1.

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2. ATG
3. Newton 1 every body continues, rest/motion till extra force acts on it
4. Newton 2 unbalanced force, accel,, F=ma
5. Newton 3 every action, opp n equal reaction
6. Power= F*V; Work= F*S; momentum M*V;
7. Chord line= Straight line from LE to TE
8. Camber= Mean equidistant from top & bottom
9. AoA= Chord line & RAF, AoA stay same on turn, RAF changes
10. Angle of incidence (riggers angle) = Chord n long axis of A/C
11. Aspect ratio= Span/Chord ; Span2/Area [Span tip to tip]
12. Centre of Pressure (total resultant/all forces) acts on chord but depends
on camber
13. lift = 90 to RAF or flight path, drag parallel
14. CoP doesnt move on a symmetrical wing at subsonic
15. AoA CoP move forward till Crit AoA [moves 25%-30%]
16. Air Accel on top more then bottom.. Press
17. Renolds# = size of A/C, Density, Viscosity, Speed
18. Thickness/Chord ratio= Pos of max thick as %.. Hi speed > further back
Max Thick
19. L=Cl..p.V2.S[area] can only control Cl
20. Flow: steady streamline: classical linear[wing] & unsteady [Turb]
21. Lift = Equation of continuity- what goes in comes out. Air mass flow const
A[area].V[vel] Venturi
22. Bernoullis- under 300kts, energies is const.. static[up] + dynamic
pressure[dn](Q)= const

23. Check pressure on manometer

24. Stagnation Points LE & TE > HP then reduce Pressure to a -free stream
on bottom then +
25. On small AoA- lift from pressure diff, Hi AoA from downwash
26. Stall > big loss of lift on top of wing from low pressure, life comes from
bottom +HP
27. in AoA CP moves > to TE then moves back at the stall, SP moves
forward, thick boundary
28. CL= AoA, shape, condition, Renolds, Mach,
29. Camber (with flap) Cl Max, Crit Angle .. produce lift at -3
30. Longer wing span/ hi aspect ratio : vortex, downwash,, downwash
changes AoA
31. Effective RAF for Cl section,, Cl in hi aspect ratio, Cl in sweepback
32. Renolds- for scaling in wind tunnel = p.V.L [mean chord] / Viscosity
33. Best L/D Ratio Riggers angle 3-4 best life for drag.. for tailwheel 16(landing atti)

34. Drag- ZLD surface(viscosity/ change of Vel, TP, Adverse Pressure

gradient),
35. form [TP, Adverse Pressure Gradient, Streamlining], interference (at
fairings(root of wing))
36. ZLD varies at square of EAS2
37. LDD- Induced Drag from downwash (vortex)
38. Adverse Pressure gradient (LP>HP) Transition Point on thickest part of
wing (LP) lowest.
39. Trans point from laminar to turb (Form drag)
40. Boundary layer, (air affected by wing) determines > Cl Max, stall, form
drag, hi speed (99%)

41. Viscous drag force in boundary not affected by pressure/dense only to

temp,, with Alt
42. Turb flow has hi kinetic e- but still has a laminar sub layer 1% under turb
43. Trans point move forward> increase surface friction drag
44. Sep Pt Adverse Pressure gradient behind Sep pt, reduce kinetic e-.. from
TE
45. When SP move forward, Pressure will be the stagnation point
46. Streamlining- increasing finess ratio (reduce curves)
47. Interference drag.. v big.. at fairings (root of wing)
48. LDD - Mainly Induced Drag from vortex/ downwash & of ZLD
49. Air on wing flow to fuselage, air on bottom flow to wing.. vortices on wing
of finite span, reduces Effective AoA.. coz more AoA, brings drag
(induced).. vortices coz accel of air
50. Induced drag affected by plane form, aspect ratio, lift & weight, Vel[low
Vel, hi dnwash]
51. Greatest at wing tips,, best, use an elliptical but only at one AoA,, elliptical
pressure distro
52. Hi aspect ratio, Dnwash, tailwind-stays on rwy,,, more lift- more dnwash
53. Worst at low speed, heavy.. dnwash starts b4 airborne at rotation
54. ZLD with speed, LDD with lower speed,
55. Vmp/Min power speed(close to stall) is lower then Vimd/Min Drag speedwhen drag is least
56. Vmp F.V = Cd.V= Power least area on Drag graph, min power req
57. Spoiler(air break) induced drag, Vimd [in one drag for Vimd]
58. More weight- Vimd
59. Max EAS/D ratio = 1.32 x Vimd =Tan to total drag

60. Drag= Cd..p.V2.S Cd affected by thickness to Chord ratio & Camber,, so

put camber at 40%
61. Cambered has low drag bucket with higher Cl then symmetrical
62. Stalling.. by boundary layer separation - adverse pressure gradient (low
energy)
63. LE Sep. when LE & TE Sep point meet. Stall..
64. Adverse pressure gradient- reversed flow, turb
65. Sep point move forward with AoA
66. At stall.. flow on top is broken down, life comes from bottom CL
67. Always stall at same angle of attack same wing.. stall will pitch to landing
gear if inverted
68. Buffet caused by separated flow onto tail.. more flaps, buffet (diff wing
wit flap)
69. If stall at root, will buffet, also need ailerons. Straight Rect wingfrom root
to tip, prevent wing drop
70. Tapered wing has lower Renolds #-- tip stall
71. Can use washout, root spoilers, change camber to tip
72. Steep dive, Hi AoA buffet, in vert flight- lift=0
73. Weight. Load factor
74. Vs= Vb * (w2/w1); Vs= Vb * n; n=1/cos
75. Also affected by power, config, icing/turb surface roughness
76. Power-on stall,, thrust help lift, slipstream also help ( RAF)
77. Auto rotation increase on AoA on down wing(stalled already), decrease
AoA on up wing
78. Damping in roll is reversed.. roll/yaw toward drag/down wing.. can spin at
ne speed/ atti
79. Use sec effect of Yaw-Roll yaw gyro is stronger

80. Use rudder for spin to stop the gyro, power is pro spin
81. Wing planforms: Span2/Area; Span/Chord taper ratio: tip chord/root chord
82. Hi taper stall from centre, sweep & pointed wing stall at tip, elliptical stall
centre, rectangle from root
83. Sweepback for hi speed (delay shock/drag low) & stability, but have Cl
so has more AoA gives more induced drag.. Cl reduced with Cos of sweep
84. Spanwise flow towards tips coz of adverse pressure gradient air pools
at tips can stall
85. Boundary layer fencesstop spanwise, LE slots, suction, blowing, vortex
gen (make turb)
86. Reduces the effect of flap, aileron,
87. TE Flaps new wing, Cl, Camber, fly slower, steeper approach,
rwy, crit AoA,
88. Initial pitch up then pitch down
89. LE Flaps nose higher, stalling angle
90. Wing stall at same AoA but with flap, chord line changes Cl but
more Cd (DRAG)
91. Slat stall angle, re-energies to penetrate further against Adverse
Pressure Gradient
92. Relieves tip stalling, Cl, kinetic e- in layer
93. EAS2 with control effectiveness.. EAS is half, control deflection x4
94. Balance, make it easier:
95. Inset: Moment, change hinge, can be over balanced if CP of control
move ahead of hinge
96. Horn Balance: is ahead of hinge, sticks out
97. Internal Balance: Inside, has pressure diff with beak
98. Mass Balance is for Vibrations

99. Control harmony: 1:2:4 Aileron: Elevator: Rudder (weakest to strongest)

100.
Ailerons: in lift on down going wing, lift in up going wing >
damping in Roll
101.

The greater the Rate of Roll, the more the damping

102.
With Speed: Damping linearly with Vel, Roll rate with
square of Vel > so roll more with Speed
103.

With Alt: TAS > damping with Alt > so roll more with alt

104.

Elevators & Rudders > Displacement Control

105.
Adverse Aileron Yaw, due to drag, low speed, [WHEN MOVING
AILERON]
106.
Can have diff ailerons (up go far, dn go ), frise (Digs in/Horn), can
also couple rudders to aileron.
107.
And use spoilers when turning also dumps lift, not have drag can
use it as ailerons
108.

Rudder for stopping yaw, damping in yaw by vert stabiliser

109.
Trim Tabs > reduce pressure, move opp to control, Free servo is
connected to servo system
110.

Balance tab move automatically, Geared tabs set to ratio,

111.
Servo tab, actually moves tab instead of control service directly..
uses spring tab
112.
Spring Tab is in servo, feels spongy, needs to be locked when
parked.
113.

Spring Bias trimmers- can loosen/tighten spring..

114.
up)

A/C has bigger Lift/weight(nose dn) couple then thrust/Drag(nose

115.
Longitudinal dihedral just means it has a tailplane.. tailplane for
residual pitching
116.

Tailplane has big moment & half incidence then mainplane

117.

Wing loading is at slow speed > hi AoA, thrust helps lift

118.
Hi alt > More power Req. avail (piston), if theres power avail >
can climb or accel
119.
When at best L/D ration (4/ riggers) reduces weight, can reduce
lift, so reduce EAS
120.
EAS at AoA is proportional to all up weight,, EAS & AoA no
affected by Alt
121.
In Climb, climb on excess power available with hi nose T=
D+Wsin, L= Wcos
122.

In established climb, A/C in equilibrium.. can climb in zoom (kine e)

123.

Best Angle of Climb Vx= where T-D is greatest, v low speed,

124.

with w/v not affected in fpm, but looks like it will by the GND

125.

Vx in Jet is Vimd. In piston is lower, near Vimd

126.

Vimd with alt (coz of TAS not EAS which is the same)

127.
Best ROC Vy= Excess Horsepower *33000/ Weight.. (power Req
vs Power Avail) best at MSL
128.

Service ceiling can climb at 100fpm or 50 with one engine in twin

129.

Absolute ceiling Zero ROC

130.

Gliding Equilibrium

131.

Endurance (rate) Req power(rate) is least, changes with W

132.
Range same for W as long as speed is adjusted, w 10% >
Speed 5% .. min drag, L/D ratio
133.
Max range Shallow angle.. tan EAS/D, depends on wind, further
with tail w/v, use speed..
134.

drag depends on EAS, but ROD will be at low alt (TAS)

135.
Min ROD with W heavy n light A/C travel same Air distance,
heavy is quicker but

136.
Turning not in equilibrium. Radius > Rate.. Horiz part of lift
acts to turn (centripetal) - Sin
137.
R= V2/G tan > AoB;;; Va Manoeuvre speed, safe to be stall >in
G limits change with weight like Vs
138.

Va = Vs * 1.7;; L cos = W; Radius independent of W

139.
Min Radius & Max rate turn > both need wing loading & Air
Dense > at MSL
140.
Min Radius is product of Cl x AoB (not max AoB or max Cl) Flap
min radius...
141.
Max Rate turn > is product of Cl x AoB x Vel (Cl, AoB Vel may not
be max) (is tan from min radius)
142.

Alt(compress > Makes Cl) makes min radius, rate of turn

143.

Vso > Stall power off, in landing config, with flaps

144.

Vs1 > Stall power off, no flaps

145.

Vfe > Vfo > flap extended & operating

146.

Vno > nml operating (max in turb air) based on Va

147.

Stability Dynamic (with time) static (straight away)

148.

Lateral axis (pitching) longitudinal stability

149.

Stable config: when CG is first then CoP (forward engines of A340)

150.

Tailplane> bigger moment > more better > more stable

151.

Tail volume = tailplane area x moment arm

152.
stab

When dnwash is on mainplane > Effective AoA of tail is ,,

153.
Move CG back > stab, Forward > stab, can get to stable to
manoeuvre
154.
Neutrally stable, aft CG, no restoring moment, made to be v far
from CG limit

155.

AoA where A/C in equilibrium is Trim point (long dihedral)

156.

With no trim > stick free > Stab

157.
Manoeuvring Stab > with diff load factors, greater the long stab,
has manoeuvring point like neutral point, has bigger manoeuvring margin
then CG margin.. manoeuvring stab with Alt (TAS)
158.
Dynamic stab > with time, die away: Phugoid> pilot can control,
large variations but not in Gs
159.
Short period oscillation > large change in Load factor, small var in
height & speed
160.

Longitudinal axis (roll) lateral stability

161.
Damping in roll > AoA on dn wing, AoA on up wing.. gives A/C
neutral stab
162.
Also sideslips (yaws) n rolls (tilts lift vector).. sideslip provides roll to
restore dynamic stab
163.
Cl

Dihedral (means anything good) > Leading low wing > Hi AoA >
i. Trailing Hi wing > lo AoA > Cl

164.
Sweepback (cos) > Leading lo have sweep > Cl
10sweep > 1 dihedral
165.

Sweepback when disturbed is like aspect ratio.. ratio > stab

166.

Small effect of taper > taper ratio > Stab

167.

For low speed (hi AoA) > Need anhedral on sweepback

168.

Shielding from fuselage > stab

169.
Hi wing > to much stab need anhedral > Upwash on upstream >
is bout 1-3 dihedral
170.
Lo wing > is stab.. need dihedral > downwash on upstream > the
AoA of the leading/ low wing will be & AoA of trailing hi wing > unstable
(1-3 anhedral)

171.
stab

If drag line is below the CG > unstable,, hi wing & t-tail makes

172.
Prop slipstream and worse with flaps is unstable (Flaps are half
span, make moment )
173.

Spiral motion > bank & yaw, can control phugoid

174.
Dutch roll roll, yaw, sideslip > too stable, large aileron for rudder >
spin, big prob in stab
175.
Dutch (oscillatory) more serious> on sweepback.,. when yawing
right > left wing coz more lift > yaws right, but also has more drag > yaws
to left > Dutch roll, must reduce lat stab with anhedral
176.
Lat stab decided by roll (dihedral effect) & yaw (weathercock stab)..
should have neutral lat stab
177.

Weathercock/ directional stab > to much leads to Spiral instability

178.
Lat stab/ dihedral > to much leads to Dutch roll,, counter with
aileron (called yaw damping)
179.
Directional Stab > vert stab > CP behind CG,, fuselage has
unstable for direction stab
180.
In sideslip can stall > so sweepback, or use low aspect ratio
big moment > more stab
181.
Spiral instability > strong to overcome, caused by fuselage & fin,
makes it unstable more the any dihedral effect > AoB by yaw,, can
enter diving turn, but happens slowly
182.
Can reduce the fin area > directional stab > yaw into sideslip >
small lift in hi wing
183.
Structural rigidity, torsion-twist, flexural-bend > can use more
structure for them, flutter > inertia
184.

Torsional axis will always twist around it, neva on it, can still bend

185.
Torsional flexural flutter flex & twist wing under aerodynamic
loads, lift > bending need 2b stiff

186.
Torsional aileron flutter - loads caused by aileron on hinge, make
lift > bending needs mass balancing, so CG is ahead of hinge or to
make aileron irreversible
187.
Flexural Aileron flutter caused by aileron movement lagging the
wing as it flexes needs mass balance, esp close to wing tip > smaller
weight
188.

Dont need mass balancing on fly by wire with no manual reversion

189.
spin

Aileron reversal > depends on AoA > excessive Torsional of wing in

190.

Prop theory

191.

Helix angle > between RAF & Plane of rotation

192.
Blade/pitch angle > between chord of blade & horizontal plane
(when A/C is stationary)
193.

Blade/ Pitch angle = Helix angle + AoA

194.

Create Thrust (lift) & Torque (drag) / rotational drag opposes engine

195.

Geometric > distance of blade in 1Rev at 0 AoA,, measure at >

196.
Experimental pitch > Zero Thrust > 0 AoA > with certain to fast >
same as geometric pitch > 0 slip
197.
Effective pitch > distance it actually covers [slip is difference > AoA
and necessary for thrust]
198.

No slip > no thrust

199.
Blade speed towards tip > Angle of incidence is large at
root(boss) > makes AoA same thru blade
200.
Lo speed > Hi AoA > Helix angle > not efficient > can stall blade
> thrust large, but speed low
201.

Hi speed > lo AoA > Helix angle > not efficient > thrust

202.

Max thrust/ Min Torque > L/D ratio small helix angle

203.
Power from = F*V or thrust* TAS,, power must overcome rotational
drag (torque*rotational Vel)
204.
Power by engine is bhp > brake horsepower/ SHP > shaft horse
power
205.
Prop efficiency = Thrust*TAS/ torque*(2-no of props) OR Thrust
horsepower/Brake horsepower
206.

CSU / PCU > fine pitch for take off/ climb,,, course pitch for cruise

207.

Wind milling/ Fine > causing drag

208.

Feathering > v course

209.
Braking or reverse thrust > after fine stop > torque drives engine >
torque in direction of rotation
210.

Compressibility > thrust > drag

211.
Good to solidity (part of prop thats solid) > (#blades* chord at
radius)/ (circumference at radius)
212.

Normally = 0.7 * tip radius

213.
Low aspect ratio > paddle prop > power absorption > shorter prop
for landing
214.

Swing on take off >

215.

Torque reaction > acts to left

216.

Slipstream > acts to left (most at slow speed)

217.
Gyroscopic reaction > when levelling for take off (on tail dragger) >
acts to left
218.
Asymmetric blade effect > with nose up attitude (on tail dragger) >
dn blade Cl > more AoA > Left
219.
Endurance > fuel consumption >SFC > least power required (not
lowest speed)
220.

Max at MSL for pistons > 1.2 *Vs for GF A/C 1.3* Vs for twins

221.
Keep turns shallow > w/v has no effect > but turb makes
endurance
222.

With CSU > using lowest smooth RPM

223.
For Jet > min thrust and min drag > const with alt > speed is with
alt for mach but for handling
224.
For jet must go as hi as possible (hi TAS) > but its not so bad at
MSL
225.
Range > L/D ratio & efficiency & SFC > tan line for power req >
best at 8000ft
226.

GF A/C > 1.5*Vs;;; 2.0*Vs for retract;;; 1.7*Vs for twin

227.

Speed can have prop efficiency thats low & SFC thats hi

228.
Jet > hi alt > better range (hi TAS) gets affected by hd/ tail w/v > tail
wind more range > go slower
229.

Multi engine

230.
Will roll & yaw to dead engine(dead leg) > close throttle to check >
bank 5 to live engine (ball unbal)
231.
Dont feather If have height > must restart, dont make turns to dead
engine
232.

If both spin clockwise > left engine is the Crit engine

233.

Flap on final only when commited

234.

Vmca > neva go below > or WILL lose control

235.

Vyse > Blue line > best climb speed with one engine

236.

Airframes Tension<>Compression , Bending & Torsion, shear

237.
Semi-monocoque > skin + long stringers, vert bulkheads, brace for
Cessna
238.
Spar > attaches wing > ribs in shape of wing & A/C parts, skin
riveted to stringers(spanwise)

239.
Generator > DC (+to-) needs to be inverted for AC,,, Alternator (AC)
needs to be rectified for DC
240.
Gen doubles as starter in Jet, change output by changing mag >
(Voltage regulator) for flux temp
241.
Gen armature > rotates > more winding > better consistent current
> armature is soft mag
242.
Gen need hi RPM, have Carbon brushes for commutator in
armature
243.

Noise suppressor for electrical inference

244.
Alternator > Conductor doesnt move no moving parts > 3 Phase
(blue, Yellow[Ref], red)
245.
Yellow[ref] is for 2alternators to be in sync, has 3 diodes(prevent
from being a motor) for 3 phases
246.
Mag field(has heavy windings &small current) is spun inside a
stator(coil) at hi speed
247.

TRU > Transformer, Rectifier unit > for Hi AC > DC

248.

Right hand rule > thumb> motion, field>index, current, middle

249.

Battery is secondary source > Alt or Gen is primary

250.
Voltage regulator > in Gen > Change field excitation for const
output under diff RPM
251.
Field excitation > perm mag (weak) > Sep excited (small gen) >
shunt wound > series wound > last 2
252.
Can regulate with CSD for gen/alt, vibrating voltage> one regulator
at a time for current & Voltage
253.
RCR > reverse current relay > prevent batt from using gen as motor
(at low RPM)
254.

If malfunctions > can flash it (reverse polarity)

255.
Ammeter for flow, if show zero > then broken.. (+)> supplying load,
(-)> discharging

256.
In AC (synchronising) busbar just 3 wires for 3 phases from DC
busbar, most busbars are DC
257.
Main busbar is not essential/vital busbar, RAT(AC) > Ram Air
Turbine > act like APU(AC)
258.
Lead acid batteries (-) Pb, (+) PbO2 uses uneven # of plates/cells,
2,2v/cell, in H2SO4
259.
In 12v batt uses 14v alt to keep batt charged, hydrometer for SG
1,26-1.3 is good, 1.2-1.24 is bad
260.

NiCd > (+) Ni, (-) Cd OH in KOH, 1.9v/cell

261.
Magneto (AC) use low tension(-100v) for hi alt A/C for flashing,
no sec coil, sec only by plugs
262.
Hi tension (+100v) has primary & sec circuits(more windings),
Spark plugs are ceramic,
263.

Series wound motor > the starter motor >400Hz

264.

Gascolator > Fuel strainer > centrifugal 100/130> (lean/rich)

265.
Higher octane rating > more compression & heat without detonation
> higher the better
266.
To hi can foul the plugs, fuel vent for exp & contract & suction,
pressures & using the fuel
267.

Wide cut > allow certain unwanted properties

268.
up

Undercarriage > restrictor for pressure on going dn then going

269.
Hydraulics driven by engine, actuators do the moving, has hydraulic
uplock
270.
Oleo > oil for rebounds, N2 for shocks , going up is
restricted(metering pin) by oil (damping orifice)
271.

Hand pump is exp, but dont work with a leak, need HP for pressure

272.
With drum brakes, must press & release again torque links for
alignment or spline inside oleo

273.
Shimmy dampers for vibes or can use two tires.. thread on tire for
aquaplaning.. chine- thro H20
274.
O2 systems > regulator,, explode to hot > never use grease/oil on
O2 > has no moisture
275.
Cabin pressure > (+) pressure diff > more O2 goes in> come
out,, regulated by outflow valve
276.
Air con > heat exchanger > reduce temp > from compression in
engine, gasper/louver > fans
277.
Pressure vessel > the tube the pax is in vacuum release valve for
(-) pressure
278.

Dump valve > for parachute & landing for door to open

279.

Pressure diff > 7psi can be maintained between cabin n ambient

280.

RAM air pressure system is like a Cherokee

281.
Bootstrap/Engine bleed > from last stage (HP) of compressor in jet
or APU> is 200 > primary heat exchanger > then is compressed again >
sec heat exchanger > expanded thru turbine that drives it
282.
Using 300fpm is best,, 18-24c, 1lb ( in fail) air / person / min,,
thermal inertia > to hot > to cold
283.
Blower has excess air with hi engine RPM & lo Alt > use spill
valves, Venturi out valve can choke
284.
Compressor system > doesn use bleed air, but from accessory
drive
285.
Engine bleed valves > always take same amount of air from engine
> dump the rest
286.
Use Freon as refrigerant, absorbed in evaporation, heat released in
condenser Freon liquid
287.
Anti-ice > boot inflate at set timing > on prop (fluid by slingers), use
alcohol or glycol
288.
Tip of prop has centrifuge(Thrown off) Pitot heat all the time..
inertial sep (ice vanes)

289.
Hydraulic fluid shouldnt foam or pump can cavitate, extra in
reservoir for hand pump
290.

Vegetable fluid > yellow (castor, alcohol- natural, use rubber seals)

291.
Mineral fluid > Red (DTD585) (Petrol based > oil is blood of earth
>RED, use rubber seals)
292.

Phosphate ester fluid > Purple/green Skydrol best > wide tx

293.
If accumulator charge is low > have big pressure changes & have
more reserve
294.

Baffles in tank prevent swirling

295.
Gear type pump > 2100psi> 3500psi,,, Vane pump > 1-150psi low
pressure, piston pump > 3-6000psi
296.

Pressure relief valves are above(100psi) regulator cutout

297.
Shear pin > from electric motor to hydraulic pump is weak will
break preventing damages
298.
Pneumatic pumps > HP > 3000psi uses N2, compress quickly,
sealing is hard, filters remove moisture at shuts down (ssh),, HP > 10003000psi,, MedP> bleed air > 100-150psi,, LP >1-10psi gyro vane
299.
Pistons > Cylinder diameter bore,, Piston head, skirt, rings >
compression rings for seal, scraper-oil
300.
Piston pin > Gideon pin > connecting rod > crank.. thrust bearing >
power to prop
301.
Oil lubes & cools.. compression ratio = BDC/TDC,, TDC has
clearance
302.

Indicated Horse power > no friction > Max continuous power

303.
Take off power > for 5mins, military engines > higher power, reduce
TBO (time between overhauls)
304.

Engine efficiency when speed of A/C = speed of air

305.

Pistons

306.
Volumetric efficiency weight after induction with no inertia in
intake compared to it without inertia
307.
Intake open 20 b4 TDC, closes 40-60 after BDC Open for 260
(20+180+60)
308.
Ignites b4 TDC by 25, exhaust opens 60 b4 BDC and close 20
after TDC also open for 260
309.
Valve lead Early open,, valve lag late opening,, valve overlap >
40.. help scavenge exhaust
310.
Add tetraethyl lead for detonation,, supplied with ethylene
debromide
311.
Compression ratio 15:1 by weight but gives dissociation> splitting
up, loose e, best be 15% richer
312.
Use 20% more for climbing > rich mixture > more cooling, takeoff
use 30%, very rich black smoke
313.
Manifold pressure > weight of fuel-air mix in intake, Man Pres is
then ATM& in low power in turbo
314.
Man temp is then ATM by fuel, on supercharger is more by
compression.. man pres < RPM
315.

Cold start is sluggish > oil cold, batt power in winter

316.
Detonation (by low octane, hi press, hi tx, warm air hot spots) >
ignite spontaneous vibes, knocking
317.
With too low RPM > greater charge, combustions are longer in
piston
318.

Pre-ignition > by hot spots (red carbon)> not bad, will loose power

319.
Wet sump > gravity, delivery pump,,, dry sump, ext tank > more oil
> more cool > scavenge pump
320.
If oil has HP at startup, its ok if its cold.. can liquid cool with H 2O or
glycol, baffles rubber box for cool
321.
Fuel float chamber is reservoir, top ups with fuel, controlled by
needle valve

322.

Throttle by butterfly valve, main jet sprays

323.
Diffuser in Venturi > holes in sides, holes get covered by throttle
open, maintain ratio, helps atomize
324.

Accelerator pump for full throttle response > prevent weak mix

325.

Slow running/idle Jet > provides rich for idle

326.

Needle type mix control > between main jet & fuel chamber

327.

Carb icing > -15 to 35 from LP in Venturi & fuel evaporating

328.
Fuel injection > all cylinders same mix, no waste, can ice, cold
starting easy, hot start hard,
329.
Injection by HP fuel pump, must change mix with power not alt,
pump(vane) has return line
330.
Supercharger from engine shaft > impeller(rotor) rotates 7x-12x &
diffuser (stator)
331.
Diffuser > pressure vel > stops swirling, has full throttle
height, weight of air
332.
Is behind radial engines, between carb & intake, opens more with
alt, gradually power drops
333.
Turbo > driven by exhaust, controlled by waste gate to maintain
MSL, at startup > open waste gate
334.
When waste gate is close, all exhaust goes thru turbo, can maintain
more power then supercharger
335.

Backpressure is const & provides MSL to crit alt,, needs intercooler

336.

Turbine can spin hi RPM > hi tx > hi mach,

337.
Stress on blades must add more weight but centrifugal force v hi so
RPM..
338.

Blade has stagger angle (washout) greatest at tip

339.

By-pass engine use small turb & hi inlet Tx, by-pass ratio > 15:1

340.
Impulse turbine > pressure change in Stator(NGV nozzle guide
vanes)
341.
Reaction turbine > pressure change in Rotor , first reaction then
impulse
342.

Exhaust > is divergent then convergent at exit nozzle

343.

Under expansion > HP outside engine thats downstream, e loose

344.
Can use convergent ( Mach1 > Vel) divergent(mach 1 >
Vel[is opp at Mach]) duct at end
345.

ITT > inter turbine tx between HP & LP turbines

346.
NG > speed at gas gen HP turbine compressor in turboprop with
free spool
347.

NF > speed of free turbine > in turboprop

348.

N1 > speed of LP compressor

349.

N2 > speed of HP compressor

350.

TIT > turbine inlet tx > at turbine stage

351.
For startup, must rotate first then fuel then light,,, throttle is the LP
cock
352.
Hot start > to much fuel > tx hi after start > fuel off, ign off,, start
with air from APU/GPU or engine
353.

If engine fail, descend for hi RPM 30000RPM

354.
TurboFAN > SFC, power/weight, noise, more air, LP
turbine drives fan
355.

Fixed spool > output shaft is connected to turbine & compressor

356.

Only need two burners in cans for igniting,,, feathered on shutdown

357.
Compressor stall (a few stages stall)> idle power > restore air
(descend) > Ice? > restore power
358.
Compressor surge(all stall) > by pressure build up, speed to low
Compressor chokes > speed to hi

359.

Plane friction bearing on crank & radial force

360.

Ball bearing > thrust & radial prop shaft

361.

Valves > chrome/ tungsten, exhaust filled with sodium/mercury

362.
Piston pump > axial > const displacement pump or variable
displacement with swishplate
363.

Diaphragm pump for fuel, gear pump > carried around gears

364.

Check valves > is one way non-return,

365.

Mlocal > mach# anywhere on A/C

366.
Mcrit > where Mlocal reach 1.0(unity) anywhere on A/C, changed by
AoA, hi AoA, low Mcrit
367.
M1 > shockwave > Tx(mach), Pressure,, 661.5kts > MSL,,
LSS= 38.95 Kelvin
368.

MFS/flight MN (on machmeter) > free stream, unaffected by A/C

369.

M0.4 > compressibility

370.
Behind normal (90) shockwave > speed shockwave > boundary of
sub/super sonic
371.

Slows down in Oblique shock waves > could be supersonic

372.
At convex corner > Vel , dont separate > compressive corner >
expansion wave > no shock
373.

Pressure & Tx(mach)

374.

Mach detach when shockwave corner over LE

375.

Drag can cause big roll, shock cause pitch dn

376.

Use vortex for transonic > need stronger shock if wanna sep

377.

At certain alt > an TAS(shock stall) or TAS(crit AoA)> will stall

378.
Hydroplaning > thread for water,, Viscous(most common) &
dynamic > most common..

379.
Reverted rubber > when locked, skids > melt tire > 300, cause
white marks, bad brakes hi speed
380.
Viscous > on any wet(film/lube/slip of H2O) rwy > med-hi speed, rwy
should be course to break H2O
381.
Dynamic > tire skies on H2O> hi speed & deep(.25mm) standing
H2O & smooth rwy.. must have all
382.

Hydroplaning speed > 9(7.7when not moving) * psi = kts

383.
Can tire pressure, traction,, use half gust factor, stay at
recommended speeds
384.
Fire extinguisher H2O/glycol > red or green, use halon 112, Freon
based for A/C rim(magnesium)

385.

Reference notes >

386.

Hi tapered wing stall > stalls from tip to root

387.

Effect of aspect ratio > lo ratio = hi stalling AoA & drag at hi AoA

388.

Forces in glide > all forces are in equilibrium, at best L/D ratio

389.

AoA in a turn,, Stall speed in turn

390.

AoA remains the same at MSL & FL100 provided IAS is same

391.
Flying for endurance > max endurance at TAS where power is min
> min power speed
392.
Safety systems in cabin pressure > prevents excessive internal
pressure
393.

Radius of Rate 1 turn with speed

394.

Main purpose of mixture control > adjust fuel for best air : fuel ratio

395.
hi

Flying for max range> occurs at TAS where drag least & L/D ratio is

396.

Purpose of dual ignition > safer & improved fuel burn

397.

Blown fuse > fuse wire will melt, replace with fuse with lower rating

398.

Balance tab > reduce control load > moves in opp direction

399.
Stalling angle > AoA where marked reduction in Cl due to
breakdown of airflow on the top of wing
400.

Lift decreases with Alt > density = p

401.

Chord line > straight line from LE to TE

402.

Reset popped circuit breaker once

403.

Carb heat > decrease in RPM (or manifold pressure)

404.

Rectifier > converts AC to DC

405.

Carb icing at Venturi > venturi creates LP above fuel nozzle

406.

Breather pipe > relieves pressure

407.
Turbine engine life affected by > blade creep (hi Tx) stretches, can
have tip clearance
408.

Capacity of battery > amps/ hours

409.

A/C electricity for magnetos > by self contained magnetos

410.

Lift formula > V2 = TAS, lift = . Cl. p. V2. S

411.

Free servo control function > control column connected to tab

412.

Purpose of CSU > blade can have any angle

413.
Propeller efficiency > ratio of thrust(prop) horsepower to
brake(engine) horsepower
414.

Drag in turn (induced drag)

415.

Balance tab > tab moves in opp direction > load

416.

Induced drag > at hi AoA & slow speeds

417.

Hi wing loading > in stall speed

418.
Lat stability > hi wings above the CG > are part of the keel
surfaces, return to level > pendulum effect
419.

Load factor > ratio of lift force compared to weight

420.

Cantilever wings > without external struts

421.
Spiral instability > directionally stable, but lat unstable > effect is roll
then yaw, Dives > uncontrollable
422.
Max glide distance & weight > if weight & speed , greater
ROD, reach gnd sooner, but same range
423.
Geometric pitch > large near boss (root) at tip,, has same AoA
over whole blade
424.

Fixed pitch prop > efficient only at one TAS & RPM

425.

Blue smoke from exhaust > oil burning

426.
Split flaps > camber, more drag then plain flaps, nose down
pitching moment
427.

IAS remains the same with Alt

428.

Vle > max landing gear extended

429.
Piston engine hydraulicing > caused by oil leading into combustion
chambers when parked
430.
Some A/C > crankshafts may be overstressed with rapid opening &
closing of throttle
431.

Induced drag is with hi speed

432.
Effect when gear is lowered > drag line lowered, shortens arms >
weaken nose up > pitch down
433.
Accumulators > acts as shock absorber, stores fluid for
emergency , dampens fluctuations
434.
Electric fire > use class C extinguisher, normally burning smell from
electrics
435.

Pitot heat > prevents ice

436.
Piston type hydraulic pump > 3000psi,, pump must not over
pressure
437.
Landing on wet rwy > make firm touchdown > max braking > nose
down ASAP
438.

Emergency reverse of hydraulic fluid > by stand pipe (reservoir)

439.

Tyres heat > slow speed low pressure

440.

WAT limit (weight, Alt, Tx) critical at 2nd part of climb

441.
Aileron reversal > wing twist around Torsional axis, hi speed can
cause reversal
442.

Aquaplaning > worse at start of landing run

443.

Gear lowered > CG moves in direction of gear

444.

In magnetos > with Left selected (right gets earthed)

445.

CAoA > crit AoA > where Cl is max, not all life is lost at Cl max

446.

Heavy carbon deposit on spark plug > by over rich mixture or oil?

447.

Carb pressure when closing throttle > decreases

448.

Taper ratio > ratio of tip chord to root chord

449.

Max glide distance > if distance max, angle is min

450.
Increasing power with variable pitch prop > Mixture then RPM then
throttle
451.

Fuel with low octane > cause detonation

452.

CG & CP > CP change with AoA, CG change with fuel usage

453.

Wake turbulence > strongest at heavy A/C with flaps up

454.

Land beyond a heavy A/C touchdown point

455.

Land before heavy A/C rotation point

456.

Take off after heavy A/C, take off beyond heavys landing point

457.

Cabin pressure > controlled by outflow valve

458.

Hydroplaning avoidance > deploy spoilers

459.

Ammeter reading Zero > no charge > zero current flow

460.

Ammeter (+) > current is chargin..

461.

Ammeter (-) > battery is discharging

462.

If detonation is suspected with fixed pitch > reduce throttle

463.

Frise ailerons > up going aileron has more drag

464.

Differential movement > up moves more then down aileron

465.
Lead acid charge state > plates Gas freely, NiCd doesnt give
indication
466.

NiCd batteries shouldn be discharged fully > can reverse polarity

467.

Hi aspect ratio > has induced drag

468.
Boundary layer > air in contact with surface may have relative
velocity of zero
469.

Directional Stability > in yawing

470.

Emergency power source > battery

471.
Carb icing in CSI > drops Manifold pressure, ice in Venturi, butterfly
& manifold
472.

Lat stability > increased by dihedral, sweepback, hi wind, low CG

473.

Lift in climb > lift is then weight in a climb (has from thrust)

474.
Humidity on pistons/ jet > affects piston engines, doesnt affect
turbines
475.

Tail > forward control movement > lower nose > raising stability

476.
Vmca > min control speed where A/C is directionally controllable
out of gnd effect with crit engine fail

477.

Factor affecting braking ability > temperature

478.

Torsional flexural flutter > twisting of wing under load

479.

Torsional aileron flutter > wing twist due to aileron input

480.
Flexural aileron flutter > aileron lags behind up & dn movement of
wing
481.
Fuel mixture & temp > at hi tx, mixture should be leaned, reducing
amount of air
482.

Carb heat > adds hot air in, melts ice

483.

Centre of Pressure > CP > where lifts acts

484.
Carb icing in CSU props > drop in Manifold pressure > drop in RPM
> rough running
485.

Service ceiling > tx > decrease in service ceiling

486.

Drag at MSL & FL100 > with IAS the same > drag will be the same

487.

Flaps > decrease stall speed

488.

In rate 1 turn > stall speed decreases

489.
Hung starts, not enuf batt power for self > shut the fuel > keep
starter on to cool engine
490.
Hot start > tx rise beyond max > must shut fuel > keep starter on to
cool engine
491.
Wet start > fuel pumped before startup > blow white mist out the
back > shut fuel > keep starter on
492.

A/C > has stressed skin (light alloy)

493.

Tyre protective plugs > fusible > melts and slowly allows air out

494.
Aileron flutter > vibration as AoA changes > use mass balance >
forward of hinge
495.

Hi aspect ratio > low stalling angle

496.

Symmetrical aerofoil > Cl = 0 at 0 AoA

497.

Feather prop > 90 AoA

498.

Low pitch prop > power > decrease speed > decrease alt

499.

Magneto > runs at speed of engine

500.

Vref > landing ref speed > 1.3 * Vs

501.

V1 > take-off decision speed

502.

V2 > take-off safety speed

503.

AoA > angle between chord & RAF

504.

Lift > acts up 90 to RAF thru CP

505.

Drag > acts parallel to RAF

506.

Weight > acts to earth thru CG

507.
Aileron drag/ adverse aileron yaw > yaw opp direction of roll, dn
going aileron has more drag
508.

Dihedral > upward inclination to lat axis

509.
Total drag > sum of profile drag & induced drag, least when both
are equal
510.
Induce drag > affected by planform & aspect ratio & lift & speed &
weight
511.

Same IAS > TAS with alt

512.

Increase in humidty> decrease in density

513.

Vs1 > basic stalling > flaps & undercarriage up

514.

Stalling angle > CP is at furtherest forward point

515.

Stalling speed > higher at alt then at MSL

516.
3 degree asymmetric flight > Vmca will either not change of
decrease

517.

Turn radius vs speed > more speed, more radius

518.

Hi lift devices (slats & slots) : increase Clmax

519.

Aspect ratio > span/chord, span2/area

520.

Reduce induced drag > washout

521.

Hi aspect ratio > decreased drag at hi AoA

522.

Minimise aileron drag > differential & frise ailerons

523.

Trim tabs > adjusted in the opp direction

524.
Spoilers > hinged > decrease lift > and also increase drag, but
mainly lift
525.

Rudder > for overcoming adverse yaw

526.

Cowl gills > for directing air over cylinder walls fins

527.

Load factor > same in level flight

528.

Servo tab > control column is connected to tab

529.
Vortex generator > re-energise the boundary layer by mixing faster
air, effectiveness of airflow
530.
Rams head vortices > more with AoA > clockwise on left wing, anticlockwise on right wing
531.
Flaps are for > increase angle of descent without increasing
airspeed
532.

15 degree AoB > 90 kts will give the smallest radius of turn

533.

rectangular wing > stalls from root to tip

534.

stalling speed depends on > weight, load factor & power

535.
if severe turbulence > go manoeuvring speed > maintain attitude,
turb change RAF, stall speed
536.

Venturi > pressure is least > velocity is more

537.

In choke area of carb > area of Low pressure

538.

Fuel injection > better distribution of fuel to cylinders

539.

When carb heat is on > riches mixture

540.

Vmcg > min control speed on the ground

541.

Vsse > min intentional one engine fail

542.

Arm > distance from datum to object

543.

Stability > ability to return to original, without the pilot

544.

Static stability > it returns straight away

545.

Unstable > just gets worse

546.

Neutrally stable > keeps the same

547.

Dynamically stable > oscillations > take time

548.
Lat stab > stability around long axis > has to do with rolling >
dihedral & sweepback
549.

Long stab > do with tail plane

550.

Directional stab > with fin

551.

Normal axis > vert thru CG

552.

Reverted rubber > stopped by anti-skid

553.

Contaminated surface braking > standing water

554.
Aborted Take of rwy vacation > vacate rwy ASAP, heat of tires can
make it deflate
555.

If after take off> tire burst > leave gear down to cool tires

556.

Anti-icing > heaters

557.

Continuous ice prevention > toilet

558.

Pneumatic boot de-icing > at LE, expand & contract with bleed air

559.
Glazed ice by > super cooled H2O > freeze on contact with surfaces
thats below freezing

560.

Rain ice > most dangerous > by super cooled rain

561.
Dangers of icing > prop efficiency, lift, more drag, stall
speed
562.

Battery 40amp/hrs > 40 amps in 1 hour

563.
Purpose of reverse current cut out > prevent depletion of battery &
generator damage
564.
NiCd > low maintenance, long service, short recharge, good
starting
565.
Hot battery busbar > vital services > has to do with A/C safety >
always has power
566.

Generator > needs to run at hi RPM

567.
Alternator > requires initial current from battery, need battery, has
more power at low RPM then gen
568.

Generator failure > discharge on ammeter

569.

Inverter > DC AC

570.

Voltage regulator > maintains correct output voltage

571.

Circuit overload > by popping circuit breaker

572.

Most electrical power is supplied by AC generator

573.
Thermal runaway > battery very flat > hi charge rate > battery gets
to hot > self destruct
574.

In variable pitch > as airspeed increases > blade coursens

575.

Purpose of CSU > maintain constant RPM

576.

CSU pilot has direct control over the propeller pitch

577.

Increase power in CSU > mixture > RPM > throttle

578.
Change RPM in CSU > with pitch control, change Manifold
pressure with throttle

579.
Carb icing suspected in A/C with CSU > immediate decrease in
Manifold pressure with heat then rise
580.
B4 engine started > manifold pressure 29 same as atmosphere
pressure
581.

Progressive braking > press & stop

582.

Differential braking > for steering

583.

Would press tricycle gear harder

584.

Brake accumulator > for emergency source of hydraulic fluid

585.

Landing gear > 2 greens > check bulbs

586.

Anti skid is on during auto braking

587.

Never re-fuel with lower octane (can detonate)

588.

Lead is added to fuel to increase its anti-detonation qualities

589.

White smoke & red flames from exhaust > mixture is set too rich

590.

100/130 > 100 octane for leaned > 130 for rich mix

591.
In tricycle gear > tail dragger is better cause of slower landing
speed
592.
Tappet & rocker arm clearance > for expansions thru out working
range of Tx
593.

For compressor stall > Reduce AoA, reduce fuel flow (close throttle)

594.

Valve lead> before TDC,, valve lag > after TDC

595.

Valve overlap >both valves open > end of exhaust stroke

596.

Valve springs duplicated > reduce valve bounce / surge

597.
Compression ratio > ratio of cylinder vol at BDC and at TDC in Jet
>1.25:1
598.

Dry sump > has separate oil tank > external

599.

Oil pump that has greatest capacity > is scavenge pump

600.
If radial engine is shut down for 30 mins > turn prop 3-4 times,
check for liquid lock
601.

Valve dwell > period valve remains closed > time between cams

602.

Counter rotating prop > cancel gyroscopic & torque effect

603.
Crit engine > engine that provides essential power/ dn blade closer
to fuselage
604.

Hi wing loading > more landing roll & stall speed

605.

Increase blade solidity > increase # of blades & chord of each blade

606.
Dutch roll > roll in one direction > yaw in another > prevented by
yaw dampers
607.
With water on rwy > Apply moderate braking after wheels spin up>
release for skid
608.

Hydroplaning > standing water, slush, hi speed, smooth rwy

609.

Slippery rwy > loose directional & deceleration capability

610.
Detonation > pressure & temp rise for the fuel mix in cylinders,
explosive
611.

Reverse thrust > turned prop thru fine pitch >to -20

612.

Wind shear > change in w/v speed or direction

613.

Fine pitch > for take off & climb,, course for cruise & hi speed flight

614.

Feathering > reduces drag of failed engine (course) for parking

615.

Bleed air temp control > from engine > heat exchanger

616.
Water separator > found in bleed air system >b4 goes to air
distribution system > 30% humidity
617.

Cabin differential pressure >ratio between inside & outside air

618.

If fuselage has leak > closes outflow valve slightly

619.
Cabin pressure > in descending > descend with constant pressure
diff cabin alt tracks A/C alt