move around
from place to place anywhere in the volume they occupy, while still staying close together.
(c) The fact that the molecules in a liquid can move around from place to place makes them
similar to gases. The molecules in gases are very far apart, moving essentially independently of
one another. Since there are many more molecules in a given volume of a liquid compared to
the same volume of a gas, liquids might be described as "dense gases. This could be a bit
misleading, if we are led to think that the molecules in the liquid are as independent of one
another as they are in the gas phase. The attractions between molecules in the liquid have to be
reasonably large, in order to keep them in the liquid phase.
(d) Solid water (ice) floats on liquid water because the density of liquid water is greater than the
density of ice. The relatively open structure of the hydrogen-bonded network of water
molecules in ice occupies a larger volume than the same molecules in the liquid phase where
some of the hydrogen bonds have broken. Thus, ice is less dense (less matter in a given volume)
than liquid water.
(e) During condensation of a gas to a liquid, a great deal of energy is released to the
surroundings. This is why you can be badly burned by steam, if it condenses to water on your
skin.
(f) When lakes freeze during the winter, ice covers the top of the liquid water. Since ice is less
dense than liquid water, ice floats and does not fall to the bottom of the lake. Thus, to form
more (thinker) ice heat must leave the layer of water just beneath the surface ice. Solid ice is a
pretty good thermal insulator, so this is a slow process and only very shallow bodies of water
(like ice-skating rinks, which are cooled from the bottom to avoid the insulator effect, or
puddles) freeze completely to the bottom.
(g) When water freezes in pipes, the ice expands due to the larger volume of ice compared to
liquid water [see part (d)]. This causes the pipes to break. See Consider This 1.2(b) and the Web
Companion, Chapter 1, Section 1.1, page 3.
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Problem 1.102.
[Keep a bottle of water at your desk and take frequent sips from it. One-third of water is
oxygen, so drinking it will help keep you alert, is from Working Smart, Vitality, October
1997 (Vitality Inc., Dallas, TX), as quoted in a Chemical & Engineering News, Newscripts
column.]
This is not a profound problem, but is designed to suggest being on the lookout for
extraordinary claims like this one. On an atom basis, one third of the atoms in water are oxygen,
so the text is correct in one way. It seems that the claim is something about the alertnessenhancing qualities of oxygen. You do need oxygen molecules from the air to keep your
metabolism going and you get tired more easily, if the oxygen level drops somewhat. (Thats
why you feel stress when exerting yourself at high altitude, before your body acclimates to the
lower pressure of air and, hence, of oxygen in the air.) The oxygen atoms in water are, however,
totally unavailable for you to use in metabolism. They are bound in very stable molecules. The
best one can say about this claim is that it cant hurt to drink some water and it is free (unless
you are drinking designer waters from the supermarket or other vending source), that is,
nothing is being sold here.
Problem 1.103.
[The data for this problem are from Science 1997, 278, 658.]
(a) The iceberg model for liquid water has some of the water molecules hydrogen bonded in
molecular-scale ice-like structures with the water molecules held in place in the network of H
bonds and others that are less orderly and more mobile with fewer H bonds to hold them with
respect to one another. It makes sense that orderly and disorderly water structures would behave
differently in terms of their ability to randomize the orientation they have been given by the
experimenters.
(b) Since the water molecules locked in an ice-like structure cannot move about
independently, their motions are probably more inhibited and take longer to regain a more
random orientation. Thus, we would expect the shorter randomization time to be characteristic
of the less orderly, more mobile molecules and the longer time characteristic of the molecules in
the ice-like structures.
(c) Note that the time scales of the changes observed here are picoseconds, 1012 s. The
molecules undergo reorientations, which means breaking some hydrogen bonds and making
others in a very short time. Averaged over observation times on the order of seconds (our
everyday contacts with water), such rapid changes make it impossible for us to detect any
differences among the molecules or possible rapidly interchanging structures in the liquid. Only
clever experiments (and calculations) will enable us to get better pictures of the nature of liquid
water.
Problem 1.104.
(a) The fact that a helium-filled balloon will rise in air suggests that helium is a good deal less
dense than air (when both are at the same temperature and pressure). To be buoyed up in a fluid,
an object has to displace a volume of the fluid whose mass is greater than the mass of the object.
In this case the volume of air displaced is the volume of the balloon and the mass of the object
is the mass of the helium plus the mass of the rubber in the balloon, which is substantial. In
order that the helium plus rubber has a mass less than the displaced air, the helium must have a
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mass that is much less than the mass of the displaced air. Helium must be a good deal less dense
than air.
(b) The fact that a hot-air balloon will rise in (colder) air suggests that hot air is less dense than
cold air (when both are at the same pressure). The reasoning is the same here as it is in part (a).
In this case, as you probably know, a hot air balloon is quite large compared to the basket or
gondola in which the passengers ride. It requires a very large volume of hot air to displace a
mass of cooler air larger than the total mass of the object (hot air plus balloon and gondola). Hot
air is less dense than cooler air (at the same pressure), but not a great deal less dense.
(c) The fact that a balloon filled with carbon dioxide will sink in air suggests that carbon dioxide
is either more dense than air (when both are at the same temperature and pressure) or is
comparable in density. The argument in part (a) shows that the sinking balloon plus carbon
dioxide has more mass than the air it displaces. The balloon itself has a substantial mass, so if it
is inflated with a gas that has the same density as air, the combined mass of the balloon and the
air inside will be greater than the mass of the air it displaces and it will sink. (You probably
know that a balloon you blow up with your exhaled air, which has essentially the same density
as the air you inhale, will not float, but sinks, if you let it go.) Thus, the best we can conclude
about the density of carbon dioxide is that it is similar to that of air or possibly greater. (In fact,
carbon dioxide is more dense than air a balloon filled with air will rise in an atmosphere of
carbon dioxide at the same temperature and pressure but the observation presented in this
problem does not provide enough information to draw this conclusion.)
Problem 1.105.
If an astronaut standing on the Moon let go of a helium-filled balloon, it would be pulled by
gravity to the surface. A helium balloon on Earth rises because it floats on the more dense
gases of the Earths atmosphere [see Problem 1.104(a)]. Since there is no atmosphere on the
Moon, there is nothing for the helium balloon to float upon or in.
Problem 1.106.
(a) The (FHF) Lewis structure, F H F
, shows the H atomic core apparently sharing two
pairs of electrons equally with two different F atomic cores. The H atomic core usually shares
only one pair of electrons with another atomic core, or, in other H bonds, we show the sharing
with a second pair as different and weaker than in its covalent bond.
(b) In (FHF), the hydrogen atomic core is equidistant from the two electronegative fluorine
atomic cores which it hydrogen bonds together with a rather high bond energy. In the hydrogen
bond between two water molecules, the bond from the H atomic core to one O atomic core is a
strong covalent bond with the bonding pair shared somewhat equally by the O and H atomic
cores. The bond to the other oxygen is about twice as long and quite weak, with the nonbonding
pair of electrons still largely associated with the O atomic core. The (FHF) ion is likely to be
linear, as we have said the strongest OH---O bonds are as well. In water the formation of the
hydrogen bond stretches the covalent bond from 94 to 100 pm and the H bond to the other
oxygen has a bond length of 180 pm. In the (FHF) ion, the covalent bond from F to H in HF is
stretched from 93 to 113 pm, which is quite a bit more than for the water molecule. The length
of the bond to the second F atomic core, however, is also 113 pm, which is substantially shorter
than the corresponding bond in water and is associated with the high bond energy for formation
of this bond between HF and F. The distance between the second period atomic centers in the
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water hydrogen bond is 280 pm. The corresponding distance in (FHF) is 226 pm, which is very
much smaller and is, again, a reflection of the high bond energy. Bonding in the (FHF) ion
certainly does blur the distinction between a hydrogen bond and a covalent bond. Since the
bonds between the H atomic core and the F atomic cores are identical in this ion, there is no
way to tell which is (or was) the covalent bond and which is the hydrogen bond. The distinction
makes no sense for this ion and suggests that there is a continuum of bonding interactions from
weak induced dipole interactions to strong covalent bonds.
Problem 1.107.
(a) Assume a 70 kg (approximately 150 pound) person. The moles and molecules of water in
this person (70% water) are:
70 10 3 g
mol H2O = (0.7)
= 2.7 103 mol H2O
18 g mol 1
molec H2O = (2.7 103 mol H2O)(6.02 1023 molecmol1) = 1.6 1027 H2O molec
(b) If 2440 O atoms (= number of N atoms) are in compounds other than water, then 23230 (=
25670 2440) O atoms (out of every 100000 atoms) are present in water.
(c) From part (b) we know that 23230 atoms of O are present as H2O molecules for every
100000 atoms in the body. From part (a) we know the number of molecules of H2O in the body,
so we can get the total number of atoms in the body as:
100000 atoms
(1.6 1027 molec) = 6.9 1027 atoms
total # atoms =
23230 H 2 O molec
To get the number of atoms of N and C, we take the fraction of atoms that are N and C times the
total number of atoms:
2440 N atom
atoms N =
(6.9 1027 atom) = 1.7 1026 atom
100000 atom
mol N =
1.7 10 26 atom
2
23
1 = 2.8 10 mol
6.02 10 atom molec
10680 C atom
(6.9 1027 atom) = 7.4 1026 atom
atoms C =
100,000 atom
7.4 1026 atom

3
mol C =
23
1 = 1.2 10 mol
6.02 10 atom molec
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Problem 1.108.
(a) A plot of the data given in the problem looks like this:
45
energy of vaporization, kJ/mol
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10
20
30 40 50 60
electrons/molecule
0
70
80
The equation for the line (computer generated) is:

vaporization energy = (0.49 kJmol1electron1)(# electrons) + 7.3 kJmol1
Since decane has 82 electrons, this equation gives its vaporization energy as:
vaporization energy = (0.49 kJmol1electron1)(82 electrons) + 7.3 kJmol1
= 47 kJmol1.
(b) Each CH2 group adds eight electrons and lengthens the hydrocarbon chain so that more
electrons and more surface area are available for dispersion force (induced dipole) attractions.
The increase of eight electrons adds about 4 kJmol1 [= (8 electron)( 0.5 kJmol1electron1);
from the slope of the line) for each CH2 group added.
(c) Dimethyl ether, with a vaporization energy of 23 kJmol1, has 26 electrons and is similar in
this regard to propane, which has a vaporization energy of 20 kJmol1. We might attribute the
extra 3 kJmol1 energy of vaporization for the ether to dipolar attraction due to the permanent
electric dipole of the molecule.
(d) Diethyl ether, with a vaporization energy of 29.1 kJmol1, has 42 electrons and is similar to
pentane with a vaporization energy of 28 kJmol1. We found in part (c) that an ether might have
an extra 3 kJmol1 energy of vaporization attributable to dipolar attraction, so we might predict
an energy of vaporization of 31 kJmol1 for diethyl ether. It appears that this is an over
correction for the ether with larger alkyl groups, which might interfere with the molecules
ability to orient as readily. The butanol, with a vaporization energy of 45.9 kJmol1, also has 42
electrons and we would again expect a contribution of 28 kJmol1 to the energy of vaporization
from dispersion forces. In addition, the alcohol can form hydrogen bonds and these, according
to our textual analysis of the data in Table 1.2 might contribute an additional 22 kJmol1 to the
energy of vaporization, for a total of 50 kJmol1. Again, our prediction is off by about 8%, but
this is quite good agreement considering the simplicity of our assumptions and the models.
ACS Chemistry FROG
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Chapter 1
Problem 1.109.
(a) The pictures of our three molecules are:
The red arrows show the relative size and direction of the permanent dipole moments for these
molecules.
(b) The bond dipoles are probably approximately proportional to the difference in
electronegativity between the atoms at each end of the bond and directed toward the more
electronegative atom. The electronegativity difference for the NH bonds is 0.8 and the bond
dipole points toward the N. For NF, the electronegativity difference is 1.0 and the bond dipole
points toward the F. For NCl, the electronegativity difference is 0.2 and the bond dipole points
toward the Cl. The NCl bond dipoles are quite small and pointed down toward the base of the
molecule. These bond dipoles combine to give a contribution to the molecular dipole that is
opposite in the direction to what is observed experimentally. We will have to seek another
source for the direction of the NCl3 molecular dipole moment, and the data for the other
molecules might help us find it. The NH and NF bond dipoles are approximately equal in
magnitude (the electronegativity differences are similar), but opposite in direction. In the
absence of other factors affecting the molecular dipole moment, we would expect that NH3 and
NF3 would have approximately the same dipole moments, but in opposite directions, as
observed. However, the dipole moment of NH3 is more than six times larger than that of NF3.
One possible explanation for these results is that there is another large component of the
molecular dipole moment that is in the direction toward the top of the molecules. This
component would add to the NH bond dipoles to create a large dipole moment in the observed
direction. This component would partially counterbalance the NF bond dipoles and
substantially reduce the net molecular dipole moment, but leave the direction toward the base of
the molecule, as observed. What might this component be?
(c) The part of the structures that is common to all three molecules is the nonbonding pair of
electrons on the nitrogen atom. These will help to make the charge distribution unsymmetric
and skewed toward a negative region at the top of the molecule. Perhaps these nonbonding
electrons are the component of the molecular dipole moment we have postulated in part (b). A
crude calculation can help us see whether this might be the case. Let x be the total contribution
of the three NH bond dipoles to the molecular dipole moment in NH3 and let x be the total
contribution of the three NF bond dipoles to the molecular dipole moment in NF3. This
assumes that the size of the NH and NF bond dipoles is the same, but in opposite directions.
Let y be the contribution of the nonbonding electron pair on the nitrogen atom. Thus, we can
write, x + y = 1.47 D and x + y = 0234 D. If we add these two equations and solve the
resulting equation for y, we get y = 0.62 D, and, hence, x = 0.85 D. If we let z be the total
contribution of the three NCl bond dipoles to the molecular dipole moment in NCl3, then
z + y = 0.39 D, and z = 0.23 D. This value for z is about one-fourth the size of x, which is
consistent with the much smaller electronegativity difference between N and Cl compared to N
and H or N and F. This explanation based on the contributions of the bond dipoles and the
102
ACS Chemistry FROG
Chapter 1
nonbonding electron pair on the nitrogen atom hangs together and is internally consistent. The
implication is that the nonbonding electrons on the F and Cl contribute little to the dipole
moments of the molecules. Much more sophisticated models and computer modeling are
required to sort out all the factors, but it is likely, given the experimental data, that the
nonbonding electron pair on the nitrogen atom will always turn out to contribute a good deal to
the overall molecular dipole moments.
ACS Chemistry FROG
103

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Chapter 1.

Water: A Natural Wonder

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Samples from the Classroom ......................................................................................................47

Water: A Natural Wonder

Problem 1.34. .............................................................................................................................70

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Problem 1.80. .............................................................................................................................90

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Materials for Chapter 1 Activities

1 15 cm of thin plastic sheet

Four 8 or 10 round balloons per group

3/4 inch plastic transparent tape

1.15, 1.28, 1.29,

2-L plastic beverage container

Sturdy stirring rod

Laboratory thermometers or computerinterfaced temperature probes

Ring stand with two small clamps

250-mL Styrofoam cups

Electric immersion heaters

9" glass Pasteur pipets

Reagents for Chapter 1 Activities

1.30, 1.40, 1.53,

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Section 1.1. Phases of Matter

Section 1.2. Atomic Models.

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Immediately release the free ends.

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Sample Student Report Sheet for Investigate This 1.4

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Section 1.3. Molecular Models

Section 1.4. Valence Electrons in Molecular Models

Section 1.5. Arranging Electron Pairs in Three Dimensions

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Section 1.6. Polarity of the Water Molecule

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Section 1.7. Why is Water Liquid at Room Temperature?

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder

Consider This 1.25. How does polarity affect boiling point?

ACS Chemistry FROG

Water: A Natural Wonder