Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Anja Volk
Abstract
Rhythmic and metric ambiguities in Brahms compositions have been discussed in various music theoretical approaches. Which compositional techniques cause the diverse forms of ambiguities, such as metric displacement?
The method of inner metric analysis, as implemented in the RUBATO-Software
for Musical Analysis and Performance, explores the metric structure expressed
by the onsets of notes without considering the information given by the time
signature. The report on the application of this method to the Second and
Third Symphonies demonstrates surprising insights into the metric organization of these compositions. Furthermore it illustrates the contribution to the
precise description of metric peculiarities in the works of Brahms gained by
the inner metric analysis.

1 Introduction
... Brahms, who had to extend so many of these inclinations to
their most complex reaches. In his recognition of ambiguity as a
compositional value of extensive implications; ... and in his working of rhythms, both local and more extensive, to produce syncopes, metric displacements, and other avoidances of regularity ... .1
The phenomenon of rhythmic and metric ambiguities observed in Brahms
uvre has often been discussed in music theory. Schnberg (1976) describes
the peculiarities by means of phrase lengths causing metrical displacements.
According to him Brahms made use of irregular phrase lengths in such an
extensive way, that under his influence the avoidance of regularity became
a common element of the syntax and grammar of musical structures (zum
festen Bestandteil der Syntax und Grammatik vielleicht aller spteren musikalischen Strukturen geworden.2). Schnberg even declares Brahms avoidance of regularity as epoch-making to such a degree, that he appreciates him as
being a more inspiring innovator in music history than his antipodean Wagner.
Frisch (1990) discusses metrical displacements as a fundamental characteristic
of Brahms compositions as well, but does not agree with Schnberg concerning the phrase lengths as being the cause of the observed displacements:
Phrases of irregular or variable length are, to be sure, a significant
aspect of Brahmss language ... But they differ fundamentally from
actual metrical displacement.3
1
2

Epstein (1987, p. 157)

Schnberg (1976, p. 61)

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Frisch instead regards notes placements as being responsible for metric displacements, as in the case of the piano quintet in F-Minor Op. 34, 1:
Because the notated third beat is empty in bars 90-5 and the first
beat is empty in bars 87-95 ... , they tend to sound like weak second
and fourth beats respectively. That is, notated beats 2 and 4 are
perceived as 1 and 3. The bar line has thus drifted still further to
the right ... .4
Epsteins (1987) above mentioned quotation considers metric displacement
as well. The following quotation suggests that Epstein might apply this term
in a similar way as Schnberg and Frisch did:
Rhythmic ambiguity also serves a broader design: by disguising
and in several ways deemphasizing rhythmic downbeats, the music in its longest spans is kept continually on a quasi-upbeat footing, with few points of stability.5
The mentioned deemphasizing of rhythmic downbeats might be achieved by
placing notes on weak beats and rests on strong beats, as Frisch argued concerning the piano quintet. However, since Epstein adumbrates several ways,
one might detect other compositional methods being responsible for ambiguities as well. In this article we want to apply the method of inner metric analysis
to Brahms Symphonies in order to describe these several ways of producing
ambiguities and compare the results to the observations made by the above
mentioned music theorists.

2 Inner metric analysis

The inner metric analysis, as implemented in the RUBATO-Software for Musical Analysis and Performance, is based on the investigation of regularities
within the set of notes onsets of a given piece of music. It has been described
in detail in (Mazzola, 2002), (Fleischer, 2003), (Fleischer, 2002a) and (Fleischer,
2002b), here we want to give just a brief overview. Inner metric analysis results
in a metric weight for each note and is concerned with the metric structure expressed by the actual notes of a composition without taking into consideration
the information given by the time signature. The latter refers to the outer metric
structure, which is characterized by a metric hierarchy of accents depending on
the time signature and bar lines.
Inner metric analysis is based on the regularities within the set of all onsets
of the notes of a given piece. These regularities are described by means of local
meters. A local meter mk denotes a subset of equally distanced onsets. The
inner metric weight Wl,p (o) of each onset o is the weighted sum of the length k
of all local meters mk , which contain the onset o (the length k of a local meter
mk is defined as the number of onsets it consists of, decremented by one):
Wl,p (o) =

X
mk ,kl:omk

3
4
5

Frisch (1990, p. 141)

Frisch (1990, p. 147)
Epstein (1987, p. 168)

kp .

(1)

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 1: Metric weight W2,2 of the measures 1-92 of the 3rd movement of the
Fourth Symphony (time signature 24 ): the higher the line, the greater the weight,
grey lines in the background mark the bar lines

Figure 2: Excerpt (measures 1-35) from metric weight W2,2 of the entire exposition
of the 1st movement of the Third Symphony (time signature 46 )
The formula of the metric weight Wl,p (o) in equation 1 depends furthermore
on the two parameters l and p, which can be varied by the user of the software. The parameter l denotes the minimal length of local meters being considered in the calculation of the metric weight. By increasing the values of l
the user can exclude short local meters (shorter than l) from the calculation,
whereas the parameter p weights the contribution of the local meters to the
metric weight depending on their length. Great values cause a greater contribution of longer local meters, small values cause a greater contribution of
shorter local meters to the metric weight. By varying these parameters the
user can obtain different metric perspectives on the same piece.
The metric weight of equation 1 describes the inner metric structure of a
piece of music. Obviously it depends solely on the regularities caused by the
notes of the piece without considering information given by the time signature. The comparison of the results of the metric weights and the hierarchy of
the outer metric structure led to a definition of metric coherence which we have
introduced and discussed in (Fleischer, 2003), (Fleischer, 2002b), and (Fleischer,
2002a). Whenever a correspondence between inner and outer metric structure
can be observed, metric coherence occurs.
Figure 1 shows an example regarding the time signature 42 in Brahms
Fourth Symphony. The metric weight W2,2 is characterized by different layers
which correspond to layers of the outer metric hierarchy. The highest layer is
built upon the first beats of all measures, followed by the layer built upon the
second beats of all measures. The weights of the second and fourth eighths
form a much lower layer, whereas the weak beats, such as the second and
fourth sixteenths form the lowest layer. Hence metric coherence occurs.
Figure 2 shows an example of metric coherence regarding the time signature 64 in Brahms Third Symphony. One may distinguish the following layers:
the beginnings of all measures (highest layer), the fourth beats of all measures, the second, third, fifth and sixth beats of all measures and the weak beats
(lowest layer). Hence four layers corresponding to the layers of the outer metric hierarchy can be detected within inner metric analysis.

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 3: Metric weight W2,2 of bassoon, violins, cello and bass (measures 127-155)
of the first movement of the Second Symphony
Figure 3 illustrates another form of metric coherence, which is characterized by a phase shift. A periodicity can be stated within the metric weight,
which respects the layers of strong and weak beats concerning the outer hierarchy of 34 , but the greatest metric weights are located on the second beats of
the measures instead of the first beats, as in the previous examples. We call
this phenomenon of a phase shift an upbeat of coherent character (for further
discussion of this example see p. 12), since it occurs in those cases of a stable
relation between grouping and meter, where the beginnings of the groups do
not coincide with the beginnings of the bars. In this article we will use in the
most cases the parameters l = 2 and p = 2, hence only cases with different
values for l and p will be indicated.6
The authors discussion of metric coherence concerning very different styles
in music history in (Fleischer, 2003) proved the suitability of this music theoretical term regarding the description of metricity of compositions. Metric coherence very often occurs in those pieces which are typical representations of
the important role of the metric hierarchy given by the bar lines (e.g. Renaissance madrigals), whereas, for instance, in compositions by Bach coherence
occurs more rarely. Hence inner metric analysis might serve as an appropriate
method in order to describe metric ambiguities within Brahms compositions
as well.

3 Second Symphony
Perhaps no composer of the period so reveled in the structural
possibilities of ambiguity as did Brahms. His Second Symphony is
a case in point, ambiguous properties inherent in the basic ideas of
the opening movement exerting pervasive effects upon the overall
structure of this and subsequent movements.7
We have discussed metric analyses of all four Symphonies by Brahms in
(Fleischer, 2003) in detail, now we want to focus on inner metric analyses of
the Second Symphony.

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 4: Excerpt from the metric weight of the entire exposition (measures 1-43)

Figure 5: Excerpt from the metric weight of the entire exposition (measures 44117)

Figure 6: Detail from figure 5

Figure 7: Excerpt from the metric weight of the entire exposition (measures 118186)

3.1 First movement

The metric weight of the entire exposition of the first movement Allegro non
troppo (time signature 34 ) is divided into three parts of very different regularities, as shown in figures 4, 5, and 7. The first part corresponds to the measures
1-43, the second to measures 44-117 and the third to measures 118-186.
Figure 4 shows the first part of the metric weight which is characterized
by metric coherence: the first onsets of the bars get the greatest metric weight.
Metric coherence does not apply to the second part of the metric weight in figure 5. This part is characterized by a completely different regularity (see also a
detailed version in figure 6), which corresponds to the outer accent hierarchy
of 44 instead of the notated 43 , as shown in figure 9. Hence metric coherence
cannot be stated. The last part of the metric weight in figure 7 again reveals
6
7

For a more detailed discussion of the influence of l and p see (Fleischer, 2002a).
Epstein (1987, p. 162)

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 8: Opening measures of the 1. movement

very different regularities. One may distinguish layers, but in contrast to the
second part, within the highest layer no periodic differentiation can be stated.
Therefore metric coherence cannot be found.
Inner metric analysis hence suggests a segmentation of the exposition into
three parts. These parts interestingly correspond to a segmentation of the exposition based on a harmonic point of view, as suggested by Graham Phipps8 ,
which is a very special feature of this exposition according to him. Hence a
coherence between inner metric and harmonic structure can be stated.
Now we go into more detail concerning these three parts of diverse inner
metric structures within the metric weight of the entire exposition.
Concerning the first part of the exposition Epstein (1987) states an ambiguity regarding the mutual relationship of the first two measures of the movement (see figure 8): Should they be heard as tonic or dominant oriented? Is
the first measure upbeat or downbeat?9 This ambiguity is important not only
regarding the first two measures since it influences the following parts of the
movement as well: Both its harmonic and rhythmic properties are unclear
and capable of producing various viewpoints, many of which are explored as
the music progresses.10
According to Epstein, the harmonic and rhythmic properties do not allow
an unequivocal decision concerning the relation of up- and downbeat within
the first two measures and the corresponding measures over the course of the
first 43 measures. But inner metric analysis (see figure 4) suggests a grouping
into groups of two measures within the first part of the exposition. Within
these groups the second measure is the downbeat, since the metric weight of
the first beat of each second measure is greater than those of the first measure.
8

Talk: Die berleitung in der Sonatenhauptsatzform. Auf den Spuren Martin Heideggers im
ersten Satz der II. Sinfonie von Brahms at the 1. congress of the German Society of Music Theory
in Dresden, 12. 09. 2001
9 Epstein (1987, p. 162)
10 Epstein (1987, p. 162)

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 9: Metric weight of figure 5, interpreted as

4
4

Figure 10: Detail from figure 9

Hence the inner metric structure in this case is unequivocal. The result of inner
metric analysis on the other hand corresponds to the suggestion Epstein made
concerning the performance of this piece: From a performance viewpoint, the
most efficacious decision is probably to consider the opening measure of the
piece an upbeat, leading to a (local) downbeat on the second measure with the
entrance of the horns.11
Furthermore his discussion of the horns motives corresponds to the mentioned result of inner metric analysis: By their attack and by the added texture they create, the horns give an accent or emphasis to the second measure,
thus lending it a downbeat quality. This pattern is carried out in the succeeding phrases: the entrances of the horn motive in measures 6, 10, 14 all give
downbeat qualities of emphasis to these measures ... .12
The second part of the metric weight of the entire exposition (measures 44117) in figure 5 reveals a highest layer built upon the weights of the onsets
1(measure 44) , 3(measure 44) , 2(measure 45) , 1(measure 46) , 3(measure 46) , 2(measure 47) , 1(measure 48) and so forth
of successive measures. Hence the weight does not correspond to the outer
metric structure of the time signature 43 , but of 44 (see figure 9 and 10). In the
middle of figure 9 and at the end of figure 4 occur segments which are characterized by the rhythmic peculiarity of hemiolas. These segments correspond
to the measures 42-43 and 78-81 (see figure 11). Hence the metric weight might
reflect the influence of the hemiolas causing a metric periodicity which does
not correspond to the outer metric hierarchy.
Since the hemiolas are located at the edges of the segment of the measures 42-81 the question arises, whether they are mainly responsible for the divergence between inner and outer metric structure within this great segment.
This conjecture is tested by excluding these edges of the measures 42-43 and
78-81, figure 12 shows the result of the corresponding analysis for the measures 44-77. Obviously this metric weight reveals a very different shape and is
11 Epstein (1987, p. 177)
12 Epstein (1987, p. 165)

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 11: The hemiolas of measures 78 ff.

Figure 12: Metric weight of measures 44-77

Figure 13: Metric weight of figure 12 with shifted bar lines

not characterized by the periodicity corresponding to time signature 44 . Hence
the observed periodicity within the segment of measures 44-78 in figure 9 is
mainly due to the influence of the hemiolas.
The metric weight in figure 12 concerning the measures 44-59 (the first part
before the caesura in the middle of the figure) does not show layers corresponding to the strong and weak beats of the time signature 43 , since the second
and fifth eighths gain the greatest metric weights in most cases. Hence by
shifting the bar line (see figure 13), a correspondence with the time signature
6
can be observed in the section before the caesura: first and fourth beats get
8
the greatest weights. The metric weight in figure 13 after the caesura (measures
60-77) shows two different tendencies. In some measures one may distinguish
layers corresponding to the three strong beats and three weak beats of the
meter 43 , whereas in other measures great metric weights on the fourth eighths
prevent the occurrence of these layers. The evaluation of this segment in figure 12 results on the other hand in great metric weights on the third beats of
the measures, as already observed in the part before the caesura.
Hence the metric weight of the measures 44-77 is characterized on the one

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 14: Measures 56 ff. of the first movement

Figure 15: Metric weight of cello and bass (measures 44-77)

hand by an ambiguity between 43 and 68 and on the other by a great metric
weight on the third instead of the first beat.
Both characteristics correspond to observations in (Epstein, 1987). The following quotation concerns the great metric weights on the third beats:
As the big D major section after measure 44 develops to a climax
at measure 59, the rhythmic nature of the motive is again unclear.
It appears at measure 59 with great downbeat force the resolution of a long dominant passage, further intensified by a crescendo.
However, its attack is on the third beat of the preceding measure,
robbing this attack of a congruent emphasis with the local metrical
downbeat of measure 59 itself.13
The development of this section results in a shifting of the downbeat towards the third beat of the measure. This is reflected by the metric weight of
the segment of the measures 44-77, which was not detected within the analysis
of the entire exposition. Hence by analyzing segments one may gain new information about the piece. The ambiguity between the structures of 43 and 68
becomes even more evident in the analysis of the isolated instrumental part of
cello and bass in figure 15. In this case the inner metric structure corresponds
strongly to the time signature of 68 .
The confusion concerning these two time signatures Epstein (1987) states
as a further example regarding the ambiguities of this movement: The succeeding passage at measures 63 ff. further confuses the rhythmic structure: the
13 Epstein (1987, p. 166)

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 16: Measures 64 ff.

Figure 17: Metric weight of string instruments (measures 44-77)

Figure 18: Metric weight of wind instruments (measures 44-77)

motive combines with itself in diminution. Its first measure, in normal rhythm
(measure 63), seems downbeat oriented until heard in the elision at measure
64, where a new phrase apparently begins. This new phrase is also unclear
... Is it to be heard as 68 or 34 ? ... The phrase is one of the most ambiguous
moments in the movement.14
The rhythmic and melodic motives of the measures 64 ff. (see figure 16)
confirm a 86 -structure latent in the preceding passages as well, since the observed correspondences in the mentioned metric weights can be stated in other
parts of the compositions. Another example is shown in figure 17 concerning
the analysis of the string instruments of this segment. In many measures the
greatest metric weights are located on the second and fifth eighths, hence we
can state a hidden 86 -structure with a shift of an eighth as well.
On the other hand, metric coherence can be stated within the metric weight
of the wind instruments in figure 18. The highest layer is built upon the three
strong beats, the first beats get the greatest weights.
14 Epstein (1987, p. 166)

10

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 19: Metric weight of the first violins (measures 44-77)

Figure 20: Measures 54 ff. in the first violins

A very distinct inner metric structure can be observed within the analysis
of the first violins in figure 19. Great metric weights are located on the second,
fourth and sixth eighths of the measures producing a kind of offbeat. Syncopations (see figure 20) are responsible for this process.
Summing up the results of the analyses of different instrumental parts
within the second part of the exposition one can state the competing role of
3
and 86 , as well as very diverse periodicities of the weights depending on
4
the chosen segment or instrumental part, e.g. depending on the chosen context. As we have shown in (Fleischer, 2003), segmenting and voicing do not
in any case produce such diverse periodicities of the metric weight. Examples
from Mozarts Jupiter Symphony demonstrate15 that by selecting instrumental
parts or shorter segments one detects similar inner metric structures as exhibited within larger contexts. Hence these very diverse results of metric analysis
depending on the context in the case of the Second Symphony by Brahms may
be acknowledged as a characteristic of his music. This interpretation might
correspond to an observation of Epstein, that Brahms produces an unique musical structure through anomalous contrasting and counter-balancing of elements being responsible for the forward motion in music (Brahms erreicht
... eine einmalige musikalischen Struktur, wo das anomale Gegenberstellen
und Gegenbalancieren von Elementen ... die Mittel fr die Vorwrtsbewegung
in die Musik einbaut16 ).
Within the third part of the exposition, where no periodic differentiation
within the highest layer of the weight can be found, Epstein describes a passage (see figure 21) as an ocean of rhythmic and metric uncertainty (Noch
widersprchlicher ist eine andere Passage im gleichen Satz, wo die Musik
in einem Meer von rhythmischer und metrischer Ungewiheit schwimmt17 ).
The melodic motives (see the violins, cello and bass in figure 21) correspond
to the time signature, but sound as they would begin on the first beat of the
measures (Die melodischen Motive, die ihren Ursprung in den ersten Takten
des Satzes haben, passen in das 34 -Metrum. Sie klingen, als wren ihre Anfangstne jeweils auf der Eins des Taktes. So sind sie aber nicht notiert. 18 ).
Moreover the syncopations of the horns (see viola in figure 21) disturb the
15
16
17
18

Fleischer (2003, p. 77)

Epstein (1994, p. 12)
Epstein (1994, p. 10)
Epstein (1994, p. 10)

11

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 21: Measures 136 ff.

Figure 22: Metric weight of measures 127-155

Figure 23: Metric weight of clarinet, horn, and viola (measures 127-155)
emergence of any downbeats ( ... nivellieren die scheinbar nie endenden
Hrnersynkopen jegliches Gefhl fr einen Schwerpunkt.19 ). The same passage Frisch (1990) discusses as a massive canonic and metrically disorienting
episode20 .
The metric weight of a greater segment including this passage (measures
127-155) in figure 22 allows no correspondence to any possible time signature
whatsoever due to the great metric weights on the first, third, fourth and sixth
eighths of the measures. Hence it confirms Epsteins observation of metric
uncertainty.
The analysis of the bassoon, violins, cello and bass already discussed in
the beginning (see figure 3), which form the melodic voice, confirms Epsteins
observation regarding the second beats of the measures. The greatest metric
weights are located on the second beats of the measures, the periodicity of
the weight respects the layers of strong and weak beats of 34 . Hence metric
coherence can be found, a phase shift takes place.
The metric weight of the instrumental parts characterized by the syncopations (see figure 23) shows a periodicity which does not correspond to any
19 Epstein (1994, p. 10)
20 Frisch (1990, p. 155)

12

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 24: Metric weight of measures 1-32 of the 2. movement ( 44 )

Figure 25: Metric weight of measures 62-91 of the 2. movement ( 44 )

Figure 26: Metric weight of measures 96-103 (time signature 44 )

time signature whatsoever. Great metric weights are located on the third and
fourth sixteenths as well as on the seventh and eighth sixteenths and the eleventh and twelfth sixteenths. It confirms Epsteins observation that these
syncopations are responsible for a lack of a clear metricity within this passage.
Inner metric analysis of the entire exposition of the first movement brought
to light three different parts of regularities. Furthermore we detected new
characteristics of inner metric structure within these parts by choosing smaller
contexts, such as segments or voicing. These characteristics were not inherent
in the analysis of the entire exposition. Only in some cases metric coherence
was found, whereas very often a divergence between inner and outer metric
structure appeared, describing precisely the metric ambiguities observed in
(Epstein, 1987), (Epstein, 1994) or (Frisch, 1990).

3.2 Second movement

The second movement Adagio non troppo is segmented into sections of differing
time signatures associated with different themes. Measures 1-32 are notated
. The following passage (measures 57-61) is notated
as 44 , measures 33-56 as 12
8
as 44 in the string instruments, bassoon and trombone and as 12
in the wind
8
instruments (despite bassoon and trombone). Measures 62-91 are notated as 44
and measures 96-103 again as 44 .
for all instrumental parts, 92-96 as 12
8
Since measures 57-61 are transcribed as 12
in the used midi-file, e.g. a
8
quarter note of this segment corresponds to three eighth notes and is hence
different from a quarter note of the following segment notated as 44 , we have
chosen for the analysis the segments of measures 33-61 ( 12
) and 62-91 ( 44 ).
8
At first we want to discuss the results for the three segments notated as 44 .

13

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

14

Figure 27: The beginning of the theme in the cello

Figure 28: Measures 6-9 in the accompanying parts

Figure 29: Metric weight of measures 33-61 (time signature

12
8 )

All metric weights in figures 24, 25, and 26 are characterized by great metric weights on the second and fourth beats of the measures. On the one hand
this phase shift within the highest layer of the metric weight corresponds to
the upbeat of the theme (see figure 27), on the other we can observe a similar phenomenon which was mentioned by Frisch regarding the piano quintet
(see page 2) in the accompanying voices. Rests are located on the first and
third beats whereas notes are placed on the weak second and fourth beats (see
an example in figure 28), which according to Frisch results in a metric displacement. The very similarity of the weights regarding these three segments
furthermore demonstrates, that we obtained a common characteristic of the
thematic material associated with the time signature of 44 .
The analysis of the first segment notated as 12
reveals in figure 29 five sec8
tions of different density within the flow of successive note events: quarter
notes and eighth notes alternately shape the rhythmic flow in the first section (lowest metric weights), whereas the interplay of violins and violas in the
second section results in a continuous sequence of eighth notes (measures 4548). This sections follows a continuous sequence of sixteenth notes (measures
49-52). The flow of events gets even more dense in the next segment (measures 53-57) since a continuous motion of thirty-second notes (segment of the
greatest metric weights in figure 29) appears. In measure 58 the first theme
from the very beginning starts its repetition.

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 30: Detail of figure 29 for measures 53 ff.

Figure 31: Detail of figure 29 for measures 59 ff.

Within each segment of the metric weight up to the beginning of the first
theme in measure 58, the highest layer is not differentiated, as the detailed
figure 30 illustrates. Layers can be distinguished, but the metric weights of
the twelve beats of the measure are not differentiated at all within the highest
layer. This lack of differentiation corresponds to a characterization in (Epstein,
1994) of this movement as being an example of a continuous motion with a
minimum of structural accents (... eines der atemberaubendsten Beispiele der
Technik der ununterbrochenen, gefhrten Bewegung und des Mindestmaes
an strukturellen Schwerpunkten.21 )
On the contrary, the repetition of the first theme at measure 58 results in
a metric weight of the corresponding part, that assigns the greatest metric
weights to the first, fourth, seventh and tenth beats within the highest layer
(see figure 31). This differentiation enlightens the relationship between the
two alternating time signatures of this movement: the 12
corresponds to 44
8
with quarter notes being divided into three eighth notes and does obviously
not correspond to 23 (which requires great metric weights on the first, fifth and
ninth eighths).
The isolated analysis of the wind instruments of this section in figure 32
reveals great metric weights on the first, fourth, seventh and tenth beats as
well as in the segment following measure 53 (see also figure 33). Furthermore,
within the repetition of the first theme starting at measure 58 the greatest metric weights are located on the fourth and tenth beats, which corresponds to the
metric characteristic of the first theme already detected within the segments
of time signature 44 (since the fourth and tenth beats in 12
correspond to the
8
second and fourth beats of 44 ). Hence this result confirms again the hypothesis
that the accentuation of the second and fourth beats is a characteristic of the
first theme.
The analysis of the second segment notated as 12
in figure 34 shows (in
8
contrast to the first 12
-segment)
a
differentiation
within
the layer of the twelve
8
beats. The greatest metric weights are located on the first, fourth, seventh and
21 Epstein (1994, p. 13)

15

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

16

Figure 32: Metric weight of the wind instruments (measures 33-61)

Figure 33: Detail from figure 32 for measures 53 ff.

Figure 34: Metric weight of measures 92-96 (time signature

12
8 )

Figure 35: Metric weight of wind instruments (measures 92-96)

tenth beats, supporting the correspondence of 12
and 44 as previously men8
tioned.
The isolated analysis for the wind instruments in figure 35 reveals the
greatest metric weights on the fourth and tenth beats, which originally was
detected as the characteristic of the first theme associated with 44 . Hence a
relationship between the different thematic materials associated with the two
distinct time signatures of 44 and 12
is discovered in inner metric analysis.
8
Inner metric analyses of the different segments of this movement enlighten
a characteristic of the thematic material notated as 44 : greatest metric weights
are situated on the second and fourth beats. A similar observation is mentioned in (Frisch, 1990) p. 154 regarding the piano quintet (see p. 1). Furthermore a relationship between the two distinct themes associated with the two
different time signatures could be stated within the analysis of the wind instruments in measures 92-96. The lack of differentiation within the highest layer
of the weight of the first segment notated as 12
furthermore corresponds to an
8
observation in (Epstein, 1994) concerning the minimum of structural accents.

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 36: Metric weight of measures 1-32 of the third movement

Figure 37: The beginning of the third movement

Figure 38: Metric weight of measures 1-32, l = 76

3.3 Third Movement

The third movement Allegretto grazioso (Quasi Andantino) is segmented into
sections of different time signatures as well. Measures 1-32, 107-125 and 190240 are notated as 34 , measures 33-106 as 42 and measures 126-189 as 83 . Here
we discuss the first segment of each time signature (measures 1-32, 33-106 and
126-189).
The greatest metric weights within the analysis of the first segment (measures 1-32 in 34 ) in figure 36 are located on the first and third beats of the measures. The second layer is built upon the second beats of the measures, the
weak beats (second, fourth and sixth eighth note) form a lower layer. Hence
the metric weight reflects the hierarchy of strong and weak beats of the outer
metric structure, but the first and third beats compete within the highest layer
of the strong beats. The great metric weights on the third beats correspond on
the one hand to the accents in the score (see figure 37) in the beginning.
The reason for the prominence of the weight of the third beats on the other
hand can be explored by incrementing the value of l. The metric weight calculated with l = 76 in figure 38 enables us to differ three local meters. The
longest local meter of length k = 95 is built upon the first beats of all measures, a second one of length k = 77 is built upon all eighth notes of measures
20-32, a third one of length k = 76 is built upon all eighth notes of measures
7-19. Since the continuous sequence of eighth notes (which derives from the
metric interplay of the wind instruments and the cello) in measures 7-19 stops

17

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 39: Metric weight of measures 1-32, l = 63

Figure 40: Metric weight of measures 1-32 for the cello

Figure 41: Metric weight of measures 1-32 for the wind instruments
at the last eighth note of measure 19, we can observe a gap in the middle of
figure 38.
The next differentiation of the metric weight by decreasing the values of l
occurs in the metric weight for l = 63 (see figure 39) which clarifies the prominent role of the third beats of the measures. The first local meter of length
k = 63 starts on the first beat of measure 1 and consists of the first and fourth
eighth notes of all measures of this segment, the second local meter starts on
the second eighth note of the first measure and consists of the second and fifth
eighth notes of all measures. Hence the first and third beats of the measures
participate in these local meters, whereas the second beats do not. Therefore
the highest layer within the metric weight is built upon the first and third beats
in the finest metric weight for l = 2 as well. The reason for the occurrence of
the mentioned local meters is mainly due to the gaps in a quasi continuous motion of eighth notes deriving from the interplay of the wind instruments and
the cello. One gap is located in measure 19 as already mentioned, two others
are located at the last eighths of measures 4 and 6 respectively (see figure 37).
The isolated analysis of the cello in figure 40 illustrates that the gaps within
the motion of eighth notes even prevents the occurrence of layers corresponding to the outer metric structure within a large segment of this instrumental
part. Within the last measures two layers can be separated, but within the
highest layer no differentiation can be observed. Hence metric coherence cannot be stated. On the other hand, the melodic contour of the cello in many
cases is able to mediate the structure of the time signature 43 .
The isolated analysis of the wind instruments in figure 41 shows metric coherence. The greatest metric weights are situated on the second beats of the
measures, which is in contrast to the result of the analysis of all instruments in
figure 36. Again an analysis with a higher value of l can reveal the reasons.
The metric weight with l = 31 in figure 42 shows a long local meter built

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Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 42: Metric weight of measures 1-32 for the wind instruments, l = 31

Figure 43: Measures 11 ff. in the wind instruments

Figure 44: Metric weight of measures 33-106 (time signature 24 )

upon the second beats of all measures. This beat is the only one the wind
instruments place continuously notes on, whereas the first beats lack an onset
in measures 15 and 27 due to syncopations.
The score in figure 43 illustrates the rhythmic analogy with the passage in
the first movement of measures 58/59 (see figure 14). In both cases a syncopation takes place because of tying the third beat together with the first beat
of the following measure. But whereas the syncopation in the first movement
supports great metric weights on the third beats, in this case the syncopation
supports great metric weights on the second beats. On the one hand the third
beat is empty in several measures, on the other hand long local meters cannot
be constructed on the first beats due to the empty first beat in measures 15 and
27. Hence the comparison of these passages of the first and third movement
enlightens the different influence of syncopations on the inner metric structure
depending on the context.
Other score elements seem to prevent an accentuation of the third beat in
the case of the third movement as well, as for instance the decrescendo ending
on the third beat of measure 14 (see figure 43). This is in contrast with the
mentioned passage of the first movement, where the third beat is pronounced
by a sf (see figure 14). Furthermore, the accentuation of the second beats in the
isolated metric analysis of the wind instruments corresponds to the rhythmic

19

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 45: Metric weight of measures 126-189 (time signature 83 )

Figure 46: Metric weight of measures 1-59 of the fourth movement

Figure 47: Metric weight of measures 1-59 for the wind instruments

Figure 48: Detail of figure 47

figures of measures 8-10 and 29-31 as well.
The following segment Presto (measures 33-106) notated as 24 is characterized by a quasi continuous sequence of eighth notes which allows a differentiation into two layers within the metric weight (see figure 44) that distinguishes
strong and weak beats, but within the highest layer of the first and second
beats no differentiation takes place. Metric coherence cannot be stated.
On the contrary the analysis of the second segment Presto (measures 126189) notated as 83 reveals metric coherence (see figure 45).
The three analyzed segments of different outer metric structure of the third
movement were characterized by very diverse relations between inner and
outer metric structure. Whereas the metric weight of the first segment showed
a periodicity corresponding to the measures but without differentiating the
role of the third and first beats, the metric weight of the second segment did
not show any differentiation within the layer of the strong beats. The last
segment was characterized by metric coherence.

3.4 Fourth movement

Regarding the fourth movement Allegro con spirito (Alla breve) we will discuss in the following the two segments associated with the two main themes,
namely the measures 1-59 of the first theme and 78-154 of the second.

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Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 49: Measures 38 ff. for the wind instruments

Figure 50: Metric weight of measures 1-59 for the first violins
The metric weight of the first theme in figure 46 shows only within the
first 23 measures a differentiation which corresponds to the Alla breve, the
continuous sequence of eighth notes in the following sections prevents any
differentiation of the weight.
On the contrary, the metric weight of the wind instruments of the same segment (figure 47) reveals a differentiation starting at measure 23, which accentuates the second beat, whereas in measures 37 ff. even the second and fourth
beats of the measures get great metric weights (see also the detailed figure 48).
The rhythmic motives of measures 37-40 (see figure 49) supports the emergence of long local meters on these weak beats, which has been observed
already in analyses of the second movement of this symphony. Indeed, analyses of the other symphonies in (Fleischer, 2003) support these findings as a
characteristic of Brahms works in general, as mentioned as well in (Frisch,
1990).
The isolated analysis of the first violins of this segment in contrast to this
shows in large parts great metric weights on the first and third beats, whereas
the third beat is the most prominent one (see figure 50). Hence the metric
weight of the wind instruments and first violins are complementary and interact in such a way that the analysis of the entire composition results in a metric
weight with a lack of any significant differentiation whatsoever. In (Fleischer,
2002b) this phenomenon therefore was called mutual annihilation.
The analysis of the second part (measures 78-154) in figures 51 and 52 reveals
great metric weights on the second and fourth beats as well. The isolated metric analysis of the string instruments in figure 53 again shows a complementary
structure, since the highest layer is built upon the first and third beats of the
measures. In contrast to this the isolated analysis of the wind instruments in

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Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 51: Metric weight of measures 78-154

Figure 52: Detail of figure 51

Figure 53: Metric weight for the string instruments (measures 78-154)

Figure 54: Metric weight of measures 78-154 for the wind instruments

Figure 55: Metric weight of measures 78-154 for the first violins
figure 54 gains a less structured weight, nevertheless great metric weights on
the second beat often can be found.
The latter we can observe within the isolated analysis of the first violins
in figures 55 and 56 as well. The great metric weights on the second beats
correspond to the rhythmic accentuation of this beat by placing half notes on
it (see figure 57), the low metric weights on the first beats correspond to the
tying together of the first beat of the measure with the last beat of the previous
measure, such as in measures 84/85, 87/88 or 89/90.

3.5 Summary Second Symphony

Inner metric analysis of the first movement of Brahms Second Symphony suggests a segmentation of the exposition into three parts of very different regularity of the inner metric structure, which furthermore corresponds to a segment-

22

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

23

Figure 56: Detail of figure 55

Figure 57: The second theme in the first violins (measures 78 ff.) of the 4. movement
ation of the exposition regarding harmonic structure. Detailed investigations
of the three segments enlightened the influence of hemiolas and syncopations
on inner metric structure. Further peculiarities are concerned with regularities of the metric weight, which correspond to a different time signature as the
notated one, such as the 44 instead of 34 (figure 5) or 68 instead of 43 (figures 12,
15). Another peculiarity concerns those metric weights, which exhibit periodicities that allow no correspondence to any time signature (figures 22, 3). The
coherent first part of the metric weight of the exposition (figure 4) answers Epsteins question concerning the relation of down- and upbeat of the first two
measures.
Inner metric analysis of the second movement enlightens a typical feature
of the thematic material notated as 44 in all three segments, which consists in
great metric weights on the second and fourth beats (figures 24, 25, 26) and
corresponds to an observation in (Frisch, 1990) regarding the piano quintet.
Frisch considers this phenomenon a typical characteristic in Brahms uvre.
The mentioned lack of structural accents observed in the second movement in
(Epstein, 1994) corresponds to a metric weight without a differentiation of the
highest layer (figure 29). Furthermore a hidden relation between the two parts
of different time signatures was detected (figure 35). The analysis of the third
movement demonstrates the very different influence of syncopes on the inner
metric structure depending on the context in comparison to the first movement. The analysis of the fourth movement enlightens a complementary shape
of the inner metric structure between different instrumental parts causing mutual annihilation. Furthermore the phenomenon of great metric weights on
second and fourth beats occurs (figure 52) as was already observed in the
second movement.

4 Third Symphony
4.1 First movement
Frisch (1990) characterizes the first movement of the Third Symphony regarding metric displacements as perhaps the most impressive indeed, encyclopedic work in this respect22 . In comparison to the first movement of the

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

24

Figure 58: Metric weight of the entire exposition of the 1. movement of the Third
Symphony, interpreted as 46

Figure 59: Detail from figure 58 for measures 36-72

Figure 60: Metric weight of the measures 1-35

Second Symphony we can observe the opposite tendency regarding segmentation processes and inner metric structure. Measures 1-35 are notated as 46 ,
measures 36-72 as 49 and measures 49-72 as 46 . But surprisingly the metric
weight of the entire exposition in figure 58 allows an interpretation regarding
6
of the entire exposition despite the different time signatures (see also the de4
tailed versions in figures 2 and 59). Hence whereas the inner metric analysis of
the entire exposition of the Second Symphony enlightened a three-partition of
the inner metric weight, the exposition of the Third Symphony is segmented
regarding outer but not regarding inner metric structure.
Nevertheless we will now discuss analyses of the isolated segments associated with the different time signatures.
The metric weight of the isolated first segment in figure 60 shows a correspondence to the outer metric structure of 46 as already observed within the analysis of the entire exposition. Within the first seventeen measures the greatest
metric weights are located on the fourth beats, whereas in the following section on the first beats of the measures. Hence metric coherence can be stated.
This result does not correspond to an observation in (Frisch, 1990) postulating
a conflict between the notated 46 and an implicit 32 -meter: The main theme,
entering in the violins in the third bar, begins to project a metrical profile, but
one that fits more clearly into 23 than 46 . Only in bar 7 is the duple division of
the bar firmly supported in all parts: the theme, the motto, and the harmonic
voices move every half bar.23
The continuous motion in eighth notes in the accompanying voices might
prevent the emergence of this metric peculiarity in the metric weight of all
instrumental parts. Therefore we want to discuss the isolated analysis of the
first violins (see figure 62). The result in figure 61 confirms Frischs observation.
22 Frisch (1990, p. 155)
23 Frisch (1990, p. 156)

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 61: Metric weight of the first violins, measures 3-35

Figure 62: The theme in the first violins

Figure 63: Metric weight of measures 36-48

Within the measures 3-6 the weight corresponds to 32 , whereas the prominence
of the fourth beat as the characteristic of 46 establishes a hierarchy corresponding to outer metric hierarchy in the following part.
The isolated analysis of the second segment in 94 (measures 36-48) in figure
63 reveals a regularity of the metric weight, which does not correspond to
the outer meter. The highest layer is built upon the weights of every second
quarter note. Hence metric coherence cannot be found. Furthermore the isolated analysis differs to a great extend to the corresponding part within the
result of the analysis of the entire exposition.
The score in figure 64 illustrates very distinct rhythmic structures of instrumental parts. The accompanying parts (bass, cello and viola) may serve as
orientation concerning the 49 -structure, since the lowest notes in the bass mark
the first beats of the measures whereas the notes of the cello mark the strong
first, fourth and seventh beats. The leading voice in the clarinet is rhythmically very distinct. The theme begins on the second quarter note of measure 36,
its entrance motive is repeated in measure 37 in a slightly varied form. But
in measure 38 the motive starts on the third beat and is hence shifted. This
technique of shifting corresponding motives regarding their position in the
measure Frisch called metric displacement. Hence we want to discuss the analysis of the theme (see clarinet in measures 36-39, the violas in measures 40-43,
the oboe and clarinet in measures 44-46 and the violins in measures 47-48).
The metric weight of the theme in figure 65 shows a very distinct regularity
compared with the weight of all instrumental parts of this section. Within the
first measure the greatest metric weights are located on the third and seventh
beats, in the second measure on the fourth and sixth beats and in the third
measure on the first and ninth beats. Obviously this does not correspond to
the outer metric hierarchy.

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Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

26

Figure 64: Measures 36 ff.

Figure 65: Metric weight of the theme in measures 36-48

Figure 66: Metric weight of figure 65 interpreted as

6
4

The interpretation of the same weight as 46 in figure 66 at least results in a

regularity which fits to the bar lines. The greatest metric weights are situated
on the first and third beats of the measures. If great metric weights would
be located on the fifth beats as well we could state metric coherence to a 23 meter. But in many cases the fifth beats get low metric weights. Hence metric
coherence cannot be stated. Interestingly, Brahms notated the theme within
the development (measures 77 ff.) in a slightly varied version as 64 . Hence
the result of the isolated analysis of the theme might enlighten a hidden structure of the theme Brahms possibly was even aware of. This hidden structure
is furthermore confirmed within the analysis of the entire exposition, which
revealed a correspondence of this second segment to the 46 -meter in figure 58.
The metric weight of the isolated third segment of the exposition in figure 67
is characterized by great metric weights on the fourth beats of the measures in
the first half of the picture, similar to the results of the isolated analysis of the
first segment. Interestingly in the second half of the picture again a periodicity

Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 67: Metric weight of measures 49-72

Figure 68: Metric weight of measures 1-53

Figure 69: Metric weight of the theme

can be stated similar to the isolated analysis of the second segment: every
second beat gets a greater metric weight.

4.2 Third movement

The third movement Poco Allegretto (time signature 38 ) is segmented into three
parts of different key signatures: measures 1-53 in E sharp Major, measures 5498 in A sharp Major, the last part in E sharp Major repeats the opening theme.
Here we want to discuss the two segments in E sharp Major (for the discussion
of the middle part see (Fleischer, 2003), p. 115).
The metric weight of the first segment in figure 68 shows a characteristic of
this movement. The interplay of the instrumental parts without any caesura
result in a continuous motion causing a metric weight without any clear differentiation within the highest layer24 . The three strong beats form the highest
layer, but within this layer no differentiation can be observed. The isolated
analysis of the theme in figure 69 on the other hand shows a differentiation
which is divided into two parts. Within the first part of the picture the greatest
metric weights are located on the first beats of the measures, whereas within
the second part on the third beats of the measures due to the syncopations (see
figure 70). Metric coherence can be stated.
The metric weight of the third part (measures 99-163) in figure 71 reveals in
contrast to the corresponding weight of the first part a differentiation within
the highest layer, due to the slowing motion towards the end of the movement.
Whereas in the first part no caesura appears, we can find them in the second
part at the end. For instance, onsets of notes are placed solely on the second
24 Similar phenomena can be stated within the A sharp Major part.

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Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

Figure 70: The theme in measures 26 ff.

Figure 71: Metric weight of measures 99-163

Figure 72: Metric weight of the theme of measures 99-163

beats of the measures 151, 155 and 160, whereas the other beats are empty.
These notes placements cause the great metric weights on the second beats
within the whole segment.
The analysis of the melody of the third segment in figure 72 on the other
hand is very similar to the corresponding analysis of the first part of the movement.

4.3 Summary Third Symphony

The inner metric analysis of the first movement reveals the opposite relation
between inner and outer metric structure as in the Second Symphony: despite
segments of different notated time signatures the inner metric structure allows
homogeneous interpretation. Concerning the theme the mentioned discrepancy between 32 and 64 in (Frisch, 1990) is confirmed by inner metric analysis.
The weight of the second theme notated as 94 fits 64 better, which Brahms used
in the development of the first movement. Within inner metric analysis of
the second movement the continuous motion prevents a differentiation of the
weight, whereas the isolated analysis of the theme shows metric coherence,
which is characterized in the second part by a phase shift.

5 Conclusion
The metric structure of Brahms Second and Third Symphonies have been
studied by means of notes onsets. Thereby discrepancies between inner and
outer metric structure described precisely the often mentioned ambiguities
in Brahms uvre, such as the occurrence of regularities in the inner metric weight corresponding to the hierarchy of a different time signature than
the notated one. Furthermore the results of inner metric analysis depend to

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Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

a great extend on the chosen contexts (e.g. segments, instrumental parts),
thus demonstrating the very diverse compositorial layers created by anomalous contrasting and counter-balancing of elements.
Inner metric analysis considers the onsets of notes whereas melodic or harmonic features are neglected. As the discussion concerning the third movement of the Second Symphony (p. 18) illustrates, the melodic shape may mediate metric accents in situations where inner metric analysis does not. Insofar melodic and harmonic information may contribute further insights into the
analysis of metric structure. Nevertheless the presented approach gains promising results, whereas the consideration of great data bases, such as an entire
exposition, are of great importance. The limits of punctual analysis are part
of the critics Frisch (1990) mentioned regarding Schnbergs approach: ... the
analyses never advance beyond the level of the individual theme, making no
attempt to show how the shifting bar lines might affect the larger framework
or dimension of a piece.25 The analysis of large contexts permits the investigation of metric characteristics of themes and associated segments, as in the
case of the second movement of the Second Symphony. In (Fleischer, 2003) the
analysis of the entire first movement of the Fourth Symphony gained interesting results regarding the comparison of corresponding parts in exposition,
development and reprise.
Brahms compositions in many cases are characterized by discrepancies
between inner metric structure and the metric hierarchy given by the time signatures. Therefore metric coherence very often cannot be found. The observed
discrepancies correspond in many cases to observations made by music theorists (such as the phenomenon of metric displacement and great weights on
weak beats) and hence may serve as precise descriptions with the method of
inner metric analysis.
We have discussed some of the examples in detail concerning the question
which local meters are mainly responsible for the occurence or disturbance of
metric coherence. This has been done by varying the parameter l. Further developments of the software tool (a Java application JMetro has been designed
in our research group KIT-MaMuTh and has been implemented by Chris Dyer
and Monika Brand) now allow the listing of all local meters considered in the
metric weight. Thus we detected some examples, for instance, revealing that
great metric weights on the beginnings of measures are not in each case due to
local meters with a period26 of the measure (or multiples of the period). Even
after excluding all local meters with a period of the measure, half-measure and
multiples of the measure the metric weight was characterized by metric coherence. This promises new insights into the complexity of the processes which
cause the emergence of metric coherence.

25 Frisch (1990, p. 149)

26 the distance between consecutive onsets of the meter

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Metric Investigations in Brahms Symphonies

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