A

Seminar Report Entitled on

MICROWAVE WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION

INDEX

SR. NO.
1
2

CHAPTER
Introduction
Methods of Wireless Transmission of Electrical
Power
2.1 Induction
2.2 Electromagnetic Induction
2.3 Evanescent Wave Coupling
2.4 Electrodynamic Induction
2.5 Radio And Microwave
2.6 Electrostatic Induction
2.7 Component of WPT System
2.8 Types of WPT
Wireless Power Transmission Technology
3.1 Recent Researches In WPT
3.2 Depending Upon Distance Between
Transmitter And Receiver
3.2.1 Short Distance Induction
3.2.2 Moderate Distance Induction
3.2.3 Long Distance Induction
3.2.4 Efficiency
3.3 Current Technologies in the field of Wireless
Power Transmission
3.3.1 Microwave Transmitter
3.2.2 Use of Microwave Power Transmission
In SPS
3.4 Latest Inventions And Experiments
3.4.1 Witricity
3.4.2 Intels Demonstration
Applications
4.1 Need for Wireless Power Transmission
4.2 Advantages
4.3 Disadvantages
4.4 Biological aspects
Future aspects in wireless power transmission
5.1 Power Generating Solar Satellite
5.2 Third Generation Wireless Power
5.3 Conclusion
References

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LIST OF TABLES
Sr. No.
2.1
2.2

Name
Performance of Printed Rectenna
Rectenna Efficiency for various diodes

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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No.
1.1
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
4.1
4.2
5.1

Name
The 187 feet Wardenclyffe Tower
Block Diagram of WPT
A splash Mat
Curved coil Capacitive Plate
Resonant Inductive Coupling
SHARP Unmanned Plane
Microwave Transmitter
Microwave Power Transmission In SPS
Witricity
Experiment At Intel For WPT
Nevada Lightening Laboratory
Need for Wireless Transmission
Need For Home Appliances
Japans wireless power generation satellite

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
One of the major issue in power system is the losses occurs during the transmission and
distribution of electrical power. As the demand increases day by day, the power generation
increases and the power loss is also increased. The major amount of power loss occurs during
transmission and distribution. The percentage of loss of power during transmission and
distribution is approximated as 26%. The main reason for power loss during transmission and
distribution is the resistance of wires used for grid. The efficiency of power transmission can be
improved to certain level by using high strength composite overhead conductors and

underground cables thatuse high temperature super conductor. But, the transmission is still
inefficient. According to the World Resources Institute (WRI), Indias electricity grid has the
highest transmission and distribution losses in theworld a whopping 27%. Numbers published
by various Indian government agencies put that number at 30%,40% and greater than 40%. This
is attributed to technical losses (grids inefficiencies) and theft. Any problem can be solved by
state of the art technology. The above discussed problem can be solvedby choose an alternative
option for power transmission which could provide much higher efficiency, low transmission
cost and avoid power theft. Microwave Power Transmission is one of the promising
technologiesand may be the righteous alternative for efficient power transmission.

fig.1.1.The 187 feet Wardenclyffe Tower

William C. Brown contributed much to the modern development of microwave power

transmission which dominates research and development of wireless transmission today. In the
early 1960s brown invented the rectenna which directly converts microwaves to DC current.

CHAPTER 2
METHODS OF WIRELESS TRANSMISSION OF
ELECTRICAL POWER
2.1 INDUCTION
The principle of mutual induction between two coils can be used for the transfer of
electrical power without any physical contact in between. The simplest example of how mutual
induction works is the transformer, where there is no physical contact between the primary and
the secondary coils. The transfer of energy takes place due to electromagnetic coupling between
the two coils.

2.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSMISSION

Electromagnetic waves can also be used to transfer power without wires. By converting
electricity into light, such as a laser beam, then firing this beam at a receiving target, such as a
solar cell on a small aircraft, power can be beamed to a single target. This is generally known as
power beaming.
2.3 EVANESCENT WAVE COUPLING
Researchers at MIT believe they have discovered a new way to wirelessly transfer power
using non-radioactive electromagnetic energy resonant tunnelling. Since the electromagnetic
waves would tunnel, they would not propagate through the air to be absorbed or wasted, and
would not disrupt electronic devices or cause physical injury like microwave or radio
transmission. Researchers anticipate up to 5 meters of range.
2.4 ELECTRODYNAMIC INDUCTION
Also known as "resonant inductive coupling" resolves the main problem associated with
non-resonant inductive coupling for wireless energy transfer; specifically, the dependence of
efficiency on transmission distance. When resonant coupling is used the transmitter and receiver
inductors are tuned to a mutual frequency and the drive current is modified from a sinusoidal to a
non-sinusoidal transient waveform.
2.5 RADIO AND MICROWAVE
Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer
distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically in the
microwave range. A rectenna may be used to convert the microwave energy back into electricity.
Rectenna conversion efficiencies exceeding 95% have been realized.
2.6 ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
Also known as "capacitive coupling" is an electric field gradient or differential
capacitance between two elevated electrodes over a conducting ground plane for wireless energy
transmission involving high frequency alternating current potential differences transmitted
between two plates or nodes.
2.7 COMPONENTS OF WPT SYSTEM
The Primary components of Wireless Power Transmission are Microwave Generator,
Transmitting antenna and Receiving antenna (Rectenna). The components are described in this
chapter.

2.7.1 MICROWAVE GENERATOR

The microwave transmitting devices are classified as Microwave Vacuum Tubes
(magnetron, klystron, Travelling Wave Tube (TWT), and Microwave Power Module (MPM))
and Semiconductor Microwave transmitters (GaAs MESFET, GaN pHEMT, SiC MESFET,
AlGaN/GaN HFET, and InGaAS). Magnetron is widely used for experimentation of WPT.
The microwave transmission often uses 2.45GHz or 5.8GHz of ISM band. The other
choices of frequencies are 8.5 GHz, 10 GHz and 35 GHz. The highest efficiency over 90% is
achieved at 2.45 GHz among all the frequencies.
2.7.2 TRANSMITTING ANTENNA
The slotted wave guide antenna, microstrip patch antenna, and parabolic dish antenna are
the most popular type of transmitting antenna. The slotted waveguide antenna is ideal for power
transmission because of its high aperture efficiency (> 95%) and high power handling capability.
2.7.3 RECTENNA
The concept, the name rectenna" and the rectenna was conceived by W.C. Brown of
Raytheon Companyin the early of 1960s [16]. The rectenna is a passive element consists of
antenna, rectifying circuit with a low pass filter between the antenna and rectifying diode. The
antenna used in rectenna may be dipole, Yagi Uda,microstrip or parabolic dish antenna. The
patch dipole antenna achieved the highest efficiency among the all. The performance of various
printed rectenna is shown in TABLE 2.1.

TABLE 2.1 Performance of printed rectenna

Type of

Operating

Measured

Rectenna

Frequency

Peak

(GHz)

Conversion
Efficiency

Printed diploma
Circular Patch

2.45
2.45

(%)
85
81

Printed dual

5.6

78

Rhombic
Schottky barrier diodes (GaAs-W, Si, andGaAs) are usually used in the rectifying circuit
due to the faster reverse recovery time and much lower forward voltage drop and good RF
characteristics. The rectenna efficiency for various diodes at different frequency is shown in
TABLE 2.2
TABLE 2.2. Rectenna Efficiency for various diodes at different frequency

FREQ. GHz

SCHOTTKEY

MEASURED

CALCULATED

DIODE

EFFICIENCY

EFFICIENCY

2.45
5.8
8.51
2.8 TYPES OF WPT

GaAs-W
Si
GaAs

92.5
82
62.5

90.5
78.3
66.2

2.8.1 NEAR-FIELD TECHNIQUES

Inductive Coupling
Resonant Inductive Coupling (RIC)
Air Ionization
2.8.2 FAR-FIELD TECHNIQUES
Microwave Power Transmission (MPT)
LASER power transmission

CHAPTER 3
WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES
William C. Brown, the pioneer in wireless power transmission technology, has designed,
developed a unit and demonstrated to show how power can be transferred through free space by
microwaves. The concept of Wireless Power Transmission System is explained with functional
block diagram shown in fig 3.1.

fig.3.1 Block diagram of WPT

In the transmission side, the microwave power source generates microwave power and
the output power is controlled by electronic control circuits. The wave guide ferrite circulator
which protects the microwave source from reflected power is connected with the microwave
power source through the Coax Waveguide Adaptor. The tuner matches the impedance between
the transmitting antenna and the microwave source. The attenuated signals will be then separated
based on the direction of signal propagation by Directional Coupler. The transmitting antenna
radiates the power uniformly through free space to the rectenna.In the receiving side, a rectenna
receives the transmitted power and converts the microwave power into DC power. The
impedance matching circuit and filter is provided to setting the output impedance of a signal
source equal to the rectifying circuit. The rectifying circuit consists of Schottky barrier diodes
converts the received microwave power into DC power.
3.1 RECENT RESEARCHES IN WPT
Researchers have been going on in the field of using microwave power transfer and many
technologies are being developed around the globe.
3.1.1 ANTENNAS: In some MPT experiments in Japan, the phased array antenna was adopted to steer a
direction of the microwave beam.
3.1.2 TRANSMITTERS: Magnetron travelling wave tube amplifiers, klystron, semiconductor amplifiers.
3.2 DEPENDING ON DISTANCE BETWEEN THE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

These techniques are briefly classified into three depending on the distance
between the transmitter and receiver. These are: Short range, Moderate range Long range.
3.2.1 SHORT DISTANCE INDUCTION
These methods can reach at most a few centimetres the action of an electrical transformer
is the simplest instance of wireless energy transfer. The primary and secondary circuits of a
transformer are electrically isolated from each other. The transfer of energy takes place by
electromagnetic coupling through a process known as mutual induction. (An added benefit is the
capability to step the primary voltage either up or down.) The electric toothbrush charger is an
example of how this principle can be used.
A toothbrush's daily exposure to water makes a traditional plug-in charger potentially
dangerous. Ordinary electrical connections could also allow water to seep into the toothbrush,
damaging its components. Because of this, most toothbrushes recharge through inductive
coupling. You can use the same principle to recharge several devices at once. For example, the
Splash power recharging mat and Edison Electric's Power desk both use coils to create a
magnetic field. Electronic devices use corresponding built-in or plug-in receivers to recharge
while resting on the mat. These receivers contain compatible coils and the circuitry necessary to
deliver electricity to devices' batteries

fig.3.2 A splash mat for simultaneous charging of electronics devices

3.2.2 MODERATE DISTANCE RESONANCE AND WIRELESS POWER

Household devices produce relatively small magnetic fields. For this reason, chargers
hold devices at the distance necessary to induce a current, which can only happen if the coils are
close together. A larger, stronger field could induce current from farther away, but the process
would be extremely inefficient. Since a magnetic field spreads in all directions, making a larger
one would waste a lot of energy. An efficient way to transfer power between coils separated by a
few meters is that we could extend the distance between the coils by adding resonance to the
equation. A good way to understand resonance is to think of it in terms of sound. An object's
physical structure -- like the size and shape of a trumpet determines the frequency at which it
naturally vibrates. This is its resonant frequency. It's easy to get objects to vibrate at their
resonant frequency and difficult to get them to vibrate at other frequencies. This is why playing a
trumpet can cause a nearby trumpet to begin to vibrate. Both trumpets have the same resonant
frequency. Induction can take place a little differently if the electromagnetic fields around the
coils resonate at the same frequency. The theory uses a curved coil of wire as an inductor. A
capacitance plate, which can hold a charge, attaches to each end of the coil. As electricity travels
through this coil, the coil begins to resonate. Its resonant frequency is a product of the inductance
of the coil and the capacitance of the plates.

fig.3.3 Curved Coil Capacitive Plate

Electricity travelling along an electromagnetic wave, can tunnel from one coil to the other
as long as they both have the same resonant frequency. In a short theoretical analysis they

demonstrate that by sending electromagnetic waves around in a highly angular waveguide,

evanescent waves are produced which carry no energy. An evanescent wave is near field standing
wave exhibiting exponential decay with distance. If a proper resonant waveguide is brought near
the transmitter, the evanescent waves can allow the energy to tunnel (specifically evanescent
wave coupling, the electromagnetic equivalent of tunnelling to the power drawing waveguide,
where they can be rectified into DC power. Since the electromagnetic waves would tunnel, they
would not propagate through the air to be absorbed or dissipated, and would not disrupt
electronic devices.
As long as both coils are out of range of one another, nothing will happen, since the fields
around the coils aren't strong enough to affect much around them. Similarly, if the two coils
resonate at different frequencies, nothing will happen. But if two resonating coils with the same
frequency get within a few meters of each other, streams of energy move from the transmitting
coil to the receiving coil. According to the theory, one coil can even send electricity to several
receiving coils, as long as they all resonate at the same frequency. The researchers have named
this non-radioactive energy transfer since it involves stationary fields around the coils rather than
fields that spread in all directions.
According to the theory, one coil can recharge any device that is in range, as long as the
coils have the same resonant frequency. "Resonant inductive coupling" has key implications in
solving the two main problems associated with non-resonant inductive coupling and
electromagnetic radiation, one of which is caused by the other; distance and efficiency.

fig.3.4 Resonant Inductive Coupling

Electromagnetic induction works on the principle of a primary coil generating a

predominantly magnetic field and a secondary coil being within that field so a current is induced
within its coils. This causes the relatively short range due to the amount of power required to
produce an electromagnetic field. Over greater distances the non-resonant induction method is
inefficient and wastes much of the transmitted energy just to increase range.
This is where the resonance comes in and helps efficiency dramatically by "tunnelling"
the magnetic field to a receiver coil that resonates at the same frequency. Unlike the multiplelayer secondary of a non-resonant transformer, such receiving coils are single layer solenoids
with closely spaced capacitor plates on each end, which in combination allow the coil to be tuned
to the transmitter frequency thereby eliminating the wide energy wasting "wave problem" and
allowing the energy used to focus in on a specific frequency increasing the range.
3.2.3 LONG-DISTANCE WIRELESS POWER
Whether or not it incorporates resonance, induction generally sends power over relatively
short distances. But some plans for wireless power involve moving electricity over a span of
miles. A few proposals even involve sending power to the Earth from space. In the 1980s,
Canada's Communications Research Centre created a small airplane that could run off power
beamed from the Earth. The unmanned plane, called the Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform
(SHARP), was designed as a communications relay. Rather flying from point to point, the
SHARP could fly in circles two kilometres in diameter at an altitude of about 13 miles (21
kilometres). Most importantly, the aircraft could fly for months at a time.

fig.3.5 Sharp Unmanned Plane

The secret to the SHARP's long flight time was a large, ground-based microwave
transmitter. The SHARP's circular flight path kept it in range of this transmitter. A large, discshaped rectifying antenna, or rectenna, just behind the plane's wings changed the microwave
energy from the transmitter into direct-current (DC) electricity.
Because of the microwaves' interaction with the rectenna, the SHARP had a constant
power supply as long as it was in range of a functioning microwave array. Rectifying antennae
are central to many wireless power transmission theories. They are usually made an array of
dipole antennae, which have positive and negative poles. These antennae connect to shottkey
diodes. Here's what happens:
1. Microwaves, which are part of the electromagnetic spectrum reach the dipole antennae.
2. The antennae collect the microwave energy and transmit it to the diodes.
3. The diodes act like switches that are open or closed as well as turnstiles the let electrons flow
in only one direction. They direct the electrons to the rectenna's circuitry.
4. The circuitry routes the electrons to the parts and systems that need them.
3.2.4 EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of wireless power is the ratio between power that reaches the receiver and
the power supplied to the transmitter. Researchers successfully demonstrated the ability to power
a 60 watt light bulb from a power source that was seven feet (2meters) away using resonating

coils. This kind of setup could power or recharge all the devices in one room. Some
modifications would be necessary to send power over long distances, like the length of a building
or a city. Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer
distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically in the
microwave range. A rectenna may be used to convert the microwave energy back into electricity.
Rectenna conversion efficiencies exceeding 95% have been realized. Wireless Power
Transmission (using microwaves) is well proven. Experiments in the tens of kilowatts have been
performed.
3.3

CURRENT TECHNOLOGIES

IN

THE

FIELD

OF WIRELESS

POWER

TRANSMISSION
3.3.1 MICROWAVE TRANSMITTER

fig.3.6 Microwave Transmitter

The most current research and proposals use microwaves as the frequency range of choice
for transmission. At present an efficiency of 76% is possible using current technology for
microwave power transmission.
For transmission efficiency the waves must be focused so that all the energy transmitted
by the source is incident on the wave collection device. Higher frequencies are also impractical
because of the high cost of transmitters and the relative low efficiency of current optical and
infrared devices.
The most common transmitters for microwaves are the travelling wave tube (TWT),
klystron and magnetron. The TWT is far too expensive and power restrictive making it
impractical for the task of power transmission. The klystron has been the DC to microwave
converter of choice however it is also somewhat expensive. Many researchers are looking to use

magnetrons instead because they are cheap and efficient. Magnetron frequency output is not as
precisely controllable as the klystron or TWT but power transmission is more lenient to
frequency fluctuations than communication systems are. One of the more common proposals
would be for an array of magnetrons to be used as the transmitter. One of the main advantages to
using many smaller magnetrons as opposed to a few klystrons is that 300 W to 1kW magnetrons
are already mass produced for microwave ovens. The efficiency of magnetrons is inconsistently
reported.
3.3.2 USE OF MICROWAVE POWER TRANSMISSION IN SOLAR POWER
SATELLITES (SPS)
Solar power generating satellites launched into space and transmitting power to Earth
stations. This idea was first proposed in 1968 and all of the experiments have only been carried
out in terrestrial laboratories. The SPS satellites would be put in high earth orbit at
geosynchronous location. This would allow them to receive light 99% of the year. A large
rectenna array facility will be built on the Earth to collect the incoming microwaves. To maintain
a good lock on the rectenna the satellite will need to be built with a retrodirective transmitter
which locks on to a pilot beam emanated from the ground station.

fig.3.7 Microwave Power Transmission in SPS

Since most of the research is done in the 2.4 GHz to 5.8 GHz range there are some spectrum
regulatory issues to deal with. Also since the retro directive antenna system is unproven. There is

the health concern that the microwave beam could veer off target and microwave some
unsuspecting family. However, a Japanese government agency is planning to send up 10 to 100
kW low earth orbit satellite to prove its feasibility.

3.4 LATEST INVENTIONS AND EXPERIMENT

3.4.1. WITRICITY
The new technology called Witricity is based on using coupled resonant objects. Two
resonant objects of the same resonant frequency tend to exchange energy efficiently, while
interacting weakly with extraneous off-resonant objects.

fig.3.8 Witricity
A child on a swing is a good example of this. A swing is a type of mechanical resonance,
so only when the child pumps her legs at the natural frequency of the swing is she able to impart
substantial energy. The investigated design consists of two copper coils, each a self-resonant
system.
One of the coils, attached to the power source, is the sending unit. Instead of irradiating
the environment with electromagnetic waves, it fills the space around it with a non-radiative
magnetic field oscillating at MHz frequencies. The non-radiative field mediates the power
exchange with the other coil (the receiving unit), which is specially designed to resonate with the
field. The resonant nature of the process ensures the strong interaction between the sending unit
and the receiving unit, while the interaction with the rest of the environment is weak.
3.4.2 INTELS DEMONSTRATION

Intel demonstrated a captivating technology that has the potential to eliminate the need for
power cords, chargers or batteries. During the presentation at yesterdays Intel Developer Forum
(IDF), the chip maker wirelessly powered a 60 watt light globe from three feet away with 75
percent efficiency. The technology works by creating resonance between two magnetic fields,
known as a resonant induction phenomenon. Intel hopes to one day use the technology to
power laptops and other portable devices, either directly via a transmitter or by
charging internal super capacitors which can be rapidly recharged. The research project at Intel,
led by Joshua R. Smith aims to build upon this work.

fig.3.9 Experiment at Intel for WPT

Lightning Lab accidentally transferred a large amount of energy while testing a high-frequency
transformer.
The Nevada Lightning Laboratory noticed another transformer across the lab beginning to
smoke profusely during the test. They found the transformer was physically disconnected from
its power source and set out to try and learn what had happened.
They discovered that even widely spaced coils were capable of wirelessly transmitting
large amounts of power and to test it out, they rigged up a board of twenty 40W light globes with
the transmitter and receiver 5 meters (16.4ft) apart. The major drawback, as is always the case
with wireless power transmission, is the amount of energy lost during the process. The

transmitting coil was operating at 3.6KW for the receiver to capture the 800W, which is quite
inefficient.

Fig.3.10 The Nevada

Lightening Laboratory

CHAPTER 4
APPLICATIONS
4.1 NEED FOR

WIRELESS

POWER

TRANSMISSION

Wireless transmission

is employed in cases

where instantaneous or continuous energy transfer is needed, but interconnecting wires are
inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible.

fig.4.1 Need for Wireless Transmission

Number of household points receives electricity at the same frequency using single
transmitting coil as long as they all are at resonance. So this setup could recharge all the devices
in a room at once.

fig.4.2 Need for home appliances

4.2 ADVANTAGES
Wireless Power Transmission system would completely eliminates the existing hightension power transmission line cables, towers and sub stations between the generating station
and consumers and facilitates the interconnection of electrical generation plants on a global
scale. It has more freedom of choice of both receiver and transmitters.
Even mobile transmitters and receivers can be chosen for the WPT system. The cost of
transmission and distribution become less and the cost of electrical energy for the consumer also
would be reduced. The power could be transmitted to the places where the wired transmission is
not possible. Loss of transmission is negligible level in the Wireless Power Transmission;
therefore, the efficiency of this method is very much higher than the wired transmission. Power
is available at the rectenna as long as the WPT is operating. The power failure due to short circuit
and fault on cables would never exist in the transmission and power theft would be not possible
at all.
4.3 DISADVANTAGES

The Capital Cost for practical implementation of WPT seems to be very high and the other
disadvantage of the concept is interference of microwave with present communication systems.
Health hazards may occur.
4.4 BIOLOGICAL IMPACTS
Common beliefs fear the effect of microwave radiation. But the studies in this domain
repeatedly proves that the microwave radiation level would be never higher than the dose
received while opening the microwave oven door, meaning it is slightly higher.

CHAPTER 5
FUTURE ASPECTS IN WIRELESS POWER TRANSMISSION
5.1 POWER-GENERATING SOLAR SATELLITE INHABITAT

fig.5.1 Japans Wireless Power Generation Solar Satellite

Japan wants to power up three million houses with wireless energy from space. They have
serious plans to send a solar-panel-equipped satellite into space that could wirelessly beam a gig
watt-strong stream of power down to earth.
A small test model is scheduled for launch in 2015. To iron out all the kinks and get a
fully functional system set up is estimated to take three decades. A major kink, presumably, is
coping with the possible dangers when a 1-gigawatt microwave beam aimed at a small spot on
Earth misses its target. The $21 billion project just received major backing from Mitsubishi and
designer IHI (in addition to research teams from 14 other countries).
5.2 THIRD-GENERATION WIRELESS POWER
Power by Proxi has developed a 3G wireless power delivery system. Earlier

generations of wireless power technology were based on split transformers consisting of two
halves: an input side (primary) and an output side (secondary). Electrical energy applied to the
primary is converted to an electromagnetic field that induces a current in the secondary, which
passes the energy to a load. The essential difference between earlier generations of wireless
power solutions and the one developed by Power by Proxi is that the Power by Proxi system

offers high efficiency levels in relatively loose coupling arrangements across an air gap or
through any nonmetallic substrate.
5.3 CONCLUSION:
The concept of Microwave Power transmission (MPT) and Wireless Power Transmission
system is presented. The technological developments in Wireless Power Transmission (WPT),
the advantages, disadvantages, biological impacts and applications of WPT are also discussed.
This concept offers greater possibilities for transmitting power with negligible losses and ease of
transmission than any invention or discovery heretofore made. Dr. Neville of NASA states You
dont need cables, pipes, or copper wires to receive power. We can send it to you like a cell
phone call where you want it, when you want it, in real time.
We can expect with certitude that in next few years wonders will be wrought by its
applications if all the conditions are favourable.

REFERENCES

1. http://cleantechindia.wordpress.com/2008/07/16/indiaselectricity-transmission-anddistribution-losses/
2. Nikola Tesla, My Inventions, Ben Johnston, Ed., Austin, Hart Brothers, p. 91, 1982.
3. Nikola Tesla, The Transmission of Electrical Energy without Wires as a Means for
Furthering Peace, Electrical World and Engineer. Jan. 7, p. 21, 1905.The Electrician
(London), 1904).
4. W.C. Brown, J.R. Mims and N.I. Heenan, An Experimental Microwave-Powered
Helicopter, 965 IEEE International Conventions Record, Vol. 13, Part 5, pp.225-235.
5. Brown., W. C. (September 1984). "The History of Power Transmission by Radio Waves".
Microwave Theory and Techniques, IEEE Transactions on (Volume: 32, Issue: 9 on
page(s): 1230- 1242 + ISSN: 0018-9480).
6. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=1132833.
7. POINT-TO-POINT WIRELESS POWER TRANSPORTATION IN REUNION ISLAND
48th International Astronautical Congress, Turin, Italy, 6-10 October 1997 - IAF-97R.4.08 J. D. Lan Sun Luk, A. Celeste, P. Romanacce, L. Chane Kuang Sang, J.C. Gatina University of La Runion - Faculty of Science and Technology.