Magnetic Field Surveys and Data Reduction

Geomagnetic field can be described by the declination D, the inclination I, and total field vector
F.

Magnetic survey is one of a number of methods used in exploration geophysics. Magnetic

surveys record spatial variation in the Earth's magnetic field. In exploration, magnetic surveys
are used to detect and map rock types, structure, and ore bodies. Magnetic surveys are used in
both terrestrial and marine exploration.

Magnetic surveys are typically used to:

Locate abandoned steel well casings
Locate buried tanks and pipes
Locate pits and trenches containing buried metallic debris
Detect buried unexploded ordnance (UXO)
Map old waste sites and landfill boundaries
Clear drilling locations
Map basement faults and geology
Investigate archaeological sites
Three types of magnetometers are frequently used in magnetic surveying Proton
magnetometer, Cesium vapor magnetometer (optically pumped), and Fluxgate magnetometer
Secular, diurnal and variations due to magnetic storms get incorporated into data acquired during
field surveys. During field surveys, care must be taken to establish a base station to incorporate
drift. Likewise the station should be in flat terrain, away from electromagnetic field sources, and
easy to reoccupy. The surveyor must return to base at least every hour or continually record data
using separate magnetometer. Wherever possible, one must conduct surveys perpendicular to
strike. It is also necessary to observe magnetic cleanliness beware of belt buckles, glasses,

spiral bound notebooks, power lines, wire fences, field vehicles, and buildings with metal beams.
Keep the sensor at least 1 m from ground else soil variations might dominate signal
Magnetometers used in geophysical survey may use a single sensor to measure the total magnetic
field strength, or may use two (sometimes more) spatially separated sensors to measure the
gradient of the magnetic field (the difference between the sensors). In most archaeological
applications the latter (gradiometer) configuration is preferred because it provides better
resolution of small, near-surface phenomena. Magnetometers may also use a variety of different
sensor types. Proton precession magnetometers have largely been superseded by faster and more
sensitive fluxgate and cesium instruments.
Every kind of material has unique magnetic properties, even those that we do not think of as
being "magnetic". Different materials below the ground can cause local disturbances in the
Earths magnetic field that are detectable with sensitive magnetometers. The chief limitation of
magnetometer survey is that subtle features of interest may be obscured by highly magnetic
geologic or modern materials.

Terrestrial Magnetic Surveys

In terrestrial archaeology, magnetic surveys are typically used for detailed mapping of
archaeological features on known archaeological sites. More exceptionally, magnetometers are
used for low-resolution exploratory surveys.
Several types of magnetometer are used in terrestrial archaeology. Early surveys, beginning in
the 1950s, were conducted with proton precession magnetometers. Data collection with proton
precession instruments was slow, making high sample density surveys impracticable. Data were
manually recorded and plotted. The subsequent introduction of Fluxgate and cesium
vapor magnetomers improved sesitivity, and greatly increased sampling speed, making high
resolution surveys of large areas practical. Equally important was the development of computers
to handle, process, and display large datasets.[1]
Magnetometers react very strongly to iron and steel, brick, burned soil, and many types of rock,
and archaeological features composed of these materials are very detectable. Where these highly
magnetic materials do not occur, it is often possible to detect very subtle anomalies caused by
disturbed soils or decayed organic materials. Many types of sites and features have been
successfully mapped with magnetometers, ranging from very ephemeral prehistoric campsites to
large urban centers.

Marine Magnetic Surveys

Magnetic surveys are extremely useful in the excavation and exploration of underwater
archaeological sites. The apparatus used on the water slightly differs from that on land.
Marine magnetometers come in two types: Surface towed and near-bottom. Both are towed a
sufficient distance (about two ship lengths) away from the ship to allow them to collect data
without it being polluted by the ship's magnetic properties. Surface towed magnetometers allow
for a wider range of detection at the price of precision accuracy that is afforded by the nearbottom magnetometers.
The most common type of magnetometer used for marine survey is the fluxgate magnetometer.
Fluxgate magnetometers utilize two ferromagnetic cores each wound with a primary coil and an
outer secondary coil attached to amp meter. When an alternating current (AC) is passed through

the primary coils, it creates two opposing magnetic fields that vary in intensity based on the
outside magnetic fields.[3] By floating them parallel to the seafloor, they can measure the changes
in magnetic fields over the seabed.
Another common type is the newer proton precession magnetometer. This utilizes a container
full of hydrogen rich liquids (commonly kerosene or methanol) that, when agitated by a direct
current (DC) or Radio Frequency (RF), cause the electrons to become energized and transfer that
energy to the protons due to the Overhauser Effect basically turning them into dipole magnets.
When the stimulus is removed, the protons precess at a rate that can be interpreted to determine
the magnetic forces of the area.[3]
In maritime archaeology, these are often used to map the geology of wreck sites and determine
the composition of magnetic materials found on the seafloor. An Overhauser magnetometer
(PPM) was used in 2001 to map Sebastos (the harbor of Caesarea Maritima) and helped to
identify components of the Roman concrete.

Data Reduction
The overall processing of magnetic data involves a number of steps.
Data Reduction can be separated into corrections and data enhancements
Diurnal Correction
Normal Field Correction -- essentially a correction for variations in field with latitude and
longitude use International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) to correct on large scale
surveys
Elevation and Terrain Corrections -- vertical gradient is a maximum at poles (0.03nT/m)
minimum at equator (-0.015nT/m). Elevation correction not required for ground surveys.
Terrain correction difficult since we need to know magnetic properties in surrounding terrain
Derivatives
Emphasizing shorter wavelength features.
First vertical derivative emphasizes near surface features. It can be measured with gradiometer,
or derived from corrected data
Second vertical derivative emphasizes boundaries of target zones