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1 author:
Juan Carlos Ponce-Campuzano
University of Queensland
30 PUBLICATIONS 7 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
ei + 1 = 0
Complex Analysis
Problems with solutions
Contents
Proem
Complex Numbers
1.1
1.2
Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
10
Functions
15
2.1
15
2.2
25
2.3
Analytic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
Complex Integrals
35
3.1
Contour integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
3.2
40
3.3
Improper integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
Series
59
4.1
59
4.2
Classification of singularities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
iii
iv
CONTENTS
4.3
Applications of residues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.3.1
80
Bibliography
Improper integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
Proem
This text constitutes a collection of problems for using as an additional learning
resource for those who are taking an introductory course in complex analysis.
The problems are numbered and allocated in four chapters corresponding to
different subject areas: Complex Numbers, Functions, Complex Integrals and Series.
The majority of problems are provided with answers, detailed procedures and
hints (sometimes incomplete solutions).
Of course, no project such as this can be free from errors and incompleteness.
I will be grateful to everyone who points out any typos, incorrect solutions, or
sends any other suggestion for improving this manuscript.
Contact: j.ponce@uq.edu.au
2015
Chapter 1
Complex Numbers
1.1
1. Verify that
2 i i 1 2i = 2i
(a)
(b) (2 3i ) (2 + i ) = 1 + 8i
Solution. We have
2 i i 1 2i = 2 i i + 2 = 2i,
and
(2 3i ) (2 + i ) = 4 + 2i + 6i 3i2 = 4 + 3 + 8i = 1 + 8i.
1. Complex Numbers
3. Show that
(a) Re(iz) = Im(z);
(b) Im(iz) = Re(z).
Proof. Let z = x + yi with x = Re(z) and y = Im(z). Then
Re(iz) = Re(y + xi ) = y = Im(z)
and
Im(iz) = Im(y + xi ) = x = Re(z).
4. Verify the associative law for multiplication of complex numbers. That is,
show that
( z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 ( z2 z3 )
for all z1 , z2 , z3 C.
Proof. Let zk = xk + iyk for k = 1, 2, 3. Then
( z1 z2 ) z3 = z1 ( z2 z3 )
5. Compute
2+i
;
2i
(b) (1 2i )4 .
(a)
y x
Show that f (z1 z2 ) = f (z1 ) f (z2 ) for all z1 , z2 C.
Proof. Let zk = xk + yk i for k = 1, 2. Then
z1 z2 = ( x1 + y1 i )( x2 + y2 i ) = ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + i ( x2 y1 + x1 y2 )
and hence
"
f ( z1 z2 ) =
x1
y1
y1 x1
x1 x2 y1 y2
x2 y1 + x1 y2
x2 y1 x1 y2 x1 x2 y1 y2
#"
x2
y2
y2 x2
"
x1 x2 y1 y2
x2 y1 + x1 y2
x2 y1 x1 y2 x1 x2 y1 y2
(a) (1 + 3i )2011 ;
(b) (1 + 3i )2011 .
#
.
1. Complex Numbers
(1 +
3i )2011 =
2011
k =0
2011 k 2011 2011 k/2 k
( 3i ) =
3 i.
k
k
k =0
(1 +
3i )
2011
2011 m
=
3 (1)m
2m
02m2011
2011
m
+i
3(1)m
3
02m+12011 2m + 1
1005
1005
2011
2011
m
m
=
(3) + i
(3) 3.
2m
m =0
m=0 2m + 1
Similarly,
(1 +
1.2
3i )2011
!2011
2011
1 3i
1
=
=
4
1 + 3i
1 2011 2011
= 2011
( 3i )k
4
k
k =0
1 1005 2011
= 2011
(3)m
4
2m
m =0
i 1005 2011
2011
(3)m 3.
4
m=0 2m + 1
Modulus
1. Show that
1.2. Modulus
Proof. We have
| z1 z2 |2 + | z1 + z2 |2
= (z1 z2 )(z1 z2 ) + (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 )
= (z1 z2 )(z1 z2 ) + (z1 + z2 )(z1 + z2 )
= ((z1 z1 + z2 z2 ) (z1 z2 + z2 z1 )) + ((z1 z1 + z2 z2 ) + (z1 z2 + z2 z1 ))
= 2(z1 z1 + z2 z2 ) = 2(|z1 |2 + |z2 |2 ).
2. Verify that
2|z| | Re z| + | Im z|.
| Re z| + | Im z|
2| z |.
1. Complex Numbers
|z 1| = |z + i | |( x 1) + yi | = | x + (y + 1)i |
|( x 1) + yi |2 = | x + (y + 1)i |2
( x 1)2 + y2 = x 2 + ( y + 1)2
x + y = 0,
the curve is the line x + y = 0.
(c) Since
2|z| = |z 2| 2| x + yi | = |( x 2) + yi |
4| x + yi |2 = |( x 2) + yi |2
4( x 2 + y2 ) = ( x 2)2 + y2
3x2 + 4x + 3y2 = 4
2
2
16
+ y2 =
x+
3
9
2 4
z + =
3
3
the curve is the circle with centre at 2/3 and radius 4/3.
4. Show that
4
z + iz
R4 R
R4 + R
R2 + R + 1 z2 + z + 1 ( R 1)2
| z2 + z + 1| | z2 | + | z | + |1| = | z |2 + | z | + 1 = R2 + R + 1
1.2. Modulus
!
!
1 + 3i
1 3i
z
| z2 + z + 1| = z
2
2
1 + 3i
1 3i
= z
z
2
2
!
!
1 + 3i
1 3i
|z|
|z|
2
2
= ( R 1)( R 1) = ( R 1)2
Therefore,
4
4
z + iz
R +R .
z2 + z + 1 ( R 1)2
5. Use complex numbers to prove the Law of Cosine: Let ABC be a triangle
with | BC | = a, |CA| = b, | AB| = c and BCA = . Then
a2 + b2 2ab cos = c2 .
Hint: Place C at the origin, B at z1 and A at z2 . Prove that
z1 z2 + z2 z1 = 2|z1 z2 | cos .
Proof. Following the hint, we let C = 0, B = z1 and A = z2 . Then a = |z1 |,
b = |z2 | and c = |z2 z1 |. So
a2 + b2 c2 = | z1 |2 + | z2 |2 | z2 z1 |2
10
1. Complex Numbers
1.3
(b) z = 3 + i;
(a) z =
(c) z = 2 i.
Answer:
6
3
z = 6 9 = 9ei = 3ei/6 e2mi/6 (m = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
3
3
3
3
5/6
5/6
5/6
3
3
35/6
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
=
+
i, 3i,
+
i,
i, 3i,
i.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
11
4 4(1 i )
= 1 + i
2
= 1 + ei/2 = 1 + ei/4 e2mi/2 (m = 0, 1)
!
!
2
2
2
2
= 1 +
+
i, 1
i.
2
2
2
2
z=
2 +
3. Find the four roots of the polynomial z4 + 16 and use these to factor z4 + 16
into two quadratic polynomials with real coefficients.
Solution. The four roots of z4 + 16 are given by
4
4
4
16 = 16ei = 16ei/4 e2mi/4
= (z2 2 2z + 4)(z2 + 2 2z + 4)
4. Do the following:
(a) Use exponential form to compute
i. (1 + 3i )2011 ;
ii. (1 + 3i )2011 .
12
1. Complex Numbers
m =0
and
1005
m =0
2011
(3)m = 22010
2m
2011
(3)m = 22010 .
2m + 1
Solution. Since
1+
3i = 2
!
1
3
i
+
i = 2 exp
,
2
2
3
we have
(1 +
3i )
2011
2011
=2
2011i
3
2011
2011i
3
=2
exp
i
= 22011 exp 670i +
3
!
1
3
i
= 22011 exp
= 22011
+
i
3
2
2
= 22010 (1 + 3i ).
Similarly,
(1 +
exp
3i )
2011
=2
2013
(1
3i ).
22010 (1 + 3i ) = (1 + 3i )2011
1005
1005
2011
2011
=
(3)m + i
(3)m 3.
2m
m =0
m=0 2m + 1
It follows that
1005
m =0
1005
2011
2011
(3)m =
(3)m = 22010 .
2m
m=0 2m + 1
13
(2n+1)
1 sin 2
1 + cos + cos 2 + cos n = +
2
2 sin 2
(0 < < 2 ).
(1 z)(1 + z + + zn ) = 1 + z + + zn (z + z2 + + zn+1 )
= 1 z n +1
Thus
n +1
1 z , if z 6= 1
1z
1 + z + z2 + + z n =
n + 1,
if z = 1.
1+e +e
2i
++e
ni
1 e ( n +1)
1 e ( n +1)
=
=
1 ei
ei/2 (ei/2 ei/2 )
ei/2 (1 e(n+1) )
=
2i sin(/2)
i/2
(n+ 21 )i
i e
e
=
2 sin(/2)
cos(/2) cos[(n + 12 ) ]
1 sin[(n + 12 ) ]
=
+
+i
2
2 sin(/2)
2 sin(/2)
cos(/2) cos[(n + 12 ) ]
sin + sin 2 + sin n =
.
2 sin(/2)
14
1. Complex Numbers
Chapter 2
Functions
2.1
1. Write the following functions f (z) in the forms f (z) = u( x, y) + iv( x, y) under Cartesian coordinates with u( x, y) = Re( f (z)) and v( x, y) = Im( f (z)):
(a) f (z) = z3 + z + 1
(b) f (z) = z3 z;
(c) f (z) =
1
;
iz
Solution. (a)
f (z) =
=
=
=
( x + iy)3 + ( x + iy) + 1
( x + iy)( x2 y2 + 2ixy) + x + iy + 1
x3 xy2 + 2ix2 y + ix2 y iy3 2xy2 + x + iy + 1
x3 3xy2 + x + 1 + i (3x2 y y3 + y).
(b)
f (z) = z3 z = ( x + yi )3 ( x + yi )
= ( x3 + 3x2 yi 3xy2 y3 i ) ( x + yi )
= ( x3 3xy2 x ) + i (3x2 y y3 y),
15
16
2. Functions
(c)
1
1
=
iz
x + (1 y ) i
x (1 y ) i
= 2
x + (1 y )2
x
1y
= 2
i
x + (1 y )2
x 2 + (1 y )2
f (z) =
(d)
f (z) = exp(z2 ) = exp(( x + yi )2 )
= exp(( x2 y2 ) + 2xyi )
= e x2 y2 (cos(2xy) + i sin(2xy))
= ex
2 y2
cos(2xy) ie x
2 y2
sin(2xy)
x2 y2 2y + i (2x 2xy)
x2 y2 + i2x i2xy 2y
( x iy)2 + i (2x + 2iy)
z2 + 2iz.
17
a0 + a1 z + + a n z n
a0 + a1 z + + a n z n
a0 + ( a1 ) z + + ( a n ) z n
a0 + a1 z + + a n z n = p ( z ).
If p(z) = 0, then p(z) = 0 and hence p(z) = p(z) = 0; on the other hand, if
p(z) = 0, then p(z) = p(z) = 0 and hence p(z) = 0.
By the above, p(z0 ) = 0 if and only if p(z0 ) = 0. Therefore, z0 is a root of
p(z) = 0 if and only if z0 is.
(c) lim
Solution. (a)
iz3 + 1
i ( z3 + i 3 )
lim
= lim
zi z2 + 1
zi z2 + 1
i (z + i )(z2 iz + i2 )
= lim
zi
(z + i )(z i )
2
i (z iz + i2 )
= lim
zi
zi
limzi (z2 iz + i2 )
=i
limzi (z i )
limzi z2 i limzi z + limzi i2
=i
limzi z limzi i
2
i ((i ) i (i ) + i2 )
3
=
=
i i
2
18
2. Functions
(b)
4 + z 2
4 + z2
= lim 1
lim
z ( z 1)2
z 0 ( z
1)2
limz0 (4z2 + 1)
4z2 + 1
=
= lim
z 0 (1 z )2
limz0 (1 z)2
4(limz0 z)2 + limz0 1
=1
=
(limz0 1 limz0 z)2
(c) Since
y
Im(z)
= lim = i
y0 yi
z
Re(z)=0,z0
lim
and
Im(z)
0
= lim = 0
x 0 x
z
Im(z)=0,z0
the limit does not exist.
lim
5. Let
z
.
z+1
Find the inverse image of the disk |z| < 1/2 under T and sketch it.
T (z) =
1
2
T 1 ( D ) = z : z <
3
3
is the disk with centre at 1/3 and radius 2/3.
19
6. Sketch the following sets in the complex plane C and determine whether
they are open, closed, or neither; bounded; connected. Briefly state your
reason.
(a) |z + 3| < 1;
(b) | Im(z)| 1;
(c) 1 |z + 3| < 2.
Solution. (a) Since {|z + 3| < 1} = {( x + 3)2 + y2 1 < 0} and f ( x, y) =
( x + 3)2 + y2 1 is a continuous function on R2 , the set is open. It is not
closed since the only sets that are both open and closed in C are and C.
Since
| z | = | z + 3 3| | z + 3| + | 3| = | z + 3| + 3 < 4
for all |z + 3| < 1, {|z + 3| < 1} {|z| < 4} and hence it is bounded.
It is connected since it is a convex set.
Solution. (b) We have
20
2. Functions
| z | = | z + 3 3| | z + 3| + | 3| < 5
for all |z + 3| < 2, {1 |z + 3| < 2} {|z| < 5} and hence it is bounded.
The set is connected. To see this, we let p1 = 3/2, p2 = 3 + 3i/2, p3 =
9/2 and p4 = 3 3i/2. All these points lie on the circle {|z + 3| = 3/2}
and hence lie in {1 |z + 3| < 2}.
It is easy to check that for every point p {1 |z + 3| < 2}, ppk {1
|z + 3| < 2} for at least one pk { p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 }. So the set is connected.
7. Show that
8. Show that
21
Proof.
9. Show that
tan(z1 + z2 ) =
tan z1 + tan z2
1 (tan z1 )(tan z2 )
we have
tan z1 + tan z2
e i ( z1 + z2 ) e i ( z1 + z2 )
= i i (z +z )
= tan(z1 + z2 ).
1 (tan z1 )(tan z2 )
e 1 2 + e i ( z1 + z2 )
22
2. Functions
tan z1 + tan z2
.
1 (tan z1 )(tan z2 )
23
4
+i .
Solution.
sin
4
1 i(/4+i)
(e
ei(/4+i) )
2i
1
= (e1 ei/4 eei/4 )
2i
1 1
=
e (cos + i sin ) e(cos i sin )
2i
4
4
4 4
1
1
2
2
e+
+
e
i
=
4
e
4
e
+i =
3
+i .
Solution.
cos
1
+ i = (ei(/3+i) + ei(/3+i) )
3
2
1
= (e1 ei/3 + eei/3 )
2
1 1
e (cos + i sin ) + e(cos i sin )
=
2
3
3
3
3
1
1
3i
1
=
e+
e
4
e
4
e
24
2. Functions
z.
(a) Find f (i ).
Solution.
1
1 i
i
3 i
f (i ) = exp( Log(i )) = exp( ( )) = exp( ) =
3
3
2
6
2
2
1 3i
1 + 3i
for all z1 , z2 6= 0, where = 1,
or
.
2
2
Proof. Since
1
1
1
f ( z1 ) f ( z2 )
= exp( Log z1 + Log z2 Log(z1 z2 ))
f ( z1 z2 )
3
3
3
1
= exp( (Log z1 + Log z2 Log(z1 z2 )))
3
i
2ni
= exp( (Arg z1 + Arg z2 Arg(z1 z2 ))) = exp(
)
3
3
for some integer n, = exp(2ni/3). Therefore,
if n = 3k
1
= 1+2 3i if n = 3k + 1
13i
if n = 3k + 2
2
where k Z.
15. Let f (z) be the principal branch of zi .
(a) Find f (i ).
Solution.
f (i ) = ii = exp(i Log(i )) = exp(i (i/2)) = e/2 .
25
< Arg(z1 z2 ) ,
we conclude that
2.2
26
2. Functions
2. Let
(
f (z) =
z3 /z2
0
if z 6= 0
if z = 0
Show that
(a) f (z) is continuous everywhere on C;
(b) the complex derivative f 0 (0) does not exist.
3. Show that f (z) in (2) is actually nowhere differentiable, i.e., the complex
derivative f 0 (z) does not exist for any z C.
27
z3
+i
f (z) =
+i
x
y
x
y z2
3
z3
z
+i
=
x z2
y z2
2
3z
2z3
3iz2 2iz3
=
3 +i 2 3
z2
z
z
z
6z2
= 2 6= 0
z
for z 6= 0.
4. Find f 0 (z) when
(a) f (z) = z2 4z + 2;
(b) f (z) = (1 z2 )4 ;
1
z+1
( z 6 = );
(c) f (z) =
2z + 1
2
(d) f (z) = e1/z (z 6= 0).
Answer. (a) 2z 4, (b) 8(1 z2 )3 z, (c) 1/(2z + 1)2 , (d) e1/z /z2
5. Prove the following version of complex LHospital: Let f (z) and g(z) be
two complex functions defined on |z z0 | < r for some r > 0. Suppose
that f (z0 ) = g(z0 ) = 0, f (z) and g(z) are differentiable at z0 and g0 (z0 ) 6= 0.
Then
f (z)
f 0 ( z0 )
lim
= 0
z z0 g ( z )
g ( z0 )
[Refer to: problems 2c and 7 in section 3.1; and problem 9 in section 3.2]
Proof. Since f (z) and g(z) are differentiable at z0 , we have
lim
f ( z ) f ( z0 )
= f 0 ( z0 )
z z0
lim
g ( z ) g ( z0 )
= g 0 ( z0 ).
z z0
z z0
and
z z0
28
2. Functions
+i
f (z) = 0
x
y
at z0 . Therefore,
+i
( f (z))n = ( f (z))n + i ( f (z))n
x
y
x
y
+i
f (z) = 0
= ( f (z))n1
x
y
at z0 .
2.3
Analytic functions
29
2. Let f (z) be an analytic function on a connected open set D. If there are two
constants c1 and c2 C, not all zero, such that c1 f (z) + c2 f (z) = 0 for all
z D, then f (z) is a constant on D.
Proof. If c2 = 0, c1 6= 0 since c1 and c2 cannot be both zero. Then we have
c1 f (z) = 0 and hence f (z) = 0 for all z D.
If c2 6= 0, f (z) = (c1 /c2 ) f (z). And since f (z) is analytic in D, f (z) is
anlaytic in D. So both f (z) and f (z) are analytic in D. Therefore, both f (z)
and f (z) satisfy Cauchy-Riemann equations in D. Hence
+i
(u + vi ) = 0
x
y
and
+i
x
y
(u vi ) = 0
+i
u=
+i
v=0
x
y
x
y
and hence u x = uy = v x = vy = 0 in D. Therefore, u and v are constants on
D and hence f (z) const.
3. Show that the function sin(z) is nowhere analytic on C.
Proof. Since
+i
x
y
sin(z) + i sin(z)
x
y
z
z
= cos(z) + i cos(z)
x
y
= cos(z) + i cos(z)(i ) = 2 cos(z)
sin(z) =
sin(z) is not differentiable and hence not analytic at every point z satisfying
cos(z) 6= 0. At every point z0 satisfying cos(z0 ) = 0, i.e., z0 = n + /2,
sin(z) is not differentiable in |z z0 | < r for all r > 0. Hence sin(z) is
not analytic at z0 = n + /2 either. In conclusion, sin(z) is nowhere
analytic.
30
2. Functions
| exp(z3 + i ) + exp(iz2 )| e x
3 3xy2
+ e2xy
3 3xy2
+ e2xy .
31
7. Show that the entire function cosh(z) takes every value in C infinitely many
times.
Proof. For every w0 C, the quadratic equation y2 2w0 y + 1 = 0 has a
complex root y0 . We cannot have y0 = 0 since 02 2w0 0 + 1 6= 0. Therefore,
y0 6= 0 and there is z0 C such that ez0 = y0 . Then
cosh(z0 ) =
y2 + 1
2w0 y0
e z0 + e z0
= 0
=
= w0 .
2
2y0
2y0
1
1 + | z |2
(b) f (z) = 2(3 ) (here 2z and 3z are taken to be the principle values of 2z and
3z , respectively, by convention)
z
Solution. Let g(z) = 2z and h(z) = 23 . Since both g(z) and h(z) are
entire, f (z) = g(h(z)) is entire and
z
+i
f = (2x 2yi ) + i (2y 2xi ) = 4x 4yi 6= 0,
x
y
the Cauchy-Riemann equations fail for f (z) and hence f (z) is not entire.
32
2. Functions
+i
x
y
f = (2x 2yi ) + i (2y + 2xi ) = 0,
!
!
1 3i
1 + 3i
z
| z2 + z + 1| = z
2
2
1 3i
1 + 3i
= z
z
2
2
!
!
1 3i
1 + 3i
|z|
|z|
2
2
= ( R 1)( R 1) = ( R 1)2 ,
we obtain
iz
e
1
z2 + z + 1 ( R 1)2
for z CR .
10. Let
(
f (z) =
z2 / | z |
0
if z 6= 0
if z = 0
33
z
+i
x
y
|z|
2
2z
xz
2iz yz2
=
+i
| z | | z |3
| z | | z |3
3z
(4z x iy)z2
=
=
6= 0
| z |3
|z|
for z 6= 0. Consequently, f (z) is nowhere analytic.
11. Find where
tan1 (z) =
i
i+z
Log
2
iz
is analytic?
Solution. The branch locus of tan1 (z) is
i+z
w1
z:
= w (, 0] = z : z = i
, w (, 0] .
iz
w+1
For w (, 0],
w1
2
= 1
(, 1] (1, )
w+1
w+1
so tan1 (z) is analytic in
C\ {z : Re(z) = 0, Im(z) (, 1] [1, )} .
34
2. Functions
Chapter 3
Complex Integrals
3.1
Contour integrals
1. Show that
(3.1.1)
for all z 6= 0.
Proof. Since Log(z) = ln |z| + i Arg(z) for < Arg(z) ,
t2 + i
2
dt;
(b)
/4
Z
0
(c)
e2it dt;
35
36
3. Complex Integrals
Solution.
(a)
2
t +i
2
dt =
(b)
/4
Z
0
2it /4
e
e2it dt =
2i 0
1+i
1 i
=
=
2i
2 2
(c)
zt
te dt =
0
=
=
=
1
td(ezt )
z 0
Z
1
zt
zt
te 0
e dt
z
0
1
1
lim tezt
lim ezt 1
z t
z t
1
z2
Z
where
lim tezt = lim ezt = 0
because
lim |tezt | = lim tet Re(z) = lim
t e xt
1
=0
t xe xt
= lim
as x = Re(z) < 0.
3. Find the contour integral
zdz for
t e xt
=0
37
zdz =
zdz +
AB
Z 1
zdz +
BC
zdz
CA
t(1 + i )d(t(1 + i ))
2tdt +
0
((2i 4) + 10t)dt +
4(t 1)dt
0
= 1 + (2i 4) + 5 2 = 2i
(b)
+ 2eit d(i
it
+ 2e ) =
zdz,
L
zdz =
L
zdz +
AB
Z 1
tdt +
zdz +
BC
1
zdz
CA
(1 t) + tid((1 t) + ti )
0
(1 t)id((1 t)i )
0
tdt + (1 + i )
0
((1 t) ti )dt
0
(1 t)dt = i
0
38
3. Complex Integrals
f (z)dz
C
f (z)dz =
4e2i 1
i
2i
= i
d
(
2e
)
=
(
2e
i
)
0
2ei
2
4e2i 1
i
2i
= i
d
(
2e
)
=
(
2e
i
)
i
2e
(b)
Z
f (z)dz =
C
Z
C
z
f (z)dz =
2
z2
Im(z)>0
= (ln 2 + i ln 2) = i.
For (b),
2 2
Z
C
z
f (z)dz =
2
= (ln 2 (ln 2 i )) = i.
39
+
ln
R
Log
(
z
)
dz < 4
C
2
z
R
R
and then
lim
CR
Log(z2 )
dz = 0.
z2
+
2
ln
R
dz 2R
C
2
z
R2
R
/2 + ln R
+ ln R
= 4
< 4
.
R
R
And since
lim 4
+ ln R
R
1
=0
R R
= 4 lim
Z
CR
Log(z2 )
dz = 0.
z2
| z2 + z + 1| | z2 | | z | 1 = | z |2 | z | 1 = 5
40
3. Complex Integrals
for |z| = 3,
1
1
z2 + z + 1 5 .
Therefore,
3.2
Z
6 1
dz
3
9
C z2 + z + 1 4 5 = 10 < 16 .
1. Let C be the boundary of the triangle with vertices at the points 0, 3i and
4 oriented counterclockwise. Compute the contour integral
Z
(ez z)dz.
C
(e z)dz =
C
zdz =
C
Z 1
0
Z 1
R
C
zdz
p1 p2
zdz
p2 p3
(3it)d(3it)
zdz
p3 p1
9 7
= 12i + 8 = 12i
2 2
where p1 = 0, p2 = 3i and p3 = 4.
2. Compute
Z
zi dz
41
i+1
i+1
1+e
1+e
=
=
(1 i )
i+1
2
f (z)dz = 0
C
R
Solution. By Cauchy Integral Theorem, |z|=1 f (z)dz = 0 if f (z) is analytic
on and inside the circle |z| = 1. Hence it is enough to show that f (z) is
analytic in {|z| 1}.
(a) f (z) is analytic in {z 6= 2, 3} and hence analytic in {|z| 1}.
(b) f (z) is analytic in {z : cos z = 0} = {z = n + /2, n Z}. Since
|n + /2| > 1 for all integers n, f (z) is analytic in {|z| 1}.
(c) Log(z) is analytic in C\(, 0] and hence Log(z + 3i ) is analytic in
C\{z : z = x 3i, x (, 0]}. Since | x 3i | > 1 for all x real, f (z) is
analytic in {|z| 1}.
42
3. Complex Integrals
f (z)dz =
C1
f (z)dz
C2
when
z+1
;
z2 + 1
z+2
(b) f (z) =
;
sin(z/2)
sin(z)
(c) f (z) = 2
.
z + 6z + 5
(a) f (z) =
R
R
Solution. By Cauchy Integral Theorem, C f (z)dz = C f (z)dz if f (z) is
2
1
analytic on and between C1 and C2 . Hence it is enough to show that f (z) is
analytic in {| x | + |y| 2, |z| 4}.
(a) f (z) is analytic in {z 6= i }. Since i {| x | + |y| < 2}, f (z) is analytic
in {| x | + |y| 2, |z| 4}.
(b) f (z) is analytic in {z : sin(z/2) 6= 0} = {z 6= 2n : n Z}. Since
2n {| x | + |y| < 2} for n = 0 and |2n | > 4 for n 6= 0 and n Z,
f (z) is analytic in {| x | + |y| 2, |z| 4}.
(c) f (z) is analytic in {z 6= 1, 5}. Since 1 {| x | + |y| < 2} for n = 0
and | 5| > 4, f (z) is analytic in {| x | + |y| 2, |z| 4}.
5. Let C denote the positively oriented boundary of the square whose sides lie
along the lines x = 2 and y = 2. Evaluate each of these integrals
zdz
;
C z+1
Z
cosh z
(b)
dz;
2
C z +z
Z
tan(z/2)
(c)
dz.
C z /2
(a)
43
zdz
= 2i (1) = 2i.
z+1
cosh z
dz =
z2 + z
Z
|z|=r
cosh z
dz +
z2 + z
Z
|z+1|=r
cosh z
dz
z2 + z
and
Z
|z+1|=r
cosh z
cosh(z)
= 2i
dz = 2i
z2 + z
z + 1 z =0
cosh z
cosh z
= 2i cosh(1).
dz = 2i
z2 + z
z z=1
Hence
Z
C
cosh z
dz = 2i (1 cosh(1)).
z2 + z
tan(z/2)
dz = 2i tan(/4) = 2i
z /2
6. Find the value of the integral g(z) around the circle |z i | = 2 oriented
counterclockwise when
1
;
(a) g(z) = 2
z +4
1
(b) g(z) =
.
z ( z2 + 4)
Solution. (a) Since 2i 6 {|z i | 2} and 2i {|z i | 2},
Z
(z + 2i )1
g(z)dz =
dz = 2i (2i + 2i )1 =
z 2i
2
|zi |=2
|zi |=2
Z
44
3. Complex Integrals
g(z)dz =
Z
|z|=r
g(z)dz +
Z
|z2i |=r
g(z)dz
and
i
1
=
g(z)dz = 2i 2
z + 4 z =0
2
|z|=r
1
i
g(z)dz = 2i
=
z(z + 2i ) z=2i
4
|z2i |=r
g(z)dz =
i
4
1
;
2z z2
(b)
sinh z
.
(2z z2 )2
Solution. (a)
Z
dz
=
2
|z|=1 2z z
( 2 z ) 1
dz = 2i (2 0)1 = i
z
|z|=1
(b)
Z
sinh z
dz =
2 2
|z|=1 (2z z )
45
( n 1) !
Z
C
f (m) ( z )
dz = (m + n 1)!
( z z0 ) n
Z
C
f (z)
dz
( z z0 ) m + n
f (m) ( z )
dz =
( z z0 ) n
Z
C
f (z)
dz = 0
( z z0 ) m + n
by Cauchy Integral Theorem, since f (m) z/(z z0 )n and f (z)/(z z0 )m+n are
analytic on and inside C.
If z0 lies inside C, then
( n 1) !
Z
C
f (m) ( z )
(m)
( n 1)
dz
=
(
f
(
z
))
= f ( m + n 1) ( z 0 )
n
z
=
z
0
( z z0 )
and
( m + n 1) !
Z
C
f (z)
dz = f (m+n1) (z0 )
m
+
n
( z z0 )
( n 1) !
Z
C
f (m) ( z )
dz = (m + n 1)!
( z z0 ) n
Z
C
f (z)
dz.
( z z0 ) m + n
Z
|zz0 |= R
f (z)
dz
( z z0 )2
( z z0 )2
R2
R2
46
3. Complex Integrals
for |z z0 | = R,
1 Z
0
| f (z0 )| =
2i |zz
0 |= R
ln( R + |z0 |) + 1
f (z)
dz
.
2
( z z0 )
R
And since
ln( R + |z0 | + 1)
1
= lim
= 0,
R
R R + | z0 | + 1
R
by LHospital (see Problem 5, section 2.2), we conclude that | f 0 (z0 )| = 0 and
hence f 0 (z0 ) = 0 for every z0 C. Therefore, f (z) is a constant.
lim
{| x | N, |y| N },
where N is a positive integer. Show that
lim
CN
dz
=0
z3 cos z
| cos z|2 = (cos x )2 + (sinh y)2 (sinh y)2 = (sinh( N ))2 > 1
Therefore, | cos z| 1 when z CN . We also have |z| N when z CN .
Therefore,
1
1
z3 cos z
N33
and
Z
Z
dz
1
8N
8
|
dz
|
=
=
C z3 cos z
N 3 3 CN
N33
N22
N
Since
lim
we conclude
lim
8
=0
N22
Z
CN
dz
=0
z3 cos z
47
| x | N + , |y| N +
2
2
oriented counterclockwise, where N is a positive integer. Show that
lim
dz
Z
CN
z2 sin z
= 0.
8
=0
N ( N + 1/2)
lim
we conclude
lim
Z
CN
dz
=0
z2 sin z
z2011
dz,
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1
48
3. Complex Integrals
1
1
1
+ 2 + 2011 = 0
z z
z
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 = 2 2011
+ 2 + 2011 .
z z
z
|z| |z|
|z|
When |z| 2,
1
1
1 1
1
1
+ 2 + 2011 + + 2011 < 1.
|z| |z|
|z|
2 4 2
This is a contradiction. Therefore, all roots of
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1 = 0
lie inside |z| < 2. It follows that
Z
C
z2011
dz =
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1
Z
|z|= R
z2011
dz
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1
+
.
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1
z z(z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1)
Since
2009
z
z
+
1
R2009 + R + 1
z(z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1)
R( R2011 R2010 R2009 1)
for |z| = R,
Z
2009
z
z
+
1
2 ( R2009 + R + 1)
|z|= R z(z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1) dz R2011 R2010 R2009 1
49
and hence
lim
And we have
|z|= R
Z
|z|= R
Therefore,
Z
C
z2009 z + 1
dz = 0.
z(z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1)
dz = 0 and
Z
|z|= R
dz
= 2i.
z
z2011
dz = 2i.
z2011 + z2010 + z2009 + 1
13. Calculate
z2008
dz
2009 + z + 1
C z
where C is the circle |z| = 2 oriented counter-clockwise.
Z
Solution. First, we prove that all zeroes of z2009 + z + 1 lie inside the circle
|z| = 2. Otherwise, z2009 + z + 1 = 0 for some |z| 2. Then
z2009 + z + 1 = 0 1 +
1
z2008
1
z2009
=0
z2008
dz =
2009 + z + 1
|z|=2 z
Z
|z|= R
z2008
dz
z2009 + z + 1
50
3. Complex Integrals
and hence
Z
z
+
1
2 ( R + 1) .
dz
|z|= R z2009 + z + 1
R2009 R 1
It follows that
lim
Z
|z|= R
z+1
dz = 0.
z2009 + z + 1
Therefore,
Z
z2008
dz = lim
2009 + z + 1
R
|z|=2 z
= lim
Z
|z|= R
Z
|z|= R
z2008
dz
z2009 + z + 1
dz
= 2i.
z
1
dz
z2 8z + 1
Z
0
1
d
4 cos
=
z2 8z + 1
(z 4 15)(z 4 + 15)
1
1
dz
=
2i
lim
z2 8z + 1
z=4 15 ( z 4
15)(z 4 + 15)
1
i
= 2i
=
z 4 15 z=415
15
51
That is,
Z
C
dei
2i 8ei + 1
e
Z
ei
=i
d
2i 8ei + 1
e
Z
1
d
=i
i
i 8
e + e
Z
i
1
=
d
2 4 cos
Z
1
= i
d
0 4 cos
1
dz =
z2 8z + 1
Therefore,
Z
d =
4 cos
15
dx
.
2 (cos x + sin x )
dx
ix
ix ) /2 ( eix eix ) / (2i )
2 ( e + e
Z
idz
=
2
2
|z|=1 2z ( z + 1) /2 ( z 1) / (2i )
Z
dz
= ( i 1)
2
|z|=1 z 2(1 + i ) z + i
Z
dz
= ( i 1)
|z|=1 ( z z1 )( z z2 )
2i (i 1)
=
= 2
z2 z1
52
3. Complex Integrals
f (zk ) =
k =1
f ( z1 ) + f ( z2 ) + f ( z k )
k =3
= f ( z1 + z2 ) + f ( z k )
k =3
= f ( z1 + z2 ) + f ( z3 ) + f ( z k )
k =4
= f ( z1 + z2 + z3 ) + f ( z k )
k =4
= . . . = f ( z1 + z2 + . . . + z n ) = f
xk
!
.
k =1
Therefore,
n
f (zk ) =
f ( z1 ) + f ( z2 ) + . . . + f ( z n ) = f ( z1 + z2 + . . . + z n ) = f
k =1
xk
k =1
Z
|z|=n
f (z)
dz
( z z0 )3
53
2n2 M
2M/n
lim
=
lim
= 0,
n ( n | z0 |)3
n (1 | z0 | /n )3
we conclude that f 00 (z0 ) = 0 for all z0 . Therefore, f 0 (z) a is a constant and
f (z) = az + b is a polynomial of degree at most 1.
17. Let f (z) be an entire function satisfying that | f (z)| |z|2 for all z. Show
that f (z) az2 for some constant a satisfying | a| 1.
Proof. For every z0 C, we have
3!
f ( z0 ) =
2i
000
Z
|zz0 |= R
f (z)
dz
( z z0 )4
( z z0 )4
R4
R4
for |z z0 | = R,
3! Z
000
| f (z0 )| =
2i |zz
0 |= R
6( R + |z0 |)2
f (z)
dz
.
4
( z z0 )
R3
And since
6( R + |z0 |)2
6
| z0 | 2
lim
= lim
1+
= 0,
R
R R
R3
R
we conclude that | f 000 (z0 )| = 0 and hence f 000 (z0 ) = 0 for every z0 C.
Therefore, f 000 (z) 0, f 00 (z) 2a, f 0 (z) 2az + b and f (z) az2 + bz + c
for some constants a, b and c.
Since | f (z)| |z|2 , | az2 + bz + c| |z|2 for all z. Take z = 0 and we obtain
|c| 0. Hence c = 0. Therefore, | az2 + bz| |z|2 and hence | az + b| |z| for
all z. Take z = 0 again and we obtain |b| 0. Hence b = 0. So | az2 | |z|2
and hence | a| 1. In conclusion, f (z) = az2 with a satisfying | a| 1.
54
3. Complex Integrals
dz
= 0.
f (z)
dz
=
f (z)
Z
|z|=r
dz
f (z)
1
1
f ( z ) | a n | r n | a n 1 | r n 1 | a 0 |
by LHospital. Hence
Z
|z|= R
dz
= lim
f ( z ) r
Z
|z|=r
dz
= 0.
f (z)
55
3.3
Improper integrals
Z
0
xdx
.
x3 + 1
zdz
+
z3 + 1
Z
CR
zdz
z3 + 1
Z
MR
zdz
=
z3 + 1
zdz
3
|zei/3 |=1/2 z + 1
zdz
2i exp(i/3)
=
3
(exp(i/3) + 1)(exp(i/3) exp(i/3))
|zei/3 |=1/2 z + 1
2 exp(i/3)
.
=
(exp(i/3) + 1) 3
For z lying on CR ,
z
R
z3 + 1
R3 1
and hence
Z
2R
zdz
C z3 + 1 3( R3 1)
R
It follows that
lim
And
Z
MR
CR
zdz
=0
z3 + 1
zdz
= exp(4i/3)
z3 + 1
Z
0
xdx
x3 + 1
Therefore, we have
(1 exp(4i/3))
Z
0
and hence
Z
0
xdx
2 exp(i/3)
=
x3 + 1
(exp(i/3) + 1) 3
xdx
2
.
=
x3 + 1
3 3
56
3. Complex Integrals
Z
0
cos x
dx.
x4 + 1
Z
0
Actually, we have
Z
0
cos x
1
dx =
4
x +1
2
cos x
1
dx =
4
x +1
2
cos x
dx.
x4 + 1
eix
dx
x4 + 1
ix
eiz
dz +
z4 + 1
Z
CR
iz
eiz
dz
z4 + 1
e
=
dz +
4
|zei/4 |=1/2 z + 1
Z
eiz
dz
4
|ze3i/4 |=1/2 z + 1
i ( 2+i 2)/2
iz
Z
|zei/4 |=1/2
2ie
e
dz = i/4
3i/4
+1
(e
e
)(ei/4 ei/4 )(ei/4 e3i/4 )
(1 i ) exp(( 2 + i 2)/2)
=
2 2
z4
and similarly,
Z
eiz
(1 + i ) exp(( 2 i 2)/2)
dz =
4
|ze3i/4 |=1/2 z + 1
2 2
Therefore,
Z
LR
eiz
dz +
z4 + 1
Z
CR
eiz
e 2/2
dz =
(cos( 2/2) + sin( 2/2)).
z4 + 1
2
57
Z
iz
R
e
dz
C z4 + 1 R4 1
R
Since
R
= 0,
R R4 1
lim
we conclude that
lim
Z
CR
eiz
dz = 0.
z4 + 1
Therefore,
Z
0
1 eix
cos x
dx
=
dx
x4 + 1
2 x 4 + 1
Z
1
eiz
= lim
dz
2 R L R z4 + 1
!
2/2
2
e
cos
+ sin
=
2
2 2
Z
!!
2
.
2
58
3. Complex Integrals
Chapter 4
Series
4.1
1. Find the Taylor series of the following functions and their radii of convergence:
(a) z sinh(z2 ) at z = 0;
(b) ez at z = 2;
z2 + z
at z = 1.
(c)
(1 z )2
n
Solution. (a) Since ez =
n=0 z /n!,
z2
e e
2
z sinh(z2 ) = z
z2
2n
z2n
nz
(1) n!
n=0 n!
n =0
z
=
2
1 (1)n z2n+1
=
2
n!
n =0
z4m+3
=
m=0 (2m + 1) !
where we observe that (1 (1)n )/2 = 0 if n = 2m is even and 1 if
n = 2m + 1 is odd. Since f (z) is entire, the radius of convergence is .
59
60
4. Series
e =e
w +2
2
e ( z 2) n
wn
=
.
=e e =e
n!
n!
n =0
n =0
2 w
+
.
(1 z )2
(2 w )2
2 w (2 w )2
We have
3wn
3
3
1
3 wn
=
= n = n +1
2w
2 1 (w/2)
2 n =0 2
n =0 2
and
2
=
(2 w )2
2
2w
0
w
2n
n =0
=
!0
1
1 (w/2)
0
nwn1
=
2n
n =0
( n + 1) w n
.
=
n +1
2
n =0
Therefore,
z2 + z
3wn
( n + 1) w n
= 1 n +1 +
.
n +1
(1 z )2
2
2
n =0
n =0
(n 2)(z + 1)n
=
.
2n +1
n =1
Since f (z) is analytic in |z + 1| < 2 and has a singularity at z = 1, the
radius of convergence is 2.
61
3. Let f (z) be a function analytic at 0 and g(z) = f (z2 ). Show that g(2n1) (0) =
0 for all positive integers n.
n
Proof. Since f (z) is analytic at 0, f (z) =
n
=0 an z in some disk | z | < r.
2n
Therefore, g(z) = f (z2 ) =
in |z| < r and hence
n =0 a n z
g ( m ) (0) m
m! z = an z2n
n =0
m =0
z2 ( z2
z+4
+ 3z + 2)
62
4. Series
+
+
.
z2 (z2 + 3z + 2)
2z z2 z + 1 2(z + 2)
For 0 < |z| < 1,
and
3
= 3 (1)n zn
z+1
n =0
1
1
1
1 (1)n zn
=
=
.
2( z + 2)
4 1 + (z/2)
4 n =0
2n
Therefore,
5
1 (1)n zn
2
n n
f (z) = + 2 + 3 (1) z
2z z
4 n =0
2n
n =0
2
5
= 2 + (1)n (3 2n2 )zn
z
2z n=0
and
3
1
3 (1)n
3
=
=
z+1
z 1 + (1/z)
z n =0 z n
1
1
1 (1)n zn
1
=
=
.
2( z + 2)
4 1 + (z/2)
4 n =0
2n
Therefore,
2
3 (1)n 1 (1)n zn
5
f (z) = + 2 +
2z z
z n =0 z n
4 n =0
2n
3(1)n
1
1
1
1
1
1 (1)n 2n
=
=
.
2( z + 2)
2z 1 + (2/z)
2z n=0
zn
63
Therefore,
2
3 (1)n
1 (1)n 2n
5
f (z) = + 2 +
2z z
z n =0 z n
2z n
zn
=0
(1)n+1 (3 2n2 )
.
n
z
n =3
.
z2 (z2 + 3z + 2)
2(1 w ) (1 w )2 w 2( w + 1)
For 0 < |w| < 1,
5
5 n
= w ,
2(1 w))
2 n =0
!
0
2
2
n
2w
=
2( n + 1) w n
=
=
2
(1 w )
1w
n =0
n =0
and
1
1
= (1)n wn .
2( w + 1)
2 n =0
Therefore,
9 (1)n
3
wn
f (z) = + 2n +
w n =0
2
2
3
9 (1)n
=
+ 2n +
( z + 1) n .
z + 1 n =0
2
2
5. Write the two Laurent series in powers of z that represent the function
f (z) =
1
z (1 + z2 )
64
4. Series
1
n 2n
= (1) z = (1)n z2n1
z n =0
n =0
and for 1 < |z| < ,
1
1
1
f (z) =
= 3
z (1 + z2 )
z 1 (z2 )
1
n 2n
= 3 (1) z
= (1)n z2n3
z n =0
n =0
6. Let
z2
f (z) = 2
z 3z + 2
z2 3z + 2
(z 2)(z 1)
z2 z1
In 1 < |z| < 2,
z2
2
1
1
=
1
z2 3z + 2
1 z/2 z 1 1/z
1 n
n n
= 12 2 z z
z n =0
n =0
= 1
21n zn
n =1
zn
n =1
65
In 1 < |z 3| < 2,
4
1
z2
=
1
+
z2 3z + 2
( z 3) + 1 2 + ( z 3)
4
1
1
1
= 1+
z 3 1 + 1/(z 3)
2 1 + (z 3)/2
1
4
n
n
(1) (z 3) (1)n 2n (z 3)n
= 1+
z 3 n =0
2 n =0
1
n +1
n
= + 4 (1) (z 3) (1)n 2n1 (z 3)n
2
n =1
n =1
7. Let
z2
f (z) = 2
z z2
Find the Laurent series of f (z) in each of the following domains:
(a) 1 < |z| < 2
(b) 0 < |z 2| < 1
2
z z2
(z 2)(z + 1)
3( z 2) 3( z + 1)
In 1 < |z| < 2,
z2
2
1
1
1
=
1
z2 z 2
3 1 z/2 3z 1 + 1/z
2 n n
1
= 1 2 z
(1)n zn
3 n =0
3z n=0
1 1 1 n n 1
2 z + (1)n zn
3 3 n =1
3 n =1
66
4. Series
In 0 < |z 2| < 1,
4
1
1
z2
=
1
+
z2 z 2
3( z 2) 3 3 + ( z 2)
4
1
1
= 1+
3(z 2) 9 1 + (z 2)/3
4
1
= 1+
(1)n 3n (z 2)n
3 ( z 2 ) 9 n =0
4
8
+ (1)n+1 3n2 (z 2)n
= +
9 3 ( z 2 ) n =1
1
e z2 1
2.
zn
zn
zn
1
=
=
z
n=0 n!
n =0 ( n + 1 ) !
n=1 n!
f (z) =
an zn =
n=1
a 1
+ a0 + a1 z + a2 z2 + a3 z3 + a n z n
z
n 4
a 1 + a 0 z + a 1 z 2 + a 2 z 3 + a 3 z 4 +
a n 1 z n
n 5
2
1+
z z
z
z
z
+ +
+
+
2
6
24 120 n5 (n + 1)!
!
.
67
a 1 = 1
a 1
=0
a
+
a 0 a 1
=0
a1 + +
2
6
a 1 a 0 a 1
a
+
+ +
=0
2
6
24
a 3 + a 2 + a 1 + a 0 + a 1 = 0
2
6
24 120
Solving it, we have a1 = 1, a0 = 1/2, a1 = 1/12, a2 = 0 and a3 = 1/720.
Hence
1 1
z
z3
f (z) = +
+
an zn
z 2 12 720 n
4
and
1
1 z2
z6
1
2
= f (z ) = 2 +
+ an z2n .
2
z
z
2 12 720 n4
e 1
4.2
Classification of singularities
1
(cos z)2
68
4. Series
2n+1
(1) w
(2n + 1)!
n =0
(sin w) =
!2
=w +
bn w n
n =4
we have
1=
a 2 a 1
+
+ an wn
2
w
w
n 0
!
w2 +
bn w n
!
.
n =4
1
1
3
3
(1 z ) exp
= (1 z )
n
z
n=0 n!z
1
1
n!zn n!zn3
n =0
n =0
3
1
1
z 3 n
n n!zn3 n!
n=0 n!z
n =0
n =4
3
1
1
z 3 n
n (n + 3)!zn n!
n =0
n=1 n!z
n =1
3
1
1
1
z 3 n
=
+
1
( n + 3) ! z n
n=0 n!
n=1 n!
= 1+
69
and residue
Res f (z) =
z =0
(c) f (z) =
1
23
1
= .
1! 4!
24
sin z
z2010
Solution. Since
1 (1)n z2n+1
sin z
= 2010
z2010
z
n=0 (2n + 1) !
(1)n z2n2009
(2n + 1)!
n =0
(1)n z2n2009
(1)n z2n2009
=
+
(2n + 1)!
(2n + 1)!
n =0
n=1005
1004
(1)n z2n2009
(2n + 1)!
n =0
1004
z =1 1 z 2
( 1 z 2 ) 0 z =1
2
and
ez
ez
1
Res
=
=
.
z=1 1 z2
(1 z2 )0 z=1 2e
And the principal parts of f (z) at z = 1 and z = 1 are
respectively.
e
1
and
2( z 1)
2e(z + 1)
70
4. Series
1
(e) f (z) = (1 z ) exp
z
2
1
1
2
2
(1 z ) exp
= (1 z )
n
z
n=0 ( n! ) z
1
1
n
n 2
n=0 ( n! ) z
n=0 ( n! ) z
1
1
1
2
= 1+
(
z
+
z
+
)
n
n 2
2
n=3 ( n! ) z
n=1 ( n! ) z
1
1
1
= z z + +
zn
= z z + +
2 n=1 n! (n + 2)!
2
n =1
1
1
n! (n + 2)!
zn
1
1
5
=
1! 3!
6
71
(f) f (z) =
1
(sin z)2
n 2n+1
(1) w
1
1
=
=
(sin z)2
(sin w)2
n=0 (2n + 1) !
! 1
n 2n
1
(1) w
= 2
w n=0 (2n + 1)!
! 1
n+1 2n
(1) w
1
= 2 1
w
n=1 (2n + 1) !
!m
n+1 2n
1
(1) w
= 2
w m=0 n=1 (2n + 1)!
!
1
= 2 1 + an wn
w
n =2
So the principal part at k is
1
(z k )2
the function has a pole of order 2 at k and
Res f (z) = 0
z=k
(g) f (z) =
1 cos z
z2
n 2n
1 cos z
1
(1) z
1 (1)n+1 z2n
=
1
=
(2n)!
z2
z2
z2 n
(2n)!
n =0
=1
(1)n+1 z2n2
(2n)!
n =1
72
4. Series
ez
(h) f (z) =
z ( z 1)2
Solution. The function has two singularities at 0 and 1. At z = 0,
!
!
ez
1 zn
( n + 1) z n
=
2
z ( z 1)
z n=0 n!
n =0
!
1
=
1 + an zn
z
n =1
So the principal part at 0 is 1/z, the function has a pole of order 1 at 0
and
Res f (z) = 1
z =0
e
e
e
=
=
z ( z 1)2
(1 + w ) w2
w2
e
= 2
w
e
= 2
w
w
n=0 n!
!
wn
1+w+
n=2 n!
!
1+
an wn
n =2
(1)n wn
n =0
1w+
(1)n wn
n =2
73
1
1
=
.
w
z k /2
1
(j) f (z) = (1 z ) sin
z
2
(1)n
1
2
2
= (1 z )
(1 z ) sin
2n+1
z
n=0 ((2n + 1) ! ) z
(1)n
(1)n
=
2n+1
2n1
((
2n
+
1
)
!
)
z
n =0
n=0 ((2n + 1) ! ) z
(1)n
(1)n
= z +
2n+1
2n1
n=0 ((2n + 1) ! ) z
n=1 (2n + 1) ! ) z
(1)n
(1)n+1
= z +
2n+1
2n+1
((
2n
+
1
)
!
)
z
n =0
n=0 ((2n + 3) ! ) z
1
1
n
= z + (1)
+
z2n1
(2n + 1)! (2n + 3)!
n =0
(1)n
n =0
1
1
+
(2n + 1)! (2n + 3)!
z2n1 .
1
1
7
+ = .
1! 3!
6
74
4. Series
(k) f (z) =
ez
z2011
zn
z2011 n
=0 n!
1
2010 n2011
z
zn2011
zn2011
=
+
=
n!
n!
n!
n =0
n =0
n=2011
2010
1
2010!
at z = 0.
(l) f (z) =
cos z
z2 z3
(z z )
a 2 a 1
+
+ an zn
2
z
z
n 0
(1)n z2n
= cos z = 1 +
.
(
2n
)
!
n =1
75
4.3
cos(1)
.
z1
Applications of residues
Z
0
d
.
2 cos
Z
0
d
1
=
2 cos
2
d
.
2 cos
Z
0
d
1
=
2 cos
2
d
2 cos
Z
idz
=
1
|z|=1 2z (2 ( z + z ) /2)
Z
dz
=i
.
2
|z|=1 z 4z + 1
Z
The function
1
1
=
4z + 1
(z 2 3)(z 2 + 3)
dz
1
=
2i
Res
2
2
|z|=1 z 4z + 1
z=2 3 z 4z + 1
1
i
= 2i 2
=
.
(z 4z + 1)0 z=23
3
76
4. Series
Therefore,
Z
0
=
2 cos
3
Z
0
Answer:
d
a + b cos
a2 > b2 .
a2 b2
3. Evaluate the contour integral of the following functions around the circle
|z| = 2011 oriented counterclockwise:
1
;
sin z
1
.
(b) 2z
e ez
(a)
Therefore,
Z
dz
1
= 2i Res
z=n sin z
|z|=2011 sin z
|n |<2011
= 2i
(1)n = 2i.
|n|640
77
Therefore,
Z
1
dz
=
2i
Res
2z
z
z=2ni e2z e z
|z|=2011 e e
|2ni |<2011
= 2i
1 = 2i
|2ni |<2011
1 = 1282i.
|n|320
4. Let
f (z) = (z a1 )(z a2 )...(z an )
be a complex polynomial with n 2 distinct roots a1 , a2 , ..., an .
(a) Prove that
Z
|z|= R
n
1
dz
= 2i
(a aj )
f (z)
k =1 j 6 = k k
k =1
1
=0
j6=k ( ak a j )
n
dz
1
= 2i Res
.
z= ak f ( z )
f (z)
k =1
n
dz
1
= 2i
.
f (z)
(
a
a
)
j
k
j6=k
k =1
78
4. Series
dz
=0
f (z)
k =1
1
= 0.
(
a
a
)
j
k
j6=k
Z
CN
N
(1)n
dz
1
= +2 2 2
z2 sin z
6
n =1 n
1
1
1
2
(1)n+1
=
1
+
=
2
2
2
2
12
n
2
3
4
n =1
(sin z)
0
6= 0.
79
Then
z2 sin z
2
a 3 a 2 a 1
+ 2 +
+ an zn
3
z
z
z
n 0
!
z
+ bn z n
3! n3
a 3 + a 2 z + a 1 z 2 +
an zn
= 1.
n 3
a 3 = 1
a 2 = 0
a 1 a 3 = 0
6
Solving the equation, we obtain a1 = 1/6, a2 = 0 and a3 = 1. So
1
1
= .
Res 2
z=0 z sin z
6
Therefore,
1
2i
Z
CN
n
dz
1
=
Res
(1)n
(1)n
=
n2 2
(n)2 2
Z
CN
N
dz
1
(1)n
= +2 2 2 .
z2 sin z
6
n =1 n
That is,
Z
CN
dz
=0
z2 sin z
1
(1)n
+2 2 2 = 0
6
n =1 n
(1)n
(1)n+1
2
=
=
.
2
2
12
n
n
n =1
n =1
80
4. Series
4.3.1
Improper integrals
cos x
dx
x4 + x2 + 1
cos x
dx = Re
x4 + x2 + 1
Z
eix
dx
x4 + x2 + 1
Actually, we have
Z
cos x
dx =
x4 + x2 + 1
eix
dx
x4 + x2 + 1
81
exp
((
eiz
eiz
3 + i )/2)
=
=
Res 4
2
(z4 + z2 + 1)0 z=ei/3
z=ei/3 z + z + 1
3i 3
and
eiz
exp
((
3 i )/2)
eiz
=
Res 4
.
=
2
(z4 + z2 + 1)0 z=e2i/3
z=e2i/3 z + z + 1
3i + 3
Hence
Z
LR
eiz
dz +
z4 + z2 + 1
Z
CR
eiz
dz =
4
2
z +z +1
3
1
1
3 cos
+ 3 sin
.
2
2
we conclude that
lim
CR
eiz
dz = 0.
z4 + z2 + 1
Therefore,
Z
eix
dx
4
2
x + x + 1
Z
eiz
= lim
dz
R L R z4 + z2 + 1
1
1
=
3 cos
+ 3 sin
.
3
2
2
cos x
dx =
x4 + x2 + 1
sin x
dx.
x2 + 2x + 2
82
4. Series
sin x
dx = Im
x2 + 2x2 + 2
Z
eix
dx
x2 + 2x2 + 2
Consider the contour integral of eiz /(z2 + 2z2 + 2) along the path L R =
[ R, R] and CR = {|z| = R, Im(z) 0}, oriented counterclockwise.
Since eiz /(z2 + 2z + 2) has two isolated singularities at 1 i with 1 + i
lying inside the curve L R CR , we have
eiz
eiz
dz
+
dz
2
2
2
2
L R z + 2z + 2
CR z + 2z + 2
eiz
= 2i Res 2
z=1+i z + 2z + 2
eiz
= 2i 2
(z + 2z + 2)0
Z
z=1+i
2i exp(i 1)
= (cos(1) i sin(1))
2i
e
by Cauchy Integral Theorem or residue theorem.
we conclude that
lim
Z
CR
eiz
dz = 0.
z2 + 2z2 + 2
Therefore,
Z
eix
dx
2
2
x + 2x + 2
Z
eiz
= Im lim
dz
R L R z2 + 2z2 + 2
= sin(1).
e
sin x
dx = Im
x2 + 2x2 + 2
Z
Bibliography
[1] Brown, J. W. & Churchill, R. V. (2009). Complex Variables and Applications. 8th
Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
[2] Needham, T. (1997). Visual Complex Analysis. New York: The Clarendon
Press, Oxford University Press.
[3] Spiegel, M. R. (1981). Theory and problems of Complex variables. Singapore:
McGraw-Hill.
83