PHYS 652: Astrophysics

Appendix to Lecture 2
An Alternative Lagrangian
In class we used an alternative Lagrangian
L = g x x ,
instead of the traditional
L=

g x x .

Here is the justification why either works correctly, i.e., why the expression given in eq. (223) is a
Lagrangian that generates the geodesic equation.
We prove that by applying the Lagranges equations
L
d L

= 0.

x
d x
to the expression in eq. (223), and recovering the geodesic equation.
L
= g, x x ,
x
L
= g x + g x



d
L
= g, x x + g x
+ g, x x + g x

d x
= (g, + g, ) x x + 2g x
,
because we are at liberty to rename dummy variables (ones which are summed over), and to
exchange indices of the metric tensor, since it is symmetric. The Lagrange equation therefore
reads:
d L
L

x
d x

= (g, + g, ) x x + 2g x
g, x x =
= (g, + g, g, ) x x + 2g x
= 0.

Now multiply both sides by 21 g to isolate the second derivative term:

1
x
+ g (g, + g, g, ) x x = 0,
2
where we have used g g = (Kronecker delta). But, by definition
1
= g (g, + g, g, ) ,
2
so, we finally have
x
= x x ,
which is the geodesic equation we derived in class (eq. (31)). This proves that the Lagrangian in
eq. (223) also generates the geodesic equation (the factor of 1/2, or any other positive constant,
does not affect the Lagranges equations).

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

Example of Metric Conversion

Let us see how convert from one space metric to another, i.e., use eq. (4).

For example, given the space metric in Cartesian

1 0

ij =
0 1
0 0

coordinates (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x, y, z)

0
0 .
1

let us find the space metric in spherical coordinates (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (r, , ). Cartesian coordinates
are given in terms of spherical as:
x = r sin cos ,

y = r sin sin ,

z = r cos ,

or
x1 = x1 sin x2 cos x3 ,

x2 = x1 sin x2 sin x3 ,

x3 = x1 cos x2 .

Then,
x1
= sin x2 cos x3 ,
x1
x2
= sin x2 sin x3 ,
x1

x1
= x1 cos x2 cos x3 ,
x2

x1
= x1 sin x2 sin x3 ,
x3

x2
= x1 cos x2 sin x3 ,
x2

x2
= x1 sin x2 cos x3 ,
x3

x3
= cos x2 ,
x1

x3
= x1 sin x2 ,
x2

x3
= 0.
x3

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

From eq. (4), we have

xi xj
ds2 = ij dxi dxj = ij k l dxk dxl
x x






i
xi xj
xi xj
x xj
1
2
1
3
1 2
= (dx ) ij 1 1 + dx dx ij 1 2 + dx dx ij 1 3
x x
x x
x x






i
j
j
i
x x
x x
xi xj
2
1
2 2
2
3
+ dx dx ij 2 1 + (dx ) ij 2 2 + dx dx ij 2 3
x x
x x
x x






j
j
i
i
x x
xi xj
x x
3
2
3 2
3
1
+ dx dx ij 3 1 + dx dx ij 3 2 + (dx ) ij 3 3
x x
x x
x x
 2 2

1 2
2 3
2 2
2 3
2 2
= (dx ) sin x cos x + sin x sin x + cos x


+ dx1 dx2 x1 sin x2 cos x2 cos2 x3 + x1 sin x2 cos x2 sin2 x3 x1 cos x2 sin x3


+ dx1 dx3 x1 sin2 x2 sin x3 cos x3 + x1 sin2 x2 sin x3 cos x3


+ dx2 dx1 x1 sin x2 cos x2 cos2 x3 + x1 sin x2 cos x2 sin2 x3 x1 cos x2 sin x3


+ (dx2 )2 (x1 )2 cos2 x2 cos2 x3 + (x1 )2 cos2 x2 sin2 x3 + (x1 )2 sin x3


+ dx2 dx3 (x1 )2 cos x2 sin x2 cos x3 sin x3 + (x1 )2 cos x2 sin x2 cos x3 sin x3


+ dx3 dx1 x1 sin2 x2 sin x3 cos x3 + x1 sin2 x2 sin x3 cos x3


+ dx3 dx2 (x1 )2 cos x2 sin x2 cos x3 sin x3 + (x1 )2 cos x2 sin x2 cos x3 sin x3


+ (dx3 )2 (x1 )2 sin2 x2 sin2 x3 + (x1 )2 sin2 x2 cos2 x3
= (dx1 )2 + (x1 )2 (dx2 )2 + (x1 )2 sin2 x2 (dx3 )2

= dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + r 2 sin2 d2
= p11 (dr)2 + p22 (d)2 + p33 (d)2
= p11 (dx1 )2 + p22 (dx2 )2 + p33 (dx3 )2 = pij dxi dxj .
Reading off diagonal components of the metric, we have
p11 = 1,
p22 = r 2 ,
p33 = r 2 sin2 ,
so, the space metric for spherical coordinates is

1 0
0

pij = 0 r 2
0
or
2
2
0 0 r sin

1
ij

0
p =
0

0
1
r2

0
0
1
r 2 sin2

Deriving the geodesic equation in spherical coordinates. Let us now compute the geodesic
in 3D flat space, expressed in spherical coordinates. This should be an analog to geodesics in flat
space in Cartesian coordinates:
x
= 0.
This can be done in at least two ways.
Method 1: Brute force computing Christoffel symbols and substituting them into the geodesic
equation. From the eq. (14), Christoffel symbols for the spherical space are given by
1
kij = pkl (pil,j + plj,i pij,l ) .
2
3

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

Since p11 = 1 all of its derivatives vanish. Also, because of symmetry (look at the definition given
in eq. (14) and recall that the metric tensor is symmetric). Therefore, we have
k1j = kj1 =


1
1  k2
1 kl
p p2j,1 + pk3 p3j,1 .
p (p1l,j + plj,1 p1j,l ) = pkl plj,1 =
2
2
2

Utilizing the following properties of the metric pij :

pij is diagonal

pij = 0, pij,k = 0, when i 6= j,

p11 = const. p11,i = 0,

pij 6= pij () = pij (x3 ) pij,3 = 0,
p22 = p22 (r) = p22 (x1 ) p22,2 = 0, p22,3 = 0,
p33 = p33 (r, ) = p33 (x1 , x2 ) p33,3 = 0.
after some bookkeeping, we obtain
11j
122
123
133
21j
211
212
213

= 1j1 = 0,
1 1l
1
=
p (p2l,2 + pl2,2 p22,l ) = p11 p22,1 = r,
2
2
1
1
= 132 = p1l (p2l,3 + pl3,2 p23,l ) = p1l pl3,2 = 0,
2
2
1 1l
1 11
=
p (p3l,3 + pl3,3 p33,l ) = p p33,1 = r sin2 ,
2
2
1 22
p p2j,1 ,
=
2
= 0,
1
1 1
1
= 221 = p22 p22,1 =
2r = ,
2
2 r2
r
2
= 31 = 0,

222 = 0,
1
1
223 = 232 = p2l (p2l,3 + pl3,2 p23,l ) = p22 (p22,3 + p23,2 p23,2 ) = 0,
2
2
1 2l
1 22
1 1
2
33 =
p (p3l,3 + pl3,3 p33,l ) = p p33,2 = 2 (2r 2 sin cos ) = sin cos ,
2
2
2r
1 3l
1
1
3ij =
p (pil,j + plj,i pij,l ) = p33 (pi3,j + p3j,i pij,3 ) = p33 (pi3,j + p3j,i ) ,
2
2
2
311 = 0,
312 = 321 = 0,
1
313 = 331 = p33 (p13,3 + p33,1 ) =
2
322 = 0,
1
323 = 332 = p33 (p23,3 + p33,2 ) =
2
1
333 =
p33 (p33,3 + p33,3 ) = 0.
2

1
1 33
1
1
p p33,1 =
(2r sin2 ) = ,
2
2
2
2 r sin
r
1
1 33
1
p p33,2 =
(2r 2 sin cos ) = cot ,
2
2 r 2 sin2

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

Geodesic equation in spherical coordinates then becomes (recall x1 = r, x2 = , x2 = ):

x
1 = r = 1 x x = 122 (x 2 )2 133 (x 3 )2
= r 2 + r sin2 2 ,
x
2 = = 2 x x = 2212 x 1 x 2 233 (x 3 )2
1
= 2 r + sin cos 2 ,
r
x
3 = = 3 x x = 2313 x 1 x 3 2323 x 2 x 3
1

= 2 r 2 cot ,
r
Method 2: Using a Lagrangian L = g x x . The alternative Lagrangian mentioned earlier
becomes
L = pij x i x j = r 2 + r 2 2 + r 2 sin2 2 ,
so applying the Lagrange equations
L
d L

= 0,
xl d x l
yields, for each coordinate r, , :
L
d L

r
d r
d L
L

d
d L
L

= 2r + 2r sin2 2 2
r = 0,

= 2r 2 sin cos 2 4r r 2r 2 = 0,

= 4r r sin2 4r 2 sin cos 2r 2 sin2 = 0,

r = r 2 + r sin2 2 ,
1
= 2 r + sin cos 2 ,
r
1

= 2 r 2 cot .
r

This set of equations represents motion in flat space, as described by spherical coordinates, and
therefore should describe straight lines. This is fairly easy to see for purely radial motion in the
x y plane, = /2 and = const., so the RHS of all three geodesic equations above vanish, and
we recover a straight (radial) line r = 0. In a more general case, it is less trivial to show that the
equations above represent straight lines.
As mentioned in class, using this alternative Lagrangian allows one to readily read off Christoffel
symbols. From the equation above, they are readily identified as
122 = r,
133 = r sin2 ,
1
212 = 221 = ,
r
2
33 = sin cos ,
1
313 = 331 = ,
r
323 = 332 = cot ,
just as we computed by brute force. The factor 2 in front of Christoffel symbols ijk which have
unequal lower indices (j 6= k) reflects the fact that because of symmetry both ijk and ikj are
counted.
5

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

p It is not advisable to compute the geodesic equation from the traditional Lagrangian L =
g x x , as it will quickly lead to some extremely cumbersome algebra. The three Lagranges
equation should eventually reduce to the geodesic equations we derived above (because the two are
equivalent in terms of producing the same result) but it quickly becomes obvious which approach
is preferable.

Applying the Geodesic Equation

Let us compute the geodesic equation on the surface of the 3D sphere. The radius is then
constant r = R, the coordinates are (x1 , x2 ) = (, ), and the metric is
 2

R
0
pij =
.
0 R2 sin2
The Lagrangian again is

L = pij x i x j = R2 2 + R2 sin2 2 ,

where i, j = 1, 2. Applying the Lagrange equations

d L
L

= 0,
xl d x l
yields, for each coordinate and :
L
d L

d
L
d L

= 2R2 sin cos 2 2R2 = 0,

= sin cos 2 ,

= 4R2 sin cos 2r 2 sin2 = 0,

= 2 cot .

The second equation reduces to

2 cot = 0
sin2 2 sin cos = 0
d  2 
sin
= 0,
dt
where the the conserved term in parentheses is the angular momentum.
We know that the geodesics on the surface of the sphere must be a part of a great circle the
circle which contains the two points and whose radius is the radius of the sphere (its center also
coincides with the center of the sphere). We can check the two special cases, and make sure they
are correct:
1. Equator: for the two points along the equator the shortest distance will be also along the
equator. We need to show that such a curve = c1 + 0 , and = /2 satisfies the geodesic
equation. Plug
= c1 + 0 ,

=
,
2
in the geodesic equation and obtain

= c1 ,
= 0,

= 0,
= 0,

= sin cos 2 = sin cos c1 2 = 0,

2
2

= 2 cot = 2 cot 0c1 = 0.

2
So, the equator is a geodesic.
6

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

2. Meridian: for the two points along the same meridian (arc of the great circle connecting the
two poles) the shortest distance should also be along the meridian. We need to show that
such a curve = 0 , and = c2 + 0 satisfies the geodesic equation. Plug
= 0 ,
= c2 + 0 ,

= 0,
= c2 ,

= 0,
= 0,

in the geodesic equation and obtain

= sin cos 2 = sin (c2 + 0 ) cos (c2 + 0 ) 02 = 0,
= 2 cot = 2 cot (c2 + 0 ) c2 0 = 0.
So, the meridian is a geodesic.