Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Introduction
Carbon Monoxide is a colourless, odourless and non irritant gas, which
cannot be perceived by the senses. Whenever carbon is burnt either at a
high temperature or in a limited supply of oxygen some carbon monoxide
is formed. Carbon Monoxide poisoning may be due to inhalation of the
fumes given off by slow combustion of stoves, by burning charcoal in an
open fireplace or by breathing air, which is contaminated by coal gas in a
badly ventilated room. (Coal gas contains 5- 10% of CO). Deaths in a
house which is on fire, are mainly due to this gas. It is more powerful than
Carbon dioxide. As this gas has an affinity for Hb. of the blood, the
combination of two makes latter an useless oxygen carrier and renders
Hb. Functions less and carbon oxide haemoglobin is produced. Poisonings
are mostly accidental. Haemoglobin has 240 times greater affinity for CO
than for Oxygen. Therefore even minute quantities are readily absorbed
into the blood stream.
Carbon Monoxide was first prepared by the reduction of a metallic oxide
by French Chemist Lassone. Cruikshank found that it was a compound of
carbon and oxygen only. Dalton established its formula to be CO. It occurs
in traces in volcanic gases, tobacco smoke and chimney gases.
In Northern India and in the hills in the cold weather fatal poisonings have
resulted from the use of the charcoal sigry in a closed room for the sake
of warmth. Since the introduction of motor car, many deaths have
followed the inhalation of the exhaust gases given off by the engine when
running. These cases have, almost invariably, been due to the closed
garage. A few cases have been reported in which the passengers in the
closed car have been affected by the exhaust gases finding their way into
the car between badly fitting floor- boards. In latest vehicles that are fitted
with the catalytic converter, CO should not be released into the
atmosphere, where the devices are working properly.
Petrol, on burning , gives carbon a dioxide together with carbon monoxide.
These exhaust gases may contain as much as 8% to 10% carbon
monoxide. Octane (C8 H18), a hydrocarbon found, in petrol on incomplete
combustion releases carbon monoxide.
Coal or coke burnt in domestic ovens, stoves, also produces some carbon
monoxide. It is not advisable to sleep in a room where coke or wood is

burning and doors and windows are close because CO produced is a

poisonous gas
Hence, it is a powerful narcotic poison, much more powerful than carbon
dioxide. This gas is obtainable by passing carbon dioxide over read hot
charcoal. It is one of the gases resulting from the explosion of petrol
vapour. The exhaust gases of motor vehicles therefore contain carbon
monoxide.

History
Aristotle (384322 BC) first recorded that burning coals produced toxic
fumes. An ancient method of execution was to shut the criminal in a
bathing room with smouldering coals. What was not known was the
mechanism of death. Greek physician Galen (129199 AD) speculated that
there was a change in the composition of the air that caused harm when
inhaled. In 1776, the French chemist de Lassone produced CO by heating
zinc oxide with coke, but mistakenly concluded that the gaseous product
was hydrogen, as it burned with a blue flame. The gas was identified as a
compound containing carbon and oxygen by the Scottish chemist William
Cumberland Cruikshank in the year 1800. Its toxic properties on dogs
were thoroughly investigated by Claude Bernard around 1846.
During World War II, a gas mixture including carbon monoxide was used to
keep motor vehicles running in parts of the world where gasoline and
diesel fuel were scarce. External (with a few exceptions) charcoal or wood
gas generators were fitted, and the mixture of atmospheric nitrogen,
carbon monoxide, and small amounts of other gases produced by
gasification was piped to a gas mixer. The gas mixture produced by this
process is known as wood gas. Carbon monoxide was also used on a large
scale during the Holocaust at some Nazi extermination camps, the most
notable by gas vans in Chelmno, and in the Action T4 "euthanasia"
program.1 In addition to the Holocaust during the world war, German
Nazis used gas vans to kill an estimated 700,000 prisoners by Carbon
monoxide poisoning. This method was also used in the gas chambers of
several death camps.

Atmospheric presence
1 Kitchen, Martin (2006). A history of modern Germany, 18002000. WileyBlackwell. p. 323. ISBN 1-4051-0041-9.

Carbon monoxide is present in small amounts in the atmosphere, chiefly

as a product of volcanic activity but also from natural and man-made fires
(such as forest and bushfires, burning of crop residues, and sugarcane
fire-cleaning). The burning of fossil fuels also contributes to carbon
monoxide production. Carbon monoxide occurs dissolved in molten
volcanic rock at high pressures in the Earth's mantle. Because natural
sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is
extremely difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas.
Carbon monoxide is a short-lived greenhouse gas and also has an indirect
radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of methane and
tropospheric ozone through chemical reactions with other atmospheric
constituents (e.g., the hydroxyl radical, OH.) that would otherwise destroy
them.2 Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually
oxidized to carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide is both short-lived in the
atmosphere (on average about two months) and spatially variable in
concentration.
In the atmosphere of Venus carbon monoxide occurs as a result of the
photodissociation of carbon dioxide by electromagnetic radiation of
wavelengths shorter than 169 nm.
Due to its long lifetime in the mid-troposphere, carbon monoxide is also
used as tracer of transport for pollutant plumes.

Physical Properties
Chemical
formula

CO

Molar mass

28.010 g/mol

Appearance

colourless gas

Odour

odourless

Density

Vapour density 14, as heavy

as air (14.4)

Melting point 205.02 C

68.13 K)

(337.04 F;

2 Sigel, Astrid and Sigel, Roland K. O. (2009). Metal-Carbon Bonds in Enzymes

and Cofactors. Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 243. ISBN 1-84755-915-8.

Boiling point 191.5

81.6 K)

C(312.7 F;

Poisonous Nature
Carbon monoxide if inhaled combines with the haemoglobin of the blood
to form a stable compound, carboxyl haemoglobin. It is more stable than
oxy haemoglobin. The affinity between haemoglobin and carbon monoxide
is 240 times stronger than the affinity between haemoglobin and oxygen,
so haemoglobin binds to carbon monoxide in preference to oxygen.
The person dies due to suffocation, as little oxygen will actually be
released in the tissues, as there is decrease in the amount of oxygen
carried by the haemoglobin, thus this causes hypoxic tissue injury
resulting in relative functional anemia.

Sources of
Carbon
Monoxide
Carbon
monoxide is
produced
when fuels such
as gas, oil, coal
and
wood do
not
burn
fully. Burning
charcoal, running cars and the smoke from cigarettes also produce carbon
monoxide gas.
The following are the sources

boilers

gas fires

central heating systems

water heaters

cookers

open fires

Explosives

Gas used for lighting purposes

Oil Lamps

Engine Testing( exhaust)

Mines

When photographic films are burned.3

The main cause of accidental exposure to carbon monoxide (CO) is

household appliances, such as cooking and heating devices, which have
been damaged, incorrectly installed or badly maintained.
The risk of exposure to carbon monoxide from portable devices may
also be higher in caravans, boats and mobile homes.
Other possible causes of carbon monoxide poisoning include:

blocked
flues
and
chimneys this
can
stop
monoxide escaping, allowing it to reach dangerous levels

burning fuel in an enclosed or unventilated space for example,

running a car engine, petrol-powered generator or barbecue inside a
garage, or a faulty boiler in an enclosed kitchen

faulty or blocked car exhausts a leak or a blockage in the exhaust

pipe, such as after heavy snowfall, could lead to a build-up of carbon
monoxide

paint fumes some cleaning fluids and paint removers contain

methylene chloride (dichloromethane), which can cause carbon
monoxide poisoning if breathed in

smoking shisha pipes indoors shisha pipes burn charcoal and

tobacco, which can lead to a build-up of carbon monoxide in
enclosed or unventilated rooms.4

carbon

3 See Medico- legal Companion by Dr. P.K Bhattacharji, 2 nd Edition, at p. 402

Auto Emissions of CO
In cities, about ; two-thirds of the carbon monoxide emissions come from
transportation sources, with the largest contribution coming from highway
motor vehicles. In urban areas, the motor vehicle contribution to carbon
monoxide pollution can exceed 90 percent. In 1992, carbon monoxide
levels exceeded the Federal air quality standard in 20 U.S. cities, home to
more than 14 million people.
Carbon monoxide results from incomplete combustion of fuel and is
emitted directly from vehicle tailpipes. Incomplete combustion is most
likely to occur at low air-to-fuel ratios in the engine. These conditions are
common during vehicle starting when air supply is restricted ("choked"),
when cars are not tuned properly, and at altitudes where "thin" air
reduces the amount of oxygen available for combustion (except in cars
that are designed or adjusted to compensate for altitude).
By 1975, most new cars were equipped with catalytic converters that
convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. In the 1980's, automakers
improved CO conversion with computers and oxygen sensors that
increased the efficiency of catalytic converters. Carbon monoxide
emissions from automobiles increase in cold weather because cars need
more fuel to start at cold temperatures, and because some emission
control devices (such as oxygen sensors and catalytic converters) operate
less efficiently when they are cold.

4 ://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Carbon-monoxide-poisoning/Pages/Causes.asp

Test for Carbon Monoxide

1. No effect on the lime water.
2. On ignition followed by passage of residual gas through lime water
turns milky.
3. Filter paper soaked in palladium chloride turns pink, green or black if
dipped in jar of CO , depending upon the consideration of Co.
The different colours are due to the different particle sizes of
palladium. This reaction is used by medical practioners to test the
presence of carbon monoxide in sample of blood.
4. Carbon monoxide reduces certain heated metallic oxides of less
active metals to their respective metals and it itself gets oxidised to
carbon dioxide.

Symptoms of CO Poisoning

On average, about 170 people in the United States die every year from CO
produced by non-automotive consumer products. These products include
malfunctioning fuel-burning appliances such as furnaces, ranges, water
heaters and room heaters; engine-powered equipment such as portable
generators; fireplaces; and charcoal that is burned in homes and other
enclosed areas. In 2005 alone, CPSC staff is aware of at least 94
generator-related CO poisoning deaths. Forty-seven of these deaths were
known to have occurred during power outages due to severe weather,
including Hurricane Katrina. Still others die from CO produced by nonconsumer products, such as cars left running in attached garages. The
Centres
for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that several
thousand people go to hospital emergency rooms every year to be treated
for CO poisoning.
The Symptoms depend on the limit of blood saturation1. Below 10% - a little inconvenience is felt.
2. 10 to 20% - Lassitude, headache, shortness of breath.
3. 20 to 30% - Giddiness, faintness, severe throbbing, headache,
muscular weakness, nausea, rapid heart beat, hurried respiration,
defective memory.
4. 30 to 40% - In-coordinated movement, mental confusion, defective
sight and hearing, palpitation, dyspnoea.
5. 40 to 50% - Behaviour like a drunk person and loss of power of
movement increasing confusion, hallucination, ataxia.
6. At 50 to 60% - Syncope or coma followed by convulsion. Weak, rapid
pulse. Skin- pinkish or reddish.
7. 60 to 70% - Deep coma. Often painless death due to deprivation of
Oxygen. There may be in-continuance of urine or stool.

8. 70 to 80% - or above Rapid death. Persons in ill health may die

quicker.
Thus, the symptoms are most likely like CO2 poisoning. There is heaviness
in the head, dizziness, noises in the ears, tightness of the chest and loss of
muscular power. There may be vomiting. Pulse and respiration are rapid.
Pupils are dilated, conjunctiva red, lips covered with froth. Skin is cold and
clammy, insensibility and coma supervenes and convulsions may precede
death.5 Carbon Monoxide can poison slowly over a period of several hours,
even in low concentrations. Sensitive organs such as the brain, heart, and
lungs suffer the most from a lack of oxygen. Unfortunately, the symptoms
of CO poisoning are easily mistaken for other common illnesses and low
level CO poisonings are often misdiagnosed. Symptoms such as
headaches, dizziness and fatigue are common to a number of illnesses
such as the flu or the common cold.6

Post Mortem Appearances

The body resists decomposition for some time. Body surface, especially
lips and fingers appears to be bright or cherry- red. Irregular patches of
bright red colour are found over anterior surface of the body. Post- mortem
stains are cherry red in colour. Blood is fluid and bright red in colour (not
dark as in CO2 poisoning). Internal organs are also bright red. This is due to
combination of Hb. of the blood with CO with the formation of carbonic
5 Moitra and Kaushal, Medical Jurisprudence& Toxicology, 3 rd Edition, at p. 800
6 www.nutramed.com/environment/monoxide.htm

oxide haemoglobin. Froths in the air passages, mouth and nostrils are
conspicuous.

Remedy for Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 1. The persons should be brought into the open air and should be
provided with artificial respiration.
2. The person should be made to inhale Carbogen, a mixture of 95%
oxygen and 5% carbon dioxide.
Treatment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Removal of the patient into fresh air.

Artificial Respiration
Oxygen inhalations with 5% CO2.
Injection of adrenaline hypodermically 1. c.c.
Injection of coramine 5 c.c. (25%) i.v, half to one hourly.
I.V Normal Saline. Blood transfusion.7

Prevention of CO Poisoning

Install at least one smoke alarm and carbon monoxide alarm on

every level of your home and near bedrooms. The alarm should
meet the latest Underwriters Laboratories (UL) safety standard and
comply with local regulations for placement in the home.

Call a certified professional to inspect, clean, and tune up the

central heating system and repair leaks.

Monitor appliances, chimneys, and vents for visible soot, rust,

stains, blockage, or corrosion. Also have them inspected each year.
When in use, make sure they vent properly to allow gas to escape
from enclosed areas. Don't close the fireplace or damper before the
fire is completely out.

Open flues when fireplaces are in use.

Hire a professional to clean your chimney at least once a year.

Make sure wood burning stoves comply with local regulations and
meet current EPA emissions standards.

7 See Medico legal Companion by Dr. P.K Bhattacharji, 2 nd Edition, at p. 402

Burn only wood and be sure the wood stove is placed on an

approved stove board to protect the floor from heat and embers.

Never use generators indoors or in crawl spaces.

Use proper fuel in space heaters.

Use space heaters in well-ventilated areas.

Don't use a gas kitchen oven to heat your home. Keep gas
appliances properly adjusted and serviced.

Don't burn charcoal or use a grill indoors.

Don't use paint remover that has methylene chloride in it, especially
when children are around. (Methylene chloride converts to carbon
monoxide in the body.)8

The largest group that suffers from CO poisonings are homeowners. You
can reduce your familys exposure to CO by following the
recommendations below.
Fuel-Burning Appliances

Forced-air furnaces should be checked by a professional once a year

or as recommended by the manufacturer. Pilot lights can produce
CO and should be kept in good working order.

All fuel-burning appliances (eg, gas water heaters, gas stoves, gas
clothes dryers) should be checked professionally once a year or as
recommended by the manufacturer.

Gas cooking stove tops and ovens should not be used for
supplemental heat.

Fireplaces & Woodstoves

Fireplaces and woodstoves should be checked professionally once a

year or as recommended by the manufacturer.

Check to ensure the flue is open during operation. Proper use,

inspection, and maintenance of vent-free fireplaces (and space
heaters) are recommended.

Space Heaters
8 www.cdc.gov/co/guidelines.htm

Fuel-burning space heaters should be checked professionally once a

year or as recommended by the manufacturer.

Space heaters should be properly vented during use, according to

the manufacturers specifications.

Barbecue Grills/Hibachis

Never use barbecue grills or hibachis indoors.

Never use barbecue grills or hibachis in poorly ventilated spaces

such as garages, campers, and tents.

Automobiles/Other Motor Vehicles

Regular inspection and maintenance of the vehicle exhaust system

are recommended. Many states have vehicle inspection programs to
ensure this practice.

Never leave an automobile running in the garage or other enclosed

space; CO can accumulate even when a garage door is open.

Generators/Other Fuel-Powered Equipment

Follow the manufacturers recommendations

generators and other fuel-powered equipment.9

when

operating

Boats
Be aware that CO poisoning can mimic symptoms of sea sickness.
Schedule regular engine and exhaust system maintenance.
Consider installing a CO detector in the accommodation space on
the boat.
Never swim under the back deck or swim platform as CO builds up
near exhaust vents.

9 www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/all-around/Pages/How-toPrevent-Carbon-Monoxide-Poisoning.aspx

Effects of Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide is only one of approximately 4000 chemicals contained
in cigarette smoke. Carbon monoxide is considered a poison because it
blocks your body's ability to use oxygen, thereby, suffocating all of the
tissues of your body. The carbon monoxide binds tightly to hemoglobin in
your bloodstream once it is inhaled into your lungs. The hemoglobin is a
special protein in your red blood cells that normally carries oxygen to all
parts of your body. When carbon monoxide is carried by the hemoglobin,
this limits your oxygen supply. Since your body contains more than four
million red blood cells, there is a considerable amount of hemoglobin in
those cells that can continue to carry oxygen, so you don`t feel the effects
of a lack of oxygen from a single cigarette. Over time, however, your body
produces additional blood cells to compensate for the lack of oxygen that
has occurred from chronic smoking. These additional cells cause a strain
to the heart and circulatory system that can potentially lead to other
health hazards.
The direct effects of carbon monoxide to the lungs are from the lack of
oxygen to these tissues. The lack of oxygen causes problems such as:
1) stiffening of the lung tissue from scarring resulting in a condition called
chronic obstructive lung disease or emphysema,
2) weakening of the alveolar sacs (the area in the lungs where oxygen is
taken in by the blood and carbon dioxide is released) causing
bronchiectasis,
3) damage to the lining of the bronchial tubes (the passageways for air to
get to the alveoli for gas exchange), 4) damage to the hair cells in the
bronchial tubes which help rid the lungs of excess mucous and
particulates (small particles such as dust, viruses, bacteria, dead cells,
etc.).

All of these above-mentioned effects to the lungs are cumulative. The

longer you smoke, the more damage that occurs. The good news is that
once you stop smoking, these negative effects begin reversing
themselves. If you have not had severe damage to your lungs, it is
possible for them to return to a healthy non - smoking state after ten
years of abstaining from tobacco.10
Thus, When you breathe carbon monoxide, the gas particles are absorbed
by the lungs. They then attach themselves to red blood cells in the same
way oxygen normally does. The danger is that blood cells bond many time
faster to carbon monoxide particles than to oxygen particles, drastically
compromising oxygen levels in your body. This can lead to oxygen
deprivation, or asphyxiation.
Effects on the Lungs

As carbon monoxide increases in the tissues of your body, your

heart is forced to work harder, trying to pump what should be
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the rest of your body. This taxes
both the heart and the lungs. Your airways will swell and even less
air enters the lungs. After long-term exposure, lung tissue is
eventually destroyed, leading to lung disease and cardiovascular
problems.11

Effects on Breathing

Because carbon monoxide deprives the blood cells of oxygen, the

respiratory system struggles to deliver air to the body. This will
often appear as shortness of breath, especially during physical
activity, though labored breathing can occur even without physical
exertion. Sports activities will require more effort and leave you
more exhausted than usual. This can worsen over time as your
body's ability to obtain oxygen is severely compromised.

CO Alarms/ Detectors

10 http://www.netwellness.org/question.cfm/1230.htm
11 http://www.ehow.com/info_7873237_effects-carbon-monoxide-respiratorysystem.html

CO alarms always have been and still are designed to alarm before
potentially life-threatening levels of CO are reached. The safety standards
for CO alarms have been continually improved and currently marketed CO
alarms are not as susceptible to nuisance alarms as earlier models.
Consumers should follow the manufacturer's instructions. Using a test
button tests whether the circuitry is operating correctly, not the accuracy
of the sensor. Alarms have a recommended replacement age, which can
be obtained from the product literature or from the manufacturer.

CO alarms should be installed according to the manufacturer's

instructions. CPSC recommends that one CO alarm be installed in the
hallway outside the bedrooms in each separate sleeping area of the home.
CO alarms may be installed into a plug-in receptacle or high on the wall.
Hard wired or plug-in CO alarms should have battery backup. Avoid
locations that are near heating vents or that can be covered by furniture
or draperies. CPSC does not recommend installing CO alarms in kitchens
or above fuel-burning appliances.12
You may be surprised to discover that a carbon monoxide (CO) detector
really isn't a complicated piece of equipment. Housed inside
a plastic chamber approximately 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) in diameter
are parts that work in unison to alert a household when lethal gas is
detected. The exact components can vary from one model to another, but
here's a run-down of the basic parts:

A small silicon microchip sends an electronic charge, a sort of

"what to do" signal, to the other parts of the detector. The chip is
fused to a copper-wired, integrated electronic circuit panel, which is
the base for the unit.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) use lights to let you know how the
unit is functioning and whether the battery needs to be replaced.
Some detectors also have a liquid crystal display (LCD) panel that
shows a readout of CO levels.

Wires to the building's electrical system or a battery provide power

to the unit.

A test/reset button lets you make sure the alarm is working.13

Never ignore an alarming CO alarm! It is warning you of a potentially

deadly hazard.
If the alarm signal sounds do not try to find the source of the CO:
Immediately move outside to fresh air.

Call your emergency services, fire department

12 www.cpsc.gov/en/Safety-Education/Safety-Education-Centers/CarbonMonoxide-Information-Center/Carbon-Monoxide-Questions-and-Answers-/
13 http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/householdsafety/tips/carbon-monoxide-detector3.htm


If the source of the CO is determined to be a malfunctioning
appliance, DO NOT operate that appliance until it has been properly
serviced by trained personnel.

Uses of Carbon Monoxide

1. Carbon Monoxide is combustible and burns without smoke, so
it is used as a fuel either alone or mixed with other gases, in
the form of producer gas or water gas.
2. It is used as a reducing, agent for extraction of metals from
their oxides. The metal oxides preheated with coke. The coke
removes as a fuel and burns to produce carbon monoxide
which reduces the hot metal oxides to free metals.
3. It is used in the manufacture of some organic compounds like
sodium formate.
4. It is used in the extraction of metals like nickel because metals
combine with carbon monoxide at 80 degree Celsius to give
valuable addition compounds called metallic carbonyls which
can later be decomposed to pure metals .
5. Carbon monoxide has also been used as a lasing medium in
high-powered infrared lasers.14
6. Studies involving carbon monoxide have been conducted in
many laboratories throughout the world for its antiinflammatory and cytoprotective properties. These properties
have potential to be used to prevent the development of a
series of pathological conditions including ischemia
reperfusion injury, transplant rejection, atherosclerosis, severe
sepsis, severe malaria, or autoimmunity.
7. There is a theory that, in some nerve cell synapses, when
long-term memories are being laid down, the receiving cell
makes carbon monoxide, which back-transmits to the
transmitting cell, telling it to transmit more readily in future.
Some such nerve cells have been shown to contain guanylate
cyclase, an enzyme that is activated by carbon monoxide.15
14 Ionin, A.; Kinyaevskiy, I.; Klimachev, Y.; Kotkov, A.; Kozlov, A. (2012). "Novel
mode-locked carbon monoxide laser system achieves high accuracy". SPIE
Newsroom.
15 Kolata, Gina (January 26, 1993). "Carbon Monoxide Gas Is Used by Brain Cells
As a Neurotransmitter". The New York Times. Retrieved May 2, 2010.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project would be incomplete without expressing my gratitude towards
the people who made it possible for me to finish it on time and with
accuracy.
Firstly, I would like to thank my Forensic Science teacher, Professor Ajay
Ranga for giving me the requisite guidelines and helping me in fulfilling
the loopholes of my project.
Secondly, I would like to thank my friends who constantly gave me advice
on the quality of information and helped me in completing my project.
Lastly, I would like to thank our library staff for helping me in collecting
the material and the required books for the project.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Gangulys Medical Jurisprudence & Toxicology, Dwivedi Law

Agency, 2009
2. Modis Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, K. Mathiharan
and Amrit K. Patanaik, LexisNexis, Butterworth, 2010
3. Moitra and Kaushals Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology, 3rd
Edition, 2007

WEBLIOGRAPHY

1. www.cpsc.gov/en/Safety-Education/Safety-EducationCenters/Carbon-Monoxide-Information-Center/Carbon-MonoxideQuestions-and-Answers-/
2. http://www.ehow.com/info_7873237_effects-carbon-monoxiderespiratory-system.html
3. www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/allaround/Pages/How-to-Prevent-Carbon-Monoxide-Poisoning.aspx
4. www.nutramed.com/environment/monoxide.htm
5. http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/householdsafety/tips/carbon-monoxide-detector3.htm
6. http://www.carbonmonoxide.ie/splash.html