City Branding of Hong Kong

Imagineering Authenticity
Christina Knig

Stockholm University School of Business

106 91 Stockholm
Telephone: +46 (0)8 16 20 00
www.fek.su.se

Abstract
Skepticism is increasingly becoming a part of peoples initial reaction toward place brands.
The phenomenon is explored by addressing authenticity, which is considered to increase brand
value. Viewed through the relation of building credible reputation as a causal effect of built-up
legitimacy, the argument is that rather than focusing on credibility and legitimacy, city
branding is more about effectively managing expectations. The dissertation concludes with the
concept of imagineering authenticity, which refers to the process of signifying and
symbolising the potential imagination of different audiences expectations.

Keywords
Place branding, City branding, Credibility, Legitimacy, Authenticity

Acknowledgments
My interest in the multidisciplinary nature of city branding was one of the main reasons for
choosing it as the topic of my thesis. I found it especially interesting to apply to the case of
Hong Kong due to my fascination with its dynamic mix of East-meets-West, as well as its
political status, which add extra dimensions to the complexity of a city.
I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Per-Olof Berg for his guidance and support
throughout the thesis. Moreover, my thanks are also extended to my peer review group, Emma
Gustafsson, Andrea Lucarelli, and my fellow students for their constructive feedback.
My sincere gratitude goes to all the interviewees for their time and willingness to share
valuable information and knowledge of their respective fields.
Finally, special thanks go to Dana Bensimon, Andrew Merrie, and Tomas Rosn for their
encouragement and support, as well as my family, for believing in me.
Stockholm, May 2011.
Christina Knig

Table of Contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 7
1.1 Problem formulation ...............................................................................................7
1.2 Case Introduction: Hong Kong- Asias world city ..............................................8
1.3 Change of Focus......................................................................................................8
1.4 Aim and Research Questions ..................................................................................9
1.5 Method in Brief .......................................................................................................9

2. Literature review.................................................................................. 10
2.1 Branding Applied to Places...................................................................................10
2.2 From Product- and Corporate Brands to Place Branding......................................11
2.3 From Place Branding and Destination Branding to City Branding.......................11
2.4 Skeptical Audiences & Credibility in Place Branding ..........................................12
2.5 Authenticity in Place- and City Branding .............................................................14
2.6 Summary ...............................................................................................................14

3. Theoretical Framework ....................................................................... 15

3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................15
3.2 Credibility .............................................................................................................15
3.3 Legitimacy.............................................................................................................16
3.4 Communication & Appropriation .........................................................................16
3.5 Authenticity...........................................................................................................17
3.6 Conceptualisation of Authenticity in light of skeptical audiences........................17

4. Methodology ......................................................................................... 19
4.1 Introduction Data Collection Textual Research Field Study .......................19
4.2 Interviewees and Verbal Sources ..........................................................................20
4.3 Data Analysis Approach .......................................................................................21
4.4 Trustworthiness & Limitation ...............................................................................21

5. Empirical Results ................................................................................. 23

5.1 Introduction to BrandHK ......................................................................................23
5.1.1 History of Branding Hong Kong....................................................................23
5.1.2 Place of Opportunity, where East-meets-West ..............................................23
5.1.3 Pearl of the Orient ..........................................................................................24
5.1.4 Connecting Hub & Gateway to China ...........................................................25
5.2 BrandHK Campaign & Context ............................................................................25
5.2.1 Branding Campaign: Asias World City ........................................................25
5.2.2 Context of BrandHK ......................................................................................27
5.3 BrandHKs Positioning as Asias World City ......................................................28
5.3.1 Brand Attributes .............................................................................................28
5.3.2 Brand Core Values .........................................................................................29
5.4 Objective of BrandHK ..........................................................................................32
5.5 Visual Identity ...................................................................................................33
5.6 Brand Governance.................................................................................................34
5.6.1 BrandHK Management ..................................................................................34
5.6.2 BrandHK Management Cooperations ............................................................34
5.7 Target Groups........................................................................................................35

6. Analysis ................................................................................................. 37
6.1 Credibility .............................................................................................................37
6.1.1 Secure and Connected...............................................................................37
6.1.2 Diverse & Cosmopolitan ..........................................................................37
6.1.3 Quality Living .............................................................................................38
6.1.4 Credibility in Light of Skeptical Audiences...................................................39
6.2. Legitimacy............................................................................................................39
6.2.1 Creating and Revitalising BrandHK ..............................................................39
6.2.2 BrandHK Governance ....................................................................................40
6.3 Communication & Appropriation .........................................................................41
6.4 Authenticity...........................................................................................................42

7. Discussion & Conclusion ..................................................................... 43

8. References ............................................................................................. 46
Appendices ..................................................................................... 52 - 55

List of Figures

Figure 3.1

Conceptual Theoretical Model ..............................................................18

Figure 5.1

Colonial Emblem of Hong Kong ...........................................................24

Figure 5.2

BrandHK Attributes...............................................................................28

Figure 5.3

BrandHK Core Values ...........................................................................30

Figure 5.4a BrandHK Logo Comparison ..................................................................33

Figure 5.4b BrandHK Logo Writing .........................................................................33
Figure 5.5

Faces of Hong Kong ..............................................................................35

Figure 6.1

Octopus Card .........................................................................................38

1 Introduction
__________________________________________________________________________

This chapter will introduce the research of the thesis together with the background outlining
the field of study. A gap in current theory will be established, along with justification for the
research and a brief explanation of the methodology.
__________________________________________________________________________________

Government authorities may have different objectives to actively market and brand their cities,
regions and nations. However, it has been acknowledged that there are increased pressures to
compete in the global market for investors, talent and the cosmopolitan elite (Anholt 2007). In
this context, cities are increasingly making use of place branding techniques, especially in
light of them being considered the key centres of human activity and the engines of economic
growth in the world today (Ratcliffe & Krawczyk 2004). More than half of the worlds
population lives in cities as a result of rapid transformations through technological change,
globalisation and cultural shifts, among others (Ratcliffe & Krawczyk 2004).
City branding is thus considered to be a strategy to increase competitive advantage, by
providing them with an image, a source of economic value, political and cultural significance,
and spur socio-economic development (e.g. Kavaratzis 2004). The main aim is to attract more
inward investments, potential residents, and tourists, along with community development and
the reinforcement of local identity (Kavaratzis 2004).

1.1 Problem Formulation

Sydney- theres no place in the world like Sydney, Stockholm- The Capital of
Scandinavia, Johannesburg- a world class African city, Hong Kong - Asias world city;
these are just a few examples of city branding. The city slogans reflect that they are trying to
find a niche and differentiate their brands. Hence, in contemporary society, the dominant
image of a city in peoples minds, in terms of historical narrative, personalities, buildings,
companies, etc. [] is normally [] influenced by commercial actors, reinforced by mediated
signs (Jansson 2003: 463). In this respect, the symbolic refueling (Jansson 2003: 463) of
the city is made up in large part of the continuous labour of professional image-makers. The
general public may therefore be skeptical of the credibility of the claims of the brands, as it
generally thinks of PR professionals as untrustworthy (Merkelsen 2011: 133). Ooi &
Strandgard Pedersen (2010) argue that the place brand will be less legitimate, especially
without the backing of the local audience.
It can be inferred that branding depends on patterns of social interaction that are not only
beyond its control, but the autonomy of which is crucial to the authenticity of the brand
(Hornskov 2007). How a commercially created city image develops and how different groups
experience it, depend upon the activities of social actors as well as systemic forces (Jansson
2003: 464). Moreover, even while the dominant city image may be supported and founded
upon alliances between political, cultural and economic actors, alternative and oppositional
groupings are always challenging such points of view (Jansson 2003: 464). Although
branding aims to balance social forces with communicational strategies (Lury 2004, as cited
in Hornskov 2007: 318), it often fails to recognise the potential and challenges of these social
forces (Hornskov 2007: 318). Therefore, the main issue in city branding may not just be
communication; a potential problem is how to make audiences believe that the brand claims
are credible and legitimate.

1.2 Case Introduction: Hong Kong Asias world city

Having established that a potential problem with city branding could be the skepticism of
audiences, especially in light of the credibility, legitimacy and authenticity of the brand
claims, the case of Hong Kong provides an illustrative example. Originally launched in 2001
as Hong Kong - Asias world city, the brand was again revitalised in 2010 with a new logo
and platform to engage more with local residents.
From its inception until presently with the re-adjustments, criticism has been voiced
throughout, mainly from the midst of the local public. This became especially clear after
conducting field research in Hong Kong and talking to members of the local Hong Kong
Chinese population, who expressed criticism related to the brand with regard to its focus on
overseas audiences or the claim to be a world city, to name a few.
In light of the above, there are several reasons why Hong Kong is an appropriate case to study
in the context of challenged cities. First of all, the ambiguous cultural identity and political
status of Hong Kong, as it had to redefine its identity from a British colony to fit in a Greater
China context, provides fertile ground to contest the brand credibility claims. While there are
other places which underwent de-colonisation, such as Singapore or Macao, Hong Kongs
case is unique in the sense that it has been considered one of the main financial hubs in the
world after London and New York. Yet with the rise of other Chinese cities, such as Shanghai
and Shenzhen, it is exposed to the risk of losing significance and sustainability of its brand.
Secondly, there are critics among the local community who disagree with Hong Kongs world
city status and/or the overcommercialisation of its identity, which seems to be catering largely
to foreigners. According to a number of scholars, brand steerers should ensure that the brand
reflects its reality to some extent to gain the audiences trust. Moreover, it is also important to
gain the buy-in of local stakeholders for the success and sustainability of a place brand, or else
it could result in the undermining of the brand to external audiences. Finally, two recent case
studies on Hong Kong examine the city branding through the world city paradigm (Flowerdew
2004; Shen 2010), rather than considering the brand authenticity perspective.
Due to these reasons and the fact that most studies about brand authenticity have been made in
tourism literature, it is of interest to study the case of Hong Kong in terms of brand
authenticity from a city branding perspective.

1.3 Change of Focus

Having initially researched the digital footprint of Hong Kong by studying the official brand
website as well as organisations officially using the brand, the impression conveyed was that
of a well orchestrated and highly controlled communication strategy. For this reason, the
initial purpose was to examine what symbols and other materials are being provided to local
stakeholders in appropriating the identity, which Hong Kong brand authorities are trying to
communicate. However, after conducting interviews during the field study and informally
asking Hong Kong residents about their views on the city brand, it became clear that despite
the consistent communication, there is still ambiguity and doubt. This was reflected to the
extent that most of the questioned members of the expat community regarded Hong Kong as
an international place and a world city, whereas most local Hong Kong Chinese respondents
did not see it that way and perceived Tokyo, among others, to be more of an Asian world city.
The mixed reactions within Hong Kong, which put the credibility of the brand in doubt was
interesting and seemed a more appropriate focus, rather than the communication process

alone. The latter would have been based on the assumption that local stakeholders
unconditionally accept the brand propositions and appropriate it through the symbols provided
by brand steerers. Therefore, the focus changed to examine the phenomena of challenged
cities, concentrating on the case of Hong Kong.

1.4 Aim & Research Questions

The aim of this dissertation is to conceptualise authenticity in city branding by focusing on the
concepts of credibility and legitimacy, facing skeptical audiences. The following research
questions arise in this context:
- How do the legitimacy and credibility of city brands influence the perception of authenticity
in light of skeptical audiences?
- How can city brand authorities convince audiences about the authenticity of the brand?

1.5 Method in Brief

The examination of the city branding of Hong Kong will mainly be based on an
ethnographically-inspired field study on site, since it allows for applying multiple data
collection methods at a single phenomenon (Goulding 2005: 299). Interviews with twelve
persons were conducted and empirical data gathered in order to derive concepts, themes, or a
model (Thomas 2006: 238) for the theoretical framework. The discussion will aim to connect
with the literature review, theoretical framework and analysis.
The following section will provide a theoretical foundation of the topic to be investigated, with
a review of relevant place- and city branding literature. The focus will be on credibility,
legitimacy and authenticity, in light of skeptical audiences.

2 Literature Review
____________________________________________________________________
The literature review acknowledges recent developments in city branding and serves to
identify literature gaps and to justify the focus of this dissertation. First, general branding
concepts will be introduced which will form the backbone of city branding theory. Thereafter
relevant and existing place- and destination branding literature will be reviewed, in order to
focus on the recent developments in city branding. The focus will be narrowed down to
credibility and authenticity in light of skeptical audiences. In doing so, the review justifies the
theoretical foundation for the dissertation.
____________________________________________________________________

2.1 Branding Applied to Places

Place branding theory is mainly founded on the successful application to products and
corporations (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005). The American Marketing Association (2011)
defines a brand as a customer experience represented by a collection of images and ideas;
often, it refers to a symbol such as a name, logo, slogan, and design scheme. Hence, the
concept of a brand generally refers to the recognition of a name, including the reputation
affiliated with the promise of authenticity and quality, and the differentiation to other product
offerings in a competitive market (Anholt 2007).
The advantage of creating and maintaining a place brand is that it can be used as a means for
differentiation in a global competitive environment, to stakeholders both visiting and living
there. The place brand identity can be visually and verbally communicated to stakeholders
through a logo and advertisements; for instance, the city brand name New York is expressed in
the logo and slogan I NY. Another advantage of applying branding concepts to places is
that it could facilitate reputation building and boost their brand equity. A brand is thus more
than a static component.
A place brand may be equivalent to the identity of the location itself (Kavaratzis & Ashworth
2005; Ooi 2010). Since the image of a place brand is formed as a collection of associations in
the audiences minds (Hankinson 2004; Anholt 2007; Moilanen & Rainisto 2009), it may not
always coincide with the actual place identity. Through the conceptualisation of brand
relationships (e.g. Hankinson 2004), the place brand can deliver emotional aspects to
stakeholders through its behaviour, e.g. event-based strategies, [...] mega-events and cultural
regeneration (Kavaratzis 2004).
Hence, place branding, reflects the growing interest in the ways that communities, cities,
regions and countries market their entity (Merrilees et al. 2009: 362). They can thus act as
umbrella brands for a portfolio of leisure, investment and business tourism, and stakeholder
and citizen welfare products (Trueman et al. 2004). However, Freire (2005, as cited in Freire
2009) goes so far as to argue that places [...] will function as a brand even if not managed
under a branding conceptual framework (p. 420) because they are embedded with meaning;
a view echoed by Codato & Franco (2006). For instance, for some place brands, such as
London or Paris, which do not have an officially created brand, most people still recognise
their names and have formed certain images and associations around them.

10

2.2 From Product- and Corporate Brands to Place Branding

There is a general consensus that concepts of place branding are grounded in corporate
branding and general marketing concepts which have been adapted for the purpose (Freire
2009; Hankinson 2001, 2004 & 2007; Kotler & Gertner 2002; Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005 &
2007; Kavaratzis 2004; Morgan et al. 2002; Trueman et al. 2004).
Product branding can be applied to place branding because it has tangible and intangible
components, relies on services, and can be positioned through slogans (Caldwell & Freire
2004; Hall 2007; Matson 1994; Murphy et al. 2000; Pike 2005). However, since it is mainly
short-term oriented and does not address a multitude of stakeholders, corporate brands are
considered to resemble place brands more (Hankinson 2007; Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2007;
Kavaratzis 2004; Hankinson 2007; Parkerson 2007; Parkerson & Saunders 2005). This is
because corporate branding captures the complexity of place brands in terms of multiple
identities, the multitude of stakeholder groups, and long-term development (Kavaratzis &
Ashworth 2007), as well as stimulating associations with heritage and articulate strategic
visions of what is to come (Olins 1989, as cited in Hatch & Schultz 2003: 1045).
However, since both product and place branding capture different characteristics of place
branding, it is appropriate to consider aspects of both in place branding, instead of mutually
excluding them. Rather, one could think of a place brand as the whole entity of the place
products, in order to achieve consistency in the message sent (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005:
512). Thus, lessons can be drawn from both in terms of identity, differentiation, relationship
building, communications, and strategy (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005; Trueman et al. 2004).
By applying these concepts to place brands, brand authorities can also makes use of selective
brand stories to reflect their desired positioning and communicate with stakeholders, thus
increasing credibility (Beverland 2005; Huang 2010; Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005; Kavaratzis
2004).

2.3 From Place Branding and Destination Branding to City Branding

Since place branding is a relatively new and growing area (Hankinson 2001; Caldwell &
Freire 2004; Hanna & Rowley 2008; Skinner 2008; Freire 2009), there is little clarity or
agreement about the terminology or definitions (Anholt 2004). Moreover an apparent lack of
empirical research remains (Caldwell & Freire 2004).
Anholt (2004, cited in Kerr 2006) defines place branding as the practice of applying brand
strategy and other marketing techniques and disciplines to the economic, social, political and
cultural developments of cities, regions and countries (p. 278 ). A place signifies towns,
cities, regions and countries (or nations) (Rowley & Hanna 2008: 69). Since place branding
emphasises the marketing and branding of cities to the residents (and potential residents) as a
place to live, and to businesses as a place to invest (Merrilees et al. 2009: 362), it is mainly
used in branding and business (Rowley & Hanna 2008). The focus in destination branding is
on the tourist perspective, as it selectively identifies chief image attributes with a short timehorizon in mind, thus it is primarily used in tourism literature (Rowley & Hanna 2008;
Merrilees et al. 2009).
The usage of the two aforementioned terms may imply their focus, but it does not mean that
they must necessarily be mutually exclusive. For instance, place branding to local stakeholders
may lead to its transformation, which may in turn affect the destination branding to tourists.
Hence, these areas are in some ways overlapping. For this reason, a city can be considered
both a place and a destination, as long as the focus is made clear.

11

To clarify, city branding is about identifying a set of brand attributes that the city has in order
to form a basis from which to generate positive perceptions across multiple audiences (Dinnie
2010: 4). Thus, the following definition will be adopted: City branding is the purposeful
symbolic embodiment of all information connected to a city in order to create associations and
expectations around it (Berg 2009). To this extent, it deals with the process of ensuring that
the generated expectations in actual and potential city users minds are met in the way they
experience the city (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2007: 528). Promotion activities and
communication influence these expectations, which will feed back to peoples own internal
city image (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2007).
There are different goals for city branding: it selectively frames the city, it asserts a unique
identity for the place and it provides a set of lenses for people to understand and interpret the
city (Ooi & Strandgard Pedersen 2010: 327). Consequently, mobilising and gaining local
support, public-private collaborations and engaging with international audiences are
considered to be important in the branding process (Ooi & Strandgaard Pedersen 2010).
Stakeholders may include residents, industry players, local government, central government
and the branding authorities (Ooi & Strandgaard Pedersen 2010: 317). Researchers advocate
that stakeholder support is crucial in successful city branding (Ooi & Strandgaard Pedersen
2010).
Moreover,togainrelevantstakeholderssupport,Kavaratzis (2008) stresses the importance
of a communication framework to the city branding process in effectively communicating the
image and achieving the overall city brand vision. Along the lines, Trueman et al. (2004) agree
that perceptions can be enhanced and influenced through clearer communications. Cities
should thus effectively communicate what they are doing in order to gain community buy-in
and trust with all who are involved in the brand development (Kavaratzis 2008; Underwood
& Fray 2008). Therefore, the desired image must be close to reality, believable, simple,
appealing and distinctive (Kotler & Gertner 2002: 47). Hence, solely providing information is
not adequate. Many scholars agree that the brand story should accurately reflect the places
culture and reality (Hankinson 2004 & 2009; Kavaratzis 2009; Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005;
Morgan et al. 2004). According to Kavaratzis (2004), promotion comes only after one has
something to promote (p.69), or else a brand may run into the risk of communicating an
empty image to stakeholders.
Furthermore, since everyone has different experiences and is shaped by their respective
backgrounds, communicating a citys image happens on different levels, which Graham
(2002) refers to as the internal city (Graham 2002, cited in Kavaratzis 2004: 62-63).
Therefore, two-way symmetrical communication plays a major role in aiding the
communications, taking charge of engagement with stakeholders, and gaining trust (Toth
2007: 36).
Yet one of the main criticisms with regard to city branding is that it reduces the multifaceted
characteristics and internal contradictions to a simplified image (Philo & Kearns 1993).

2.4 Skeptical Audiences & Credibility in Place- and City Branding

As stated, a large part of the branding process takes place in peoples minds, as they interpret
the brand through a personal lense, thus place brands may face skepticism. While not
explicitly stated, skeptical audiences make an appearance in a number of case studies.

12

Trueman et al. (2004) investigate the rebranding exercise of Northern English city Bradford,
pointing out how conflicting branding messages in the government policy faces local
stakeholders skepticism, which can weaken the brand. The authors advocate the importance
of brand honesty, which is grounded in stakeholder perceptions of reality or social
expectation (Grof 2001, cited in Trueman et al. 2004: 328). Moreover, the view that a
consultation with stakeholders has to take place is echoed by many researchers in place
branding literature (Ooi & Strandgard Pedersen 2010: 329), which could then facilitate the
communication of brand reality. According to this line of thought, this could bring about the
backing of local stakeholders, which is needed, in order to achieve a knock-on effect in
promoting the city to external audiences (e.g. Freire 2009). However, it can be assumed that
reaching general consensus through consultation can be affected by the audiences skepticism
of the place brand.
Atkinson et al.s study on the British city of Hull (2002) shows that applying abstract theories
of image-creation often proves contentious and contested on the ground (p. 29). This is
reflected in the skepticism of local audiences whose collective memory is rooted in a fishing
heritage. Whereas in contrast, the City Councils attempts to revise Hulls image as a postindustrial, pioneering city in order to attract investors, businesses and tourists. Partly due to the
differences in collective memory, stakeholders question the rationale and objectives behind the
city brand and the potential of its success. Fijalkow (2010) echoes similar concerns in a case
study on Paris, arguing that municipalities need to address and be in line with local collective
memory in order to develop urban projects successfully.
In the context of skeptic audiences the credibility of the storyteller is important (Bergqvist
2009: 60). Enhancing the credibility of a place brand is given with the example of Nssj, a
small region in Southern Sweden. In order to enhance and sustain the notion that the region
supports and facilitates businesses, it uses success stories of previous establishments in the
region, and by highlighting positive statements made by top-level managers within business,
as well as using a supplementary communication channel of personal and informal
contacts (Bergqvist 2009: 60, 65). Although Bergqvist (2009) believes in a well-balanced
mix of the factual, logistical and emotional in order to credibly communicate the distinctive
value proposition, the appeal of the place image itself is based on rationality and credibility
(Kotler 200, cited in Bergqvist 2009: 65).
It has also been argued by scholars and practitioners that policies which support the branding
exercise and have a tangible impact on how local people and visitors experience the city
need to be in place to ensure credibility and sustainability of the place brand (Bianchini &
Brookes 2006: 288-289; Trueman et al. 2004). For instance, the New Zealand government
established policies to promote the country as a destination and film location with investments
and tax incentives, in order to attract foreign film productions and creative talents, thus
supporting the 100% Pure New Zealand branding campaign (Jones & Smith 2005).
While there seems to be a general consensus that a place brand should to some extent be
grounded in reality, it is debatable that its image appeals through rationality and credibility
only, as argued by Bergqvist (2009). Hankinson (2004) may shed further light into the
discussion with his argument that brands can be conceptualised as relationships analogous to
the relationship between two people, based on the idea of brand personality (Aaker 1997). It
widens the focus of branding activities beyond communications to include behaviours, a
focus of considerable relevance to place branding (Hankinson 2004: 112). Hence the
emotional appeal of place brands is important to acknowledge, especially when it comes to
gaining local stakeholder support; e.g. national pride is a part of it and charged with emotions.

13

This is demonstrated by the fact that direct experience and personal recommendations are
often cited as the most credible sources of information (Sussmann and nel 1999, cited in
McCartney et al. 2008: 185), which also shows that the formation of an image is not purely
rational or free from emotion.

2.5 Authenticity in Place- and City Branding

Although authenticity is an often discussed and established concept in tourism literature (see
e.g. Belhassen et al. 2008; Bruner 1991; Cohen 1988; Cole 2007; Harkin 1995; Pearce &
Moscardo 1986; Redfoot 1984; Taylor 2001; Wang 1999, etc.), the author did not come across
many articles or case studies in extensively treating authenticity within city branding.
While the primary motivation for travel in tourism literature lies in a quest for authenticity
(MacCannell 1976, as cited in Taylor 2001: 13), most discussions on authenticity in place or
city branding revolve around management challenges of perceptions and holism, space
appropriation, communications, and urban conservation (Campelo et al. 2011; Hornskov 2007;
Jansson 2003; Jivn & Larkham 2003; Ooi 2008). In both streams, authenticity discourses also
focus on the uniqueness and place identity, often in a historical or cultural context (Condevaux
2009; Jivn & Larkham 2003, Jones & Smith 2005; Taylor 2001).
Some lessons drawn in tourism literature about authenticity can also be applied to city
branding. Authenticity is regarded as being defined by the expectations and stereotyped
images of audiences (Bruner 1991 ; Silver 1993 ; Wang 1999). It shows that authenticity can
be understood as socially constructed from a more subjective, abstract perspective (see e.g.
Condevaux 2009; Kim & Jamal 2007 Taylor 2001; Wang 1999).
Borgerson & Schroeder (2002) further argue that communications is about authenticity and
reinforcing the legitimacy and identity of the place by expressing something true or essential
about those represented (as cited in Campelo et al 2011: 31).

2.6 Summary
From the literature review it can be gathered that the problem of dealing with skeptical
audiences does not necessarily only lie in communication issues. Skepticism seems to occur in
connection with doubts related to a credible reputation, when generated expectations diverge
from the actual place experience and when legitimacy is put in question which undermines
credibility. This seems to be directly connected with the perceived brand authenticity of a
place. However, the literature does not clarify the relations between credibility, legitimacy and
authenticity in light of skeptical audiences, which can lead to brand tensions. In the following,
a theoretical framework will be conceptualised to address this problem.

14

3 Theoretical Framework
__________________________________________________________________________

The aim in this section is to adopt a conceptual framework, through which it can be
understood how brand authorities try to convince skeptical audiences of the authenticity of
their brand.
__________________________________________________________________________

3.1 Introduction
The concept of credibility is adopted in the theoretical framework because brands are built on
credibility and it is considered to be a fundamental asset for persons, organisations, political
parties, products or media in reaching their goals (Maathuis et al. 2004: 340). Branding
literature acknowledges that credibility helps deactivate suspicious judgements about the
brand (Varadarajan & Menon 1988; Trimble & Rifon 2006, cited in Bigne et al. 2009: 437).
Moreover, credibility has also been related to the context of organisational legitimacy in
management literature (Maathuis et al. 2004: 334), which Greyser (2003) considers to be an
important concept within behavioural relationships of organisations, in this case, the
relationship between BrandHK and its audiences. In this regard, the communication and
appropriation of the brand are also considered in the theoretical framework, with the
objective being to understand how brand expectations based on credibility and legitimacy are
influenced through communication, and thus appropriated by audiences. Managing these
expectations takes a major part in the perception of brand authenticity, which will act as the
red thread of the thesis.
Hence, this section will outline a conceptual framework to understand the relations between
authenticity, legitimacy and credibility, and how they are appropriated by audiences through
brand communication.

3.2 Credibility
Herbig & Milewicz define credibility as the believability of an entitys intentions at a
particular moment in time (p. 26). It means that credibility can change over time for the better
or the worse, as it is based upon intentions and actions which may confirm or disconfirm the
values the entity stands for (Herbig & Milewicz 2009).
According to Sobel (1985, as cited in Herbig & Milewicz 2009: 26), credibility has to exist
before the message or action to have any significant effects. This can be achieved by first
developing the reputation (Herbig& Milewicz 2009), which can be understood as a historical
notion based on the sum of the past behaviours, while credibility is focused on the current
intention. Reputation differs from credibility in the sense that it can arise regardless of whether
the actions send mixed signals saying one thing while doing another (Herbig & Milewicz
2009: 27). Inconsistent signals cause the entity not to have a reputation at all, since it is next to
impossible for audiences to interpret anything behind them. Moreover, when actions and
pronouncements are inconsistent credibility decreases and the future reputation is eroded
(Herbig & Milewicz 2009: 27). However, if signals, such as actions with the messages and
past actions are consistent, it may lead to a good reputation, and credibility thus increases
(Herbig & Milewicz 2009).
The credibility of brand communication is primarily defined by believability, fairness and
completeness (Gordon 1982). Audiences base their evaluation of the entitys signals and
behaviour on source credibility, advertising credibility, content credibility, and media

15

credibility (Bigne-Alcaniz et al. 2009; Herbig & Milewicz 2009); the more persuasive, the
higher the credibility is (Herbig & Milewicz 2009). This implies that source credibility is thus
perception-based which means that messages themselves may not possess credibility. It
depends on the audiences perceptions.

3.3 Legitimacy
In corporate branding literature, organisational legitimacy has been defined as the congruence
between social values and organisational actions (Greyser 2003: 159); in the case of Hong
Kongs city branding, it refers to the administrations policies and actions which support its
brand within the social context. Achieving legitimacy is essential because audiences will
perceive the brand steerers as more worthy, [...] more meaningful, more predictable, and
more trustworthy (Suchman 1995, as cited in Merkelsen 2011: 127). It also serves as a
reservoir of continuously confirmed positive expectations that build up trust, thus a lack of
trust is often a symptom of underlying legitimacy problems (Merkelsen 2011: 127).
However, legitimacy is not only related to trust, but it has also been recognised as a
generalised perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or
appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions
(Suchman 1995, as cited in Merkelsen 2011: 127). Black (2008) stresses that legitimacy is
rooted in the acceptability and credibility of the organisation to those it seeks to govern(p.
144). This shows that while legitimacy and credibility are to some extent causally related and
perception-based, they are conceptually distinct.
Moreover, since legitimacy always involves other peoples perceptions, it is essentially
relational (Merkelsen 2011: 131). Hence, the audiences perception of legitimacy is largely
dependent on the construction, communication and management of the citys image
(Kavaratzis 2004: 54). It is partly achieved through the use of classifications, routines, scripts
and schemas, much of which is derived from the day-to-day interaction in which society
members construct mutually shared impressions (Beverland, 2005: 1005). Black (2008)
suggests that in order to gain support from different legitimacy communities, which have
different legitimacy demands, actions should be tailored to gain their support.

3.4 Communication & Appropriation

Until this point, it has been demonstrated that effective brand communication depends on
different types of credibility (Bigne-Alcaniz et al. 2009; Gordon 1982; Herbig & Milewicz
2009), and the brand communication influences the audiences perception of legitimacy
(Kavaratzis 2004). In a conceptual model devised for place brands, Hankinson (2003)
underlines the importance of communication and stakeholder relationships among others.
The process, in which audiences receive the brand communication sent by city brand steerers
and thus interact with the city brand, can be viewed from the appropriation lense.
Appropriation has been used in different fields of research, including consumer culture theory,
management, and social science, to understand the interaction between people and physical
objects, places, or ideas (Bonnin 2006). In the context of this dissertation, appropriation will
be adopted as a concept to understand the relationship between people and their
environment (Bonnin 2006: 53). Fischer (1981, as cited in Bonnin, 2006: 52-53) defines
appropriation as a system of empowerment on places which includes the types of action on the
environment that result in possession and attachment relationships. Attachment relationships
in this case can be explained through place attachment theory, which refers to the bonding of

16

people to places (Altman & Low 1992: 2). Simply explained, the branding activities and
meaning prescribed to Hong Kong as Asias world city by brand steerers, aim to influence
audiences into appropriating the same meaning to Hong Kong and applying it to their own
contexts. Appropriation is thus linked to the way the city brand is communicated, as well as
how the relationship with audiences is developed by brand steerers.

3.5 Authenticity
It has been recognised that for brand steerers to succeed in getting audiences to appropriate the
city brand through communication in the way they intended, credibility and legitimacy need to
be in place first. Credibility can be built through a good reputation, and legitimacy can be seen
as a repository of fulfilled positive expectations that are built on trust. More importantly, the
appropriation process also depends on managing the expectations of audiences. If audience
expectations do not match the brand promises, it may lead to distrust and skepticism. A further
concept here is necessary to delve deeper than a consideration of brand credibility and
legitimacy. In this respect, authenticity should be considered, as it goes beyond simply
interpreting whether something can be trusted or not (Blackshaw 2008).
Blackshaw (2008) points out that a symbiotic relationship between trust and authenticity arises
because people trust brands that come across as real and sincere. The term authentic is
derived from the Latin Authenticus and Greek Authentikas and means worthy of acceptance,
authoritative, trustworthy, not imaginary, false or imitation, conforming to an original
(Cappanelli & Cappanelli 2004, as cited in Beverland 2009: 1005).
Communications are built on a notion of authenticity: of organisations, of products, of
services, and in relationships with customers, because there is a lot to gain through getting
authenticity right, such as ensuring the continuance of a loyal, trusting audience (Edwards
2010: 192- 193). For this reason, it is not enough to assume that city brand steerers only drive
a brand with the help of a credible, established reputation and legitimacy. Being
commercially authentic means to tap into the geist of a particular group of people so that
claims which are made are accepted and trusted by target audiences (Fachet 2009, as cited in
Edwards 2010). In this sense, it has to be ensured that the brand is authentic in the context of
the lived experience of the city.
While authenticity is not an attribute inherent in an object (Grayson & Martinec 2004), it is
better understood as an assessment made by a particular evaluator in a particular context
(Bruner 1994; Cohen 1988; DeLyser 1999; Grayson & Martinez 2004; Haslam 1985); in this
case, the targeted audiences of the city brand. This implies that indicators can be
conceptualised as subjective experiences, rather than objective realities (Merell 1995). To this
extent, authenticity is a construct, which can make a person, situation, brand or object seem
original, real and contextualised (Beverland 2006). Thus, authenticity is a contrivance rather
than a reality (Brown et al. 2003: 553). It is a claim that is made by or for someone,
something, or performance and either accepted or rejected by relevant others (Peterson 2005:
1086).

3.6. Conceptualisation of Authenticity in light of skeptical audiences

In order to conceptualise the theoretical framework, it will be attempted to link the
aforementioned concepts in terms of their relations.
Blackshaw (2008) regards authenticity as an especially important driver of credibility (p.

17

52). Edwards (2010) argues that one of the usages for authenticity is that as a sales tool,
especially for marketing communications and reputation management, and thus credibility and
legitimacy. This is due to the positive feelings associated with being authentic [...], which is
why communicators regularly attempt to associate authenticity with brands, products and
organisations as part of their promotional and image management strategies (Edwards 2010:
196). However, one should be careful in considering the object of a sales tool as authentic.
Rather, authenticity can be thought of as the filtering lense of the brand communication, which
influences perceptions. As Formbrun and Van Riel (2004, as cited in Edwards 2010: 198)
assert:
The public appreciates authenticity, and to be well regarded, you cant fake it
for long youve got to be real. Authenticity creates emotional appeal, and
theres no reputation building without emotional appeal
Thus, one could think of authenticity as the subjective, emotional filter through which
audiences evaluate whether consistent past actions and behaviours accumulate to a credible
reputation in the present. Moreover, to link to the previous discussion on credibility, if past
actions are perceived to be inconsistent, there may not be a hook on the emotional appeal of
authenticity, and future credible reputation may erode.
At first glance, the concepts of authenticity and legitimacy seem to be on opposing dimensions
of a spectrum. Legitimacy represents social integration and schematic order, while authenticity
seems more focused on individual transcendence. Yet one can find overlapping features in
these dynamics. While the perception of legitimacy is based more on reason and mutually
shared impressions, authenticity can be thought of as moving past them toward a more
spiritual dimension.
Consequently, the following model conceptualises the relations between credibility,
authenticity and legitimacy:

Figure 3.1
Authenticity resides where credibility and legitimacy intersect. The three of them together
make up one aspect of the brand experience. On the one hand, the emotional filter of
authenticity evaluates whether behaviours account for a credible reputation; on the other hand,
the emotional dimension of authenticity questions the rules of legitimacy toward a spiritual
dimension. Thus, it is about finding the right balance between the emotional appeal of
credibility and legitimacy. If one element overweighs, the brand interaction may not meet the
audiences expectations, which could lead to a skeptical audience.

18

4 Methodology
__________________________________________________________________________

The chapter provides an outline of the research procedures. The motivations of the scientific
approach taken are explained. Furthermore, trustworthiness and limitations are discussed.
____________________________________________________________________

4.1 Introduction
The dissertation is guided by an interpretive, humanistic inquiry approach, which usually
relies on qualitative data, such as observations and interviews (Hackley 2003; Hirschman
1986). Since the purpose is to gain insight and understanding, rather than seeking
generalisable facts, which can be measured, an exploratory research design is appropriate. To
achieve this, an ethnographically inspired approach involving primary observation
(Hirschman 1986: 237) is used.
It facilitates the answering of how and why questions in exploratory research in a holistic
manner, while considering the context in which the phenomenon is embedded (Blomberg et al.
1993; Yin 2003; Baxter & Jack 2008). It is appropriate here, since the contemporary
phenomenon of the city brand of Hong Kong is being investigated within its real-life context,
with the objective of gaining an understanding of actors, interactions, sentiments and
behaviours over which the investigator has little or no control (Yin 2003: 9).

Data Collection
Ethnography allows for applying multiple data collection methods of a single phenomenon
(Goulding, 2005: 299; Hackley 2003). Potential data sources include but are not limited to
documentation, archival records, interviews, naturalistic observation, physical artifacts, and
textual analysis (Blomberg et al. 1993; Hackley 2003; Yin 2003). Hence, various sources of
data collection have been applied in this dissertation, including textual research, observations,
and interviews on site.

Textual Research
Insights were gained through textual research, which includes advertisements, historical
records, newspapers, films, and books. Before the field study, BrandHKs digital footprint was
put under the lense, which included the written and visual contents of the official BrandHK
website, as well as the websites of the brand users before the actual field research.

Field Study
An intensive one-month field study took place in March 2011, where interviews were
conducted and data collected. The broad selection of interviewees asked about their
impressions on Hong Kongs city branding included local Hong Kong Chinese residents,
overseas Chinese, Western and Asian foreigners, as well as expatriates.
It is fair to mention to the reader that the author had previously lived in Hong Kong, from
1992-2001 and 2006-2009. During the first period, the author attended an international school,
thus gaining insight into Hong Kongs expatriate community, whereas the second period was
spent working at a global professional services firm with mostly local Hong Kong Chinese
colleagues. Interacting and working closely with them allowed the author to become immersed
in the local environment and to a large extent observe and experience life as a local. In this
regard, the prolonged participation within a specific culture allows the researcher to gain

19

insight into how culture constructs and is constructed by the behaviours and experiences of
its members (Goulding 2005: 299).

4.2 Interviewees and Verbal Sources

According to Goulding (2005), the voices of participants are an important source of data and
should be allowed to be heard in the written end-product, which should be a coherent, fluent
and readable narrative (Boyle 1994 & Muecke 1994, as cited in Goulding, 2005: 299).
Hence, semi-structured interviews were conducted on site, with brand steerers (Brand Hong
Kong Management Unit BMU, in the Information Services Department ISD of the
Government of Hong Kong), brand users (The Hong Kong Tourism Board HKTB,
InvestHK, The Hong Kong Trade & Development Council HKTDC) and critics
(practitioners and researchers from the areas of design, branding, economics, political science
and literature). This last group was of interest to provide a counterpoint to the official city
branding exercise and to question its authenticity.
In order to get different perspectives on the brand, the interviewees were chosen based on the
following criteria:
- Who is in control of the management of BrandHK?
- Who works in an organization, which officially uses and supports BrandHK?
- Observers and critics of BrandHK?
The interviews were recorded and transcribed with the exception of four, at the request of the
interviewees. The following people were interviewed:
Name
1

Confidential

Confidential

Confidential

Brett FREE

Confidential

Confidential

Organisation

BrandHK Management Unit,

Information Services Dept.
Government of Hong Kong

Position / Title
*

Assistant Director

Chief Brand Officer

Senior Brand Officer

Date &
length

02.03.
90 min

Assistant Director

02.03
60 min

InvestHK
Government of Hong Kong

Spokeswoman

04.03
60 min

HK Trade Development Council

Spokesman

11.03
30 min

For confidentiality reasons, the BMU officials will be referred to as BrandHK official 1, 2 and 3.

20

Dr. Henry
STEINER

Steiner & Co.

Brand Creation & Strategy

Graphic Designer &

Brand Expert

14.03
60 min

Dr. John
FLOWERDEW

City University of Hong Kong

Dept. of English Literature

Professor

15.03
60 min

Dr. Simon
Xu Hui SHEN

HK Institute of Education
Dept. of Social Sciences

Professor

17.03
20 min

10

Confidential

Administrative Staff

17.03
30 min

Professor &
Researcher

17.03
60 min

Official from PR
Department

18.03
45 min

11

Dr. Terence
Tai-Leung CHONG

12

Confidential

HK Quality of Life Research Centre

Chinese University of Hong Kong

Hong Kong Tourism Board

4.2 Data Analysis Approach

Due to the change of focus explained above, the data analysis is guided by an inductive
approach: The researcher begins with an area of study and allows the theory to emerge from
the data (Strauss & Corbin 1998, as cited in Thomas 2006: 238). It is appropriate because the
raw data collected in form of interviews, observations and textual research can be interpreted
and classified into meaningful categories to derive concepts, themes, or a model (Thomas
2006: 238).
The analysis will relate to the theoretical framework and therefore the collected data will be
connected to legitimacy, credibility and authenticity concepts. The discussion will aim to
connect with the literature review, theoretical framework and analysis.

4.3 Trustworthiness & Limitations

Trustworthiness in qualitative research is based on credibility, transferability, dependability,
and confirmability (Hirschman 1986: 244). The data collection and analysis in this
dissertation relies on multiple sources of evidence, and thus benefits from the prior
development of theoretical propositions, which enhances data credibility (Yin 2003: 13-14).
The sources used in this thesis, such as textual analysis, observation and interviews, can also
be used to confront critical propositions, which facilitates credibility, dependability and
confirmability. Moreover, in order to achieve dependability, it is necessary to compare the
data with the research findings and interpretations (Thomas 2006: 243), e.g. comparing data
from the digital footprint of BrandHK with brand steerers statements. In triangulating data
sources, which support the same conclusion (Lincoln & Guba 1985, as cited in Hirschman
1986: 243), interpretations can be constructed more accurately (Hirschman 1986: 243).
One of the primary limitations of an interpretive approach is that it seldom seeks to generalise
findings, mainly aiming for a rich and insightful description of a particular issue, problem or
event in its social context (Hackley 2003: 9), which could undermine transferability. But the
purpose is not the generalisability of a particular finding, as no two social contexts are ever

21

identical (Hirschman 1986: 245). However, hopefully lessons can be drawn from this
particular case in order to apply them to other, similar phenomena, while understanding the
specifics of the context (Hirschman 1986: 245).
Issues of trustworthiness may be further put in question, since the field study relies on the
researchers gaze and interpretation of the data. However, the human observer- despite all of
his or her intrinsic biases and preconceptions- has the mental capacity to expand, enlarge, and
reconceive a view of reality (Hirschman 1986: 242). Thus the data as gathered by the
inquirer can be employed to represent a logical set of conclusions given the reasoning he or
she employed during the interaction, and to be a nonprejudiced, nonjudgmental rendering of
the observed reality (Hirschman 1986: 246).

22

5 Empirical Results
__________________________________________________________________________

In this chapter the collected data, including textual analysis and interviews, from the empirical
field study are presented. The empirical results, starting from the background of BrandHK,
and details of the positioning and branding process, will be presented.
____________________________________________________________________

5.1 Introduction to BrandHK

Central to Hong Kong is its colonial heritage, which has shaped its sociopolitical, economic
and cultural development. Some of the legacies left by the British which distinguish it from
cities in Mainland China are the judicial system the rule of common law and the capitalist
system (Fung 1996). These legacies have allowed Hong Kong to develop into an international,
stable financial hub in Asia. Although it became a part of Mainland China again in 1997 under
the one country-two systems doctrine, its international persona remains separate from the
rest of China, e.g. being a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Council (APEC) alongside
China. Hong Kongs identity as a city-state prior to the handover thus continues, not only on a
political, but also on an individual level:
Many Hong Kong people, especially those who grew up under the British, are
ambivalent about China. They identify themselves according to an image of the
modern free world with which they associate the British, and they perceive
China as a nation of backward, erratic, and violent politics (Ng 2009:32).

5.1.1 History of Branding Hong Kong

Although initiatives of actively branding Hong Kong can be traced back to 1997 under the
then HKSAR Government, Hong Kongs image as the Pearl of the Orient where East meets
West has captured the minds of foreign audiences way before that. Particularly the interaction
and hybridisation between the East and West has become a red thread throughout Hong
Kongs history and image projected to the outside. Apart from that Hong Kong has also been
considered to be a connecting hub to Greater China and other Asian regions.

5.1.2 Place of Opportunity, where East-meets-West

From its early beginnings to the 19th century, Hong Kong ( in Chinese, meaning
fragrant harbour) was a sleepy fishing village located on the southeast coast of China
without much significance for the rulers. This changed when Hong Kong Island and the
Kowloon Peninsula became a British colony after the First (1839 - 1842) and Second Opium
Wars (18561860). In 1898 the territory was extended by a 99-year lease to include the New
Territories, the adjacent northern lands to the Kowloon Peninsula. Historical accounts reveal
that in the early days as a British colony, Hong Kong had a reputation as a gold-rush town
and was quickly settled by Chinese and European opportunist adventurers to try their luck;
within a few months the population had tripled to more than 15,000 (Ingham 2007: 49). This
may be considered the origin of Hong Kong as a place of opportunity, as well as the East-West
fusion narrative which has manifested itself in foreign audiences' minds, for example in
literary or film classics.
In James Clavells Tai-Pan (1966) one of the main characters, Scotsman Dirk Struan, fuses
European and Chinese customs he admires together into a new way of living. In French author
Jule Vernes classic Around the World in 80 Days (1873), the Englisman Phileas Fogg,
accompanied by his French servant Passepartout, circumnavigate the globe in 80 days in order

23

to win a bet. The city space of Vernes imagination where East-meets-West was captured
through the eyes of fictional character Passepartout:
Docks, hospitals, wharves, a Gothic cathedral, a government house,
macadamised streets give to Hong Kong the appearance of a town in Kent
or Surrey, transferred by some strange magic to the antipodes.
Passepartout wandered with his hands in his pockets towards the Victoria
Port, gazing as he went at the curious palanquins and other modes of
conveyance, and the groups of Chinese, Japanese and Europeans who
passed to and fro in the streets (Jules Verne 1873, as cited in Ingham
2007: 26).
In the Hollywood film classic Love Is a Many Splendoured Thing (1955), the main
character is Eurasian and could be seen as the human embodiment of Hong Kong, reflecting
the challenges of defining an identity which is neither purely Asian nor Western, and trying to
understand and synthesise its elements. Another film, The World of Suzie Wong (1960),
which centres around the relationship between American artist Robert Lomax and local
prostitute Suzie Wong, shows not only the challenges in finding harmony between different
cultures, but it also portrays Hong Kong as a place of adventure and opportunity where
anything could happen.

5.1.3 Pearl of the Orient

For a long time, the Pearl of the Orient has been another description for Hong Kong. While
there are no official narratives with regard to this image, there may be a historic connection to
its geographic location at the Pearl River delta. During the era of the Southern Han rulers
(917-971), Hong Kong, then known as Meichuan, was an important centre for pearl fishing
(Ingham 2007: 35). Pearl fishers would dive into the eponymous Pearl River and risk their
lives to quench the emperors and ruling classes thirst for this luxurious status item (Ingham
2007: 35). A pearls iridescence is made up of overlapping of successive layers, which could
be transferred as a metaphor to Hong Kongs multi-layered West-meets-East culture.
Moreover, the lustre of pearls which depends on the reflection of light could be seen as the
different interpretations of Hong Kongs hybrid characteristics of mixing Western practices
and local traditions, depending on the audiences gaze.
The Pearl of the Orient metaphor was further embodied in the emblem of the colonial flag
which was used from 1959-1997 (see Figure 5.1). The lion and dragon carriers of the crest
reflect the British and Chinese characteristics of Hong Kong, which is symbolised as the island
they are standing on. The pearl held by the lion wearing the imperial crown in the centre is
supposed to embody the dreamy expression Pearl of the Orient personifying Hong Kong.

Figure 5.1

24

5.1.4 Connecting Hub & Gateway to China

Nowadays Hong Kong is considered to be one of the busiest and biggest container ports in the
world, in terms of shipping movements, cargo handled and passengers carried (Government of
Hong Kong Marine Department 2009). The Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA 2009) is
one of the busiest airports in the world, with 48.6 million passengers and over 3.6 million
tonnes of cargo passing through in 2008 (HKIA 2009). The Hong Kong MTR carries an
average of 3.7 million passengers every day (MTR Corporation 2009) and railway services
also extend to Shenzhen, Beijing and Shanghai. Since it serves as a transit hub to China, Hong
Kong is also called the gateway to China.
From its origins as a fishing village, Hong Kong evolved into a strategically important military
port for the British and eventually into an international financial centre: Hong Kong was host
to over three thousand regional headquarters and offices of multinational corporations, more
than any other city in Asia (Ng 2009: 9).

5.2 BrandHK Campaign & Context

5.2.1 Branding Campaign: Asias World City
The idea of branding Hong Kong has its roots in 1997 (BrandHK Website 2011). According to
Brett Free,until 1997, the story was about the handover. Chief Executive Tung Chee Hwa
recommended strategic positioning of Hong Kong so it could promote itself overseas. This
had to do with the fact that Hong Kong had to redefine its identity as a British colony to a
Special Administrative Region in China. The positioning of Hong Kong as Asias world city
was based on extensive research and consultation, among opinion leaders in Hong Kong
and overseas (BrandHK Website 2011). The slogan was considered to reflect Hong Kongs
features as a natural, vital and multicultural gateway not only to and from China, but also to
the rest of Asia and beyond (BrandHK Website 2011).
Thus, the first official brand campaign for BrandHK came about in May 2001 wih two goals:
(1) to create a new strategic position in the international arena, and (2) to maintain the local
populations confidence that Hong Kong would remain the world city in the region (HKSARG
2002). According to Free, the 2001 Brand Exercise was a more international marketing
exercise, a lot of research was on international perception [...] initially the international
audience was targeted.
In March 2010, BrandHK underwent an extensive revitalisation exercise (BrandHK 2011). A
BrandHK official noted, concerns were different from now. According to Free, In 10
years, HK has moved on and changed. Now people place more importance on the quality of
life. This was confirmed by BrandHK official 3: Concerns were different from now. Free
ascertained that it would be sad if we didnt move on [...] if you dont evolve as a brand, you
die.
Moreover, Free observed that another reason for the revitalisation was that BrandHK in 2001
was more externally focused [...] locals were neglected, but business groups used it [Brand
HK]. This became especially apparent, as issues were pointed out in parliamentary reports,
especially about democracy. BrandHK official 1 added, for the core values, its more
important what HK residents think. Hence, research for the revitalisation exercise started in
2008, according to BrandHK official 1. This time the research included public engagement

25

through quantitative and qualitative opinion surveys, consultation with a broad crosssection of discussion groups, and an online platform, myhk2020.com [...] to further engage
the public, including a music and lyrics competition and a drawing competition (BrandHK
Website 2011). According to BrandHK official 1:
Based on an in-depth review, the brands core values and attributes
have been updated to reflect more accurately the communitys
perceptions of and aspirations for Hong Kong. So apart from being used
for international promotion, the BrandHK programme now has a much
stronger local dimension of public engagement.
This is echoed on the BrandHK Website (2011): The strategy focuses on the evolution of
BrandHK rather than its reinvention, building on the brands existing equity to further its
appeal and reach. According to Free, the brand exercise in 2001 was based on signs, rather
than emotions and it was more cold before, with no personality.
However, despite the revitalisation, BrandHK is still being criticised by skeptics. The
following reflects the main points of opposition:
(1) the brand is more of a PR stunt;
What? Another HK$1.8 million on a PR consultancy on Brand Hong Kong,
after the Government has spent HK$ 9 million on Burson Marsteller to give us
our much lampooned flying dragon logo? [...] The current overseas PR
Brand Hong Kong exercise is ridiculed with contradictions, and it is about
time the government provides some leadership on this subject from the top
(Regina Ip, Legislative Council Member 2010).
(2) the focus on overseas audiences;
We as Hong Kong belongers naturally care about Hong Kong. But do people
outside Hong Kong really care about Hong Kong? [...] should our soulsearching be masterminded as a matter of overseas PR? [...] shouldnt this be
dealt with first and foremost as a domestic, self-examination exercise? (Regina
Ip, Legislative Council Member 2010).
(3) doubts about Hong Kong being a world city;
The problem is that when the term world city was proposed for Hong Kong,
it looked more like a lay branding, marketing and image constructing exercise
rather than an affirmation of most of the defining features of world cities as
identified by academics. [...] the HKSAR government simply hoped to parallel
Hong Kong with London and New York, regardless of what the other two world
cities really possess (Shen 2010: 206 - 207).
(4) commodification and loss of local identity;
To put it metaphorically: Hong Kong is Bruce Lee turning into Jackie Chan.
Before 1997, residents of Hong Kong displayed a distinctive energy, dignity and
pride. Like the Bruce Lee they idolised, they projected discipline and selfassurance. Today, more of Jackie Chans screen persona is projected: selfdenigrating, buffoonish and opportunistic. Hong Kongs Government follows
suit, acting without long term vision, appearing befuddled even lost (Henry
Steiner).

26

In summary, despite the brand revitalisation in 2010, BrandHK continuous to be under the
scrutiny of local stakeholders who are skeptical about several aspects of the brand attribution.
The following passage will examine the content of the brand. For a better understanding, the
context in which Hong Kong finds itself will first be elaborated, as brands do not exist in
isolation but are part of an eco-system where actors interact with and influence the brand.

5.2.2 Context of BrandHK

In trying to understand the context in which BrandHK is embedded, it is important to gain an
understanding of its position, both geographically and ideologically.
When asking the BMU officials which other cities were considered to be Hong Kongs
competitors, implications were made that the branding for Hong Kong is not necessarily seen
as a competitive exercise in terms of place wars. Free stated, At some point in time, the S
cities have been named, e.g. Singapore, Shenzhen, Seoul, Sydney..., while BMU official 2
answered:
We dont think of competition as such [...] more like cooperation on different
levels. With globalisation, cities now play a more complementary than
competing role, and there has been more cooperation and collaboration
between them.
Hong Kongs location was cited as an example for cooperation between different cities and
places: HKs connectivity to Asia may serve all of Asia, for example, an express rail is being
built to Shenzhen and Guangzhou; you can also take side trips to Macau. According to one
of the branding officials, each city has its own role to play, We would say that all major cities
in Asia or in the world are unique and have their own attributes. Hence, according to the
officials argumentation, Hong Kong is not necessarily competing for a spot as Asias world
city, it simply is a world city. Free added, HK is also positioned as an international financial
centre in Asia, so it is what London is for Europe and what New York is for North America.
In this sense, it can be assumed that Hong Kongs position is that of a sibling to London and
New York, serving the same functions in Asia as a world city, as these cities do on their
respective continents. But the difference is, HK is prosperous and China has only in the last
few decades started developing, as compared to Europe and North America, according to
Free.
Another topic during the discussion was the difference between Hong Kong and Mainland
China. According to Free, while the terms Hong Kong and China are specific, theyre
also fuzzy... thats the challenge with location branding. He added that Hong Kongs free
society enables innovation and flexibility. Moreover, he stated:
China may [...] look up to Hong Kong as a knowledge bank [...] with the
worlds best practices. [...] All this contributes to the brand cache of Hong
Kong of being Chinese and global, for example quality advice [...] So when
China wants to do something, they come to Hong Kong first.
Another brand official added, HK peoples identity is unique due to their Western colonial
history and Chinese history; we are not trying to deny our colonial history.

27

5.3 BrandHKs Positioning as Asias World City

5.3.1 Brand Attributes
Apart from the government officials
argument that each city is unique and plays a
complimentary role, which serves to justify
Hong Kongs positioning as Asias world
city, they provided more reasons what makes
Hong Kong a world city. A free port with
a first-rate infrastructure and a commitment
to the rule of law, and large business
presence were the main characteristics
named by the BMU officials. Moreover, Free
ascertained:
Unrestricted access to the internet,
since people can access all the
information it also makes for a dynamic society.
It was also mentioned by his colleagues that the reputation of a world city included
being cosmopolitan and offering a skilled and knowledgeable workforce. Free
explained this in detail:
Hong Kong people study overseas and come back with different expectations
and new knowledge, which helps to upgrade Hong Kong [...]. Due to this open
society, Hong Kong can pick the best. [...] It makes Hong Kong a global city
because it is not just rooted in one culture, neither only British nor only
Chinese.
Echoing this, it is stated in a booklet titled This is Hong Kong, published by the ISD:
About eight per cent of Hong Kongs seven million population, or around
560,000 people, hold foreign passports. Of these, the largest groups come from
the Philippines, Indonesia, the U.S., Thailand, India, Canada, Nepal, Pakistan,
Australia, Malaysia, the U.K. and Japan (BrandHK Booklet a 2010: 8).
Apart from its business-friendly environment, and being a convenient, open and safe city,
the brand officials also emphasise that what defines a world city is that it is a place where
there are interesting things to do and discover. As examples, Hong Kongs nature and
cultural activities were given.
The characteristics attributed to BrandHK, according to a booklet (BrandHK Booklet b 2010:
16-17), are in line with the brand officials definition of what makes Hong Kong a world city.
Hence, the positioning and platform of Hong Kong as Asias world city is the following:
Hong Kong is a free and dynamic society where creativity and
entrepreneurship converge. Strategically located in the heart of Asia, it is a
cosmopolitan city offering global connectivity, security and rich diversity, and
is home to a unique network of people who celebrate excellence and quality
living (BrandHK Website 2011).

28

Compared to the brand exercise in 2001, the BMU officials believed that many HK people
responded to the positioning of HK as Asias World City, especially due to the reflection of
the shift of emphasis, which was readjusted for the 2010 relaunch. According to BMU official
3:
People are not only interested in economic objectives. Like when business
people come to Hong Kong, they think its all about business. But we want to
show them that Hong Kong also has to offer something other than business
activities, like leisure activities.
Although interviewees seemed to agree with most of the attributes of BrandHK, there was still
some skepticism whether Hong Kong fits the criteria of being a world city. For instance,
Professor Flowerdews comment weakens the attribute of diversity:
I mean, Hong Kong is practically 98% Chinese [...] in Hong Kong theres only
really one community. Most of the others are domestic helpers [...] And then
theres your wealthy expat area [...].
Moreover, both Steiner and Flowerdew believe that it is not necessarily important to focus the
city branding efforts on the local audience before targeting external audiences. According to
Flowerdew, it is because city branding is designed for outsiders more than insiders [...]
People can be proud if they are living in Asias World City. I think its more important for the
outside than the inside. He argued that branding to locals can be counterproductive and
create this resistance where people say we arent really a world city... we havent got this and
havent got that...
In line with this, Steiner mentions the example of New Yorks city brand: This administrative
muddle is no more evident than in how Hong Kong has projected its brand to the world. Take
Hong Kongs half-baked, work-in-progress effort as compared to I NY which attracted
visitors and also gave its citizens a new pride in their city. Flowerdews and Steiners views
could thus be interpreted as, focusing on the external audiences and attracting them to visit the
place can positively project on residents local pride, rather than the other way around. Steiner
motivates this with the fact that rather than changing behaviour, the most important thing is
getting people to visit and having their expectations match the reality. He regards it as
promising people something whose expectations are then fulfilled. He illustrates this with the
following example:
The Cantonese are not rude, but they are loud. Thats the way they talk; its
distinctive local colour. So if you say, Come to Hong Kong and bring your
earplugs when people here start yelling, the tourists will say Oh yeah, I know,
they already told me about that. They anticipated it and that makes for a good
experience.
5.3.2 Brand Core Values
BrandHK is treated like a corporate brand with clearly defined core values and brand
attributes. These are stated on the BrandHK website and other promotional literature,
complemented by citizens opinions on them. According to one booklet which highlights the
core values, they are reflected in the attitudes and aspirations of its people which help to set
the city apart (BrandHK Booklet b 2010: 10-11).

29

When asked, which of the values is the strongest in

supporting BrandHK, the officials stated that, They
are all vital to making Hong Kong the vibrant,
dynamic and attractive place it is. However, BMU
official 1 ascertained, Some of the core values, such
as quality living, are aspirational values. BMU
official 3 explained this further:
Theres a shift in values, so the younger
generation of Hong Kong people does not want
to work such long hours. As you know, the
working hours in Hong Kong are among the
longest in the world. They want to spend
quality time with their family and enjoy the
leisure; its different from the older generation,
say, in the 1980s, who are used to working long
hours.
Yet despite the optimism of the brand steerers, according to Flowerdew, there is resistance
toward the brand among citizens:
If you read letters to the editor in the newspaper quite often you find people
writing in a sarcastic manner. They want to criticise and then they say How
can we be a world-class city [...]? So I think there is resistance, but I wouldnt
deny that it doesnt have some sort of effect on the collective consciousness of
people who realise, Yes, we are being branded in this way and they do identify
with some aspects and resist others.
Other interviewees showed skepticism toward the five core values of BrandHK. According to
Steiner:
The most important thing is getting people to visit and having their expectations
match the reality. So that if you were to say free, enterprising, quality living,
innovative, and excellence theyre going to be sadly disappointed.
The following table gives an overview of criticisms and comments on the different core
values.
FREE

ENTERPRISING

Flowerdew:
[...] free is probably the most controversial of them because [...] this
whole one-country-two-systems concept... [...] a lot of people said with
Tung Chee Hwa that he emphasised the one country over two systems.
So to that extent Hong Kong is not totally free. They have to do what the
Mainland says. But if they had taken it out, Im sure there would have
been a big uproar and the Democrats would have gone on to that.
Shen:
Rather than enterprising, opportunity is a value that should be
considered by the government. According to young people, this means
creating a society of egalitarian opportunity. It would make residents
proud to be local.
Steiner:
free, enterprising, maybe.

30

QUALITY LIVING Flowerdew:

Quality living... thats definitely an aspiration. [...] thats where things

can be manipulative. [...] quality living is very questionable in the
context of Hong Kong, if you look at whats going on. First of all, the
housing situation in Hong Kong is... people live in tiny flats, theres
terrible price inflation with property, so people cannot afford to buy
their own flats, there is terrible pollution... people always complain
about pollution... So, I can well see that might be an aspiration, but not
really a description of the status-quo. [...]

INNOVATIVE
EXCELLENCE

Steiner:
quality living, no, unless you mean expensive.
Steiner:
innovative- absolutely not.
Steiner:
[...] excellence, no. It does not match reality.

The table shows that especially the core values of free and quality living have different
understandings among Hong Kong residents and brand steerers, undermining brand
authenticity.
Professor Chong provided further insight connected to the quality of life in Hong Kong. As
the researcher in charge of the economic sub-index of the Hong Kong Quality of Life Index,
the information he provided on the housing prices in Hong Kong confirmed Flowerdews and
Steiners skepticism on the quality of life in Hong Kong:
The annual household median income is about HK$200,000, including for those
living in public housing estates. Flats in the city are rarely below HK$ 2 million
[...] Five years would be the average benchmark to buy housing, but in 2009, it
took about eight years for people to be able to afford the housing, and that only
without including other consumption. About 40% of Hong Kongs population including those in the home ownership scheme and other public sponsor
programme- live in a public housing estate.
Chong also described how the university enrolment percentage increased from 2% to 20% in
the last 20 years, although he noted that originally there were only two universities, and most
of the universities today were originally polytechnics. Moreover, it is a system based on
meritocracy. To put the education numbers into context for the reader and compare
internationally, Singapores university enrolment was 25% (Ministry of Education Singapore
2010), and Japans university enrolment percentage was 53.9% (MEXT Japan 2010).
However, it should be pointed out that the education numbers in Hong Kong do not consider
those who studied overseas, therefore they could be slightly misleading.
Free is well aware of the criticism and skepticism toward Hong Kongs positioning, mainly
from the parliamentary perspective with regard to democracy issues. However, he thinks:
It can be seen as an affirmation of what expectations are in relation to what
we are trying to deliver [...] people have used Asias World City as a
quality benchmark. It has become part of the local lexicon.

31

5.4 Objective of BrandHK

The two main objectives of BrandHK, according to the officials, are to position Hong Kong in
an international arena and for identity building purposes. What mainly sets Hong Kongs
identity apart from other major Chinese cities is the rule of law, as stated by BMU official 1.
Furthermore, the official continues, We hope that people from all over the world would know
Hong Kong better, and some of them will be attracted to come here for a visit as tourists, do
business, work or study. The BMU officials also state that, Our city branding is not simply
a promotion exercise to attract immigrants. It is image building for the city.
Moreover, The purpose of a location brand is also to let people know that major events are
taking place in Hong Kong, as stated by the same official. According to Free, it is important
to make sure your stakeholders buy into your brand.
Another function is that BrandHK is basically supposed to act as an umbrella brand- a
platform where the image of HK can be promoted to all sectors. Since BrandHK represents
the city, not the government, it can even be used by private sectors. Another BMU official
added: As an umbrella brand, BrandHK can encompass everything identity, lifestyle,
safety, system... everything in melting pot Hong Kong. The tourism- or business promotion are
just sub-brands. Free mentioned that in terms of umbrella branding, Hong Kong is up there
with the leaders in umbrella branding and we even received enquiries from other cities, how
we do it. One such example was Cartegena in Colombia. Certain brand skeptics there
believed that elements of BrandHK, such as the dance ribbons and colours used in the
Cartegena romotional video clip, had been ripped off elements of BrandHK. Therefore, the
BMU officials were asked by the Cartegan brand steerers if we [the BMU] thought that
was the case, or if we had any objections to their new branding exercise. []And while we did
not think there were any issues, we found it quite interesting that somewhere as far away as
Catergena had actually heard of BrandHK in the first place.
Another purpose to create a location brand for Hong Kong is to use its positioning as a
benchmark for environmental protection, finance, pollution [control], arts & culture, and
sports among others, according to Free. While in some of these things, Hong Kong is
performing very well, there are things to work on: waste management, nurturing arts, as well
as culture and sports. In using the positioning platform, We were trying to push the creative
industries, also the legal and financial services, during the Shanghai Expo.
Professor Shen, who has extensively studied BrandHK from a political science perspective,
sees the problem that the brand is not in a parallel composition with national policy, and
there is no general consensus with the branding in Hong Kong. In this sense, the main
objectives are not completely in line with the national policy. He believes that the brand
should also create some sort of loyalty among the local community, but in Hong Kong you
lack a local identity. However, this last point is in line with the governments intention to use
the brand for identity building processes.

32

5.5 Visual Identity

Logo from 2001

Logo from 2010

Figure 5.4a
Source: BrandHK Website 2011
The visual identity of Hong Kong is personified in the dragon
logo, with the 2001 version designed by international brand
and design agency Landor. The dragon image incorporates the
letters H K and the Chinese characters for Hong Kong
(BrandHK Website 2011). Apparently the dragon, as a
historical and cultural icon, symbolises the East-West fusion,
as well as representing modernity with antiquity, thus linking
Hong Kong with the present and the past (BrandHK Website
2011). The fluid shape imparts a sense of movement and
speed, recognising that Hong Kong is ever-changing
(BrandHK Website 2011).
The 2010 logo by Hong Kong designer Alan Chan, maintains the virtues of the original
dragon logo - a mythical and powerful icon (BrandHK Booklet b 2011: 8). The ribbons
extending from the dragon are based on ribbons used in Chinese dance. The blue and green
ribbons symbolise the blue sky and a sustainable environment (BrandHK Booklet b 2011:
8). The red silhouette represents the shape of the famous Hong Kong landmark Lion Rock,
personifying Hong Kong peoples can-do spirit (BrandHK Booklet b 2011: 8). The fluid
shape and multiple colours of the ribbons symbolise the citys versatility, diversity and
dynamism (BrandHK Booklet b 2011: 8). Talking about the new logo, Free ascertained:
From a design point of view, you couldnt do that much with the old one. It
visually changed with ribbon and typeface to make it young and fluid. The new
brand is an evolution of the whole thing, trying to make a connection; also
visually, with colours and excitement.
Critiquing the logo, Steiner believes that the new logo is even weaker than the old one: Its
watered down what was there before. It just changed the decoration instead of enhancing
function. It hasnt strengthened the message. Furthermore, he maintained:
I think most people glancing at this wont even notice the tiny dragon in there;
theyll see ribbons. Some designers and agencies will fall back on pattern and
colour instead of creating a compelling communication. That only results in
confusion and a forgettable logo.

33

Moreover, he argued that the lion was more indigenous to Hong Kong than the dragon,
especially in the form of a lion dance: Its a rare celebration in Hong Kong that doesnt have
one or two lion dancers. The lion dance is commonly mixed up with the dragon dance, which
requires more than two people, unlike the lion dance.

5.6 Brand Governance

5.6.1 BrandHK Management
BrandHK is coordinated by the BMU which is a unit under the ISDs PR Outside Hong
Kong Division , according to the brand officials. Free states that the ISD serves as the
Governments centralised department with public relations and marketing function. It links
the Administration with the media and enhances public understanding of government
policies, decisions and activities (ISD Website 2011). According to the interviewed brand
officials, the BMU is responsible for day-to-day management of the brand, as well as
providing advice on the brand application to relevant parties.
The Assistant Director of Information Services, is in charge of the overseas PR, overseas
visitors or journalists and BrandHK, according to BMU official 2. The Assistant Director
works closely with Bretts [Free, Assistant Director] section and with the HK Economic
Trade Offices, for example in events, such as overseas film festivals and Dragonboat races, to
promote BrandHK overseas.
Free, Assistant Director of Publicity & Promotions, coordinates publicity work: for example,
if an official travels overseas and wants to promote Hong Kong through an event, such as a
film festival or speech, we provide assistance and implement the project overseas. He is also
in charge of local campaigns, e.g. keep clean or wash your hands. His department works as
a facilitator to Policy Bureaux: in a loose sense, these activities could impact BrandHK. For
example, with regard to environment policies: social engineering, such as consuming less or
separating waste are part of making Hong Kong a world city.
Shen is critical of the management process of BrandHK. He argues that branding involves
lots of special knowledge on international relations, urban planning [...]. It should be handled
from a holistic and interdisciplinary approach. To this extent, he feels that there is no
exclusive department to handle the brand even though he acknowledges that the ISD handles
most of the issue. He believes the main problem is thelack of coherency among different
government bureaux [...] they are only concerned about their own area.
5.6.2 BrandHK Management Cooperations
There is a close cooperation between the BMU and:
- Invest Hong Kong (IHK)
- Hong Kong Trade & Development Council (HKTDC)
- Hong Kong Tourism Board (HKTB)
They all follow the same overall objective, as the end of the game is to make people happy
with their experience of Hong Kong, according to Free. This was confirmed by interviewees
from InvestHK, HKTDC and HKTB.
In terms of controlling the usage of BrandHK, all parties who wish to use it need to seek

34

approval to use BrandHK, Free said. BMU official 2 further added:

There are certain rules and regulations. Organisations who want to use
BrandHK need to apply in the evaluation process. After that, the BMU
considers if the usage of the brand fits with what the brand represents, for
example Who is the target group? What impact does it have on the image of
the city? What associations will there be with the brand usage?
Presumably the strict control of the brand usage does not leave room for brand communication
inconsistencies.

5.7 Target Groups

In order to understand the branding process, it was necessary to find out who the BMU and
BrandHK users were actually trying to target.
As per Free, The target audience is internal and external, consisting of local residents,
investors, students. The external one is especially important because you have to live up to
who you are. Free explains, Although the population is predominantly Chinese, a
significant part is international; students who have come here; locals who have studied
overseas; and the expat community. However, in line with the revitalised brand, he states:
It is important that locals identify with the BrandHK values. Since there is a
strong civil society, people will complain if something goes wrong, like using
social media such as blogs or chatrooms. So BrandHK also serves as a good
feedback loop and the government will react.
He ascertains that it is important that local stakeholders know what the government is doing
and are engaged in the branding process. With regard to this, the BMU officials mentioned
three projects involving Hong Kong residents. The first one is a photo mosaic in which they
invited HK people to upload their own photos and tell stories. The mosaic forms a larger
picture, e.g. the Hong Kong Skyline.
The other initiatives, visible on the
BrandHK Website (2011) are called
Faces of Hong Kong and Reflections
of Hong Kong as part of our
integrated communication strategies and
revitalisation, according to BMU
official 1.
The Faces of HK uses various HK
citizens narratives in the form of shortfilms, showing their lives in HK,
connection to the city and other people
in it.

Figure 5.5

People only know about the Hong Kong skyline, so we wanted to show a
different side of Hong Kong by showing peoples faces and that they have an
identity. Our thought was that people would find it more believable if they could
relate to stories told by individuals.

35

The 30 faces include people from all walks of life: local people with different occupations and
businesses, a Chinese-Western couple, a Hong Kong new generation girl (Eurasian), a
second generation Hong Kong born resident of Pakistani background, and foreign residents
who do not speak Cantonese, among others.
With regard to the process of choosing the faces for the personal narratives, the officials said:
First we had to identify the subjects we wanted to include in the short films before picking
people to tell their stories. An agency had come up with this idea, and while some faces
were found through this agency, especially the animation director, some were acquaintances of
aquaintances. For example, the Irish man was shown to portray the leisure, green side of Hong
Kong which most people dont know about. Moreover, posters of the faces of Hong Kong
are also given to ETOs for promotional purposes. Generally, the purpose of communicating to
local stakeholders with these short films is to encourage the HK people to live the brand,
according to BMU official 3. Moreover:
BrandHK [also] works with some groups, for example AISEC, an
international student exchange programme. We conduct seminars with them
and let students know how external audiences could perceive them when they go
on an overseas exchange programme.
Among other activities in the branding process is a collaboration with Create HK, a
dedicated government agency charged with helping drive the development of the creative
economy in Hong Kong (BrandHK Website 2011). In addition, they collaborate with the
West Kowloon Cultural District in terms of cultural activities and events.
Moreover, the BMU sponsors the Hong Kong International Film Festival (HKIFF), e.g.
inviting foreign journalists to cover the events, as well as supporting a series of short films set
in Hong Kong, i.e. Quattro HK short films set in Hong Kong (made by foreign directors)
which are shown at the HKIFF and overseas film festivals.
When asked if they had experienced any resistance by local resident groups toward the city
brand, BMU official 1 replied: Not directly toward the brands core values; more toward the
tangible part of the brand, the logo, Its very subjective... everyone will always have an
opinion. BMU official 3 adds that there have been complaints from the British Council and
expat community, that there are not enough places in International Schools for their children,
as well as air pollution. There are policy bureaux on the board and local community groups
of BrandHK, so they also react to complaints and try to put policies in place for
improvements, such as tackling air pollution.
However, in terms of the effects of BrandHK, BMU official 3 stated: It may not be directly
related and there are other factors, but more Asian companies are setting up here. Also, we
have had more tourists, especially from the Mainland; they used to have group visas, but now
they can also have individual visas to travel here. A HKTB official confirmed this.

36

6 Analysis
____________________________________________________________________
The purpose of this chapter is to integrate the empirical data collected with the theoretical
framework chosen for this study and analyse it critically.
____________________________________________________________________

6.1 Credibility
6.1.1 Secure and Connected- Finance Powerhouse and Connecting Hub
The findings demonstrate that ever since its inception as a colony, Hong Kong has built an
overall reputation, which is essential to build a reputation and thus achieve credibility (Herbig
& Milewicz 2009).
In contrast to China in its early days after the Communist government took over in 1949, the
capitalist system and Hong Kongs status as a free port under British colonial administration
and the rule of law have facilitated its development into an international financial hub in Asia.
The fact that in 2009 Hong Kong was host to more than three thousand regional headquarters
and offices of MNCs, more than any other city in Asia, gives it credibility as an international
financial centre. Being Asias second largest destination for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
with one of the lowest tax rates in the world (Heritage Foundation 2011; InvestHK 2011), the
administrative structure makes it efficient and quick to set up a business, even for foreigners.
Moreover, the reputation is also made credible by the fact that Hong Kong has ranked first
several times including in 2011, on The Heritage Foundations Index of Economic Freedom
(The Heritage Foundation 2011). Apart from the transport and economic infrastructure, the
unrestricted internet access to all information also supports Hong Kongs international
economic activities, as well as free information flow, which also sustains its skilled and
knowledgeable workforce, as mentioned by Free.
In line with Herbig & Milewicz (2009), these consistent messages and past actions have
contributed to an accumulated positive reputation for Hong Kong in terms of a finance
powerhouse and connective hub and thus confirm the brand attributes of Hong Kong as being
connected, secure, and dynamic, none of which were disputed by the interviewees.

6.1.2 Diverse &

Cosmopolitanism

Cosmopolitan:

Melting

Pot

of

Diversity

&

The interviewees showed mixed reactions when questioned about Hong Kongs brand attribute
of being cosmopolitan. There is skepticism about diversity and cosmopolitanism because the
ethnic majority of the Hong Kong population is around 95% Chinese (CIA 2011), whereas two
smaller communities are roughly made up of domestic helpers from South East Asia and the
other one of Western expatriates. For comparison, Singapores population is comprised of
three main groups, with 76.8% being Chinese, 13.9% Malay, and 7.9% Indian, and the
remaining made up of other nationalities (CIA 2011). Thus, in Hong Kongs case the
pronouncements could be perceived as inconsistent, which could lead to the decrease of
credibility (Herbig & Milewicz 2009), since despite its claims, the demographics of Hong
Kong in numbers do not look diverse. While Hong Kong may have a reputation as a place
where East-meets-West due to the historic fusion of Western and local practices, it
[reputation] can arise regardless of whether the actions send mixed signals (Herbig &

37

Milewicz 2009: 27).

The 2.1% of other ethnicities in Hong Kong (CIA 2011) probably mainly refers to the
expatriate community. Most of its members are employed in the finance and banking sector,
thus their environment is highly concentrated with diversity in terms of national background,
as compared to the majority of Hong Kong residents who work in local environments. It is not
without reason that the finance industry is sometimes considered the embodiment of
borderless capitalism. Moreover, it cannot be neglected that a large number Hong Kong people
study overseas or have grown up overseas, especially in the United Kingdom, the United
States, Canada and Australia; this partly explains the number of foreign passport holders in
Hong Kong. Even though they are ethnically Chinese, some of them have grown up with or
taken in different values which they bring to Hong Kong, hence it would not be fair to think of
the whole Chinese population as one homogenous group. Moreover, there is a growing
number of Mainland Chinese who come to Hong Kong to study and work, with entry
regulations gradually easing for them.
To reiterate, the melting pot of diversity and cosmopolitanism may communicate mixed
signals in Hong Kongs case, since the visible ethnic minority is 95% Chinese despite there
being content and media credibility, for example in the finance- and banking industry, Faces
of HK, or the usage of Eurasian models in the media. The source credibility thus depends on
who is being asked; to a person living and working around Central District where most foreign
headquarters, restaurants and shops are located, Hong Kong may be perceived as diverse and
cosmopolitan. Other areas which are less frequented and inhabited by foreigners may not
reflect diversity. Hence, the mixed signals of the brand attribute cosmopolitan arise due to
the mismatch of perceptions between statistics and what is visible, as well as the context, in
which the message is being interpreted. For this reason, credibility appears to be lower in this
respect.

6.1.3 Quality Living

It could be gathered from the interviews and observation, that the infrastructure in Hong Kong
has built a relatively positive reputation and thus credibility. Conversations with local
residents and tourists showed, that what stuck out most in their minds was the convenience of
Hong Kong. The ease to access the airport, get around the city with Chinese and English
language signs, transfer among different modes of transport, e.g. MTR, bus and ferry, with the
help of the Octopus Card, contribute to Hong Kongs reputation for convenience.
Figure 6.1

However, less credibly regarded topics in quality living were mainly housing, education, and
pollution. With its limited space and among the highest population densities in the world,
Hong Kongs urban cityscape is predominantly made up of high rise buildings and has one of

38

the most expensive rents in the world, according to the ECAs annual accommodation survey
in 2008 (Taipei Times 2008). It reflects that the everyday life in Hong Kong is often ordered
and designed according to the capitalist ideology, especially the market logic of real estate
(Ng 2009:66). Although this fact undermines the quality living value, London and New
York, which are regarded as world cities, are also plagued by high property prices, therefore it
could be seen as a fact of living in a world city.
Moreover, the education in Hong Kong with its workforce is being regarded skeptically, as the
population is not truly bilingual in Cantonese and English. Yet the government policy to
encourage consuming less or separating waste may be one aspect to reflect and increase
believability, and thus credibility. Finally, while not specifically mentioned by any brand
skeptics, another quality of life aspect which often comes under fire in Hong Kong are the
long working hours which are among the highest in the world. While the quality living is
supposed to reflect the changing values in Hong Kong society, so far no official government
or industry policies have demonstrated that they support this notion, which is another
undermining factor for credibility.

6.1.4 Credibility in Light of Skeptical Audiences

In general, it seems that the root of skepticism toward the credibility of BrandHK stems from
the fact that some of the Hong Kong Governments intentions and actions discredit the values
BrandHK stands for, which could undermine credibility (Herbig & Milewicz 2009). This is in
line with Shens remark that there is no parallel composition with national policy and the
brand. It is exemplified by the fact that it is perceived that the government is wasting HK$
10 million on a so-called PR exercise, when this money could be spent on supporting homeownership schemes, education, and tackling pollution more effectively.
Moreover, even though the government consulted the public in the brand revitalisation
exercise and their communicated intention is to use the brand for image and identity building,
the credibility is disconfirmed by perceptions that Hong Kong is being moulded to please
Western audiences and trying to position itself outside the Chinese context, rather than
showing pride in its roots and utilising the branding process as a self-examination exercise.
According to Herbig & Milewicz (2009), credibility can change over time. If BrandHK is
indeed used as a quality benchmark, and the government reacts to arising issues with regard to
that, it could confirm its intentions, increase a good reputation and thus build credibility,
which is essential to have before any actions and signals can be effective.

6.2 Legitimacy
According to Merkelsen (2011), it is important for brand steerers to have legitimacy because
they can gain the audiences trust and therefore minimise skepticism. In the following, the
actions and policies taken by the Hong Kong Brand Management Unit will be taken under the
magnifying lense to understand how legitimacy for themselves and the brand are constructed.

6.2.1 Creating and Revitalising BrandHK

The findings show that Hong Kongs identity has been defined as the interplay between its
colonial status under the British and its status as a Special Administrative Region of Mainland
China following the handover in 1997.
To reiterate, the need to create BrandHK was justified by fears that Hong Kongs international

39

status as a British colony in Asia would be overrun by a new image of becoming just another
Chinese city. Thus, the rationale behind it was to position Hong Kong distinctively from China
in a wider context, so it could promote itself overseas and reach a wider audience. Brand
steerers further legitimised the slogan of Hong Kong as Asias world city based on research
and consultation among opinion leaders in Hong Kong and overseas. As Black (2008) points
out, the legitimacy of an organisation has to be rooted in the acceptability and credibility [...]
in those it seeks to govern (p. 144). For BrandHK, this has been more the case with the
overseas audiences, especially among the international business community, but less with
local support. It is one of the reasons, why there was a brand revitalisation exercise in 2010.
The government officials argue that the brand had to move on and reflect the changing values
by including public engagement, and incorporating their values and opinions. This is in line
with Suchman (1995, as cited in Merkelsen 2011: 127) who states that, in order for legitimacy
to be perceived, the actions should be desirable and appropriate within the socially constructed
context. Interestingly there is still skepticism among the Hong Kong population about what
BrandHK stands for despite the brand steerers initiative to incorporate them more in the
revitalisation exercise.

6.2.2 BrandHK Governance

Based on the interviews, BrandHK is coordinated by the BMU in the ISD of the HKSAR
Government. More specifically the BMU is under the ISDs PR Outside HK Division.
Although some local campaigns within the BMU department are loosely connected to the
management of BrandHK, it seems like the main focus is overseas, where most of the
endorsement for BrandHK comes from. This is in line with Merkelsen (2011) who argues that
confirmed positive expectations build up trust and legitimacy, for instance, foreign companies
are setting up in a business-friendly environment. But in order to get more support from the
local community, Black (2008) suggests that actions should be tailored to the different
legitimacy demands of the different legitimacy communities. Obviously businesses have been
given a lot of focus, but as mentioned above, the government policy has not explicitly
implemented policies in garnering local support for what BrandHK stands for.
However, the perception of legitimacy also depends on the communication and BrandHKs
ability to interact with stakeholders based on their shared impressions of classifications,
routines, scripts and schemas (Beverland, 2005: 2005). BrandHK website reflects these,
especially in Faces of Hong Kong, where people share their love of food, shopping,
nostalgia, and aspiration in their narratives, which signify the interchanges among ordinary
people on the street (Ng, 2009: 44). BrandHK also appears to follow and be well-versed in
the guiding principle of the social and economic policy of the HKSAR government, stability
and prosperity (Ng, 2009: 67). Abiding to these principles is said to be a strategy to gain
support and allegiance of the Hong Kong people (Ng, 2009: 67).
In summarising this section, BrandHK is founded on reasons perceived as legitimate. While
there are doubts about the legitimacy of competently managing the brand, overall the brand
has managed to fulfill most of the requirements advocated by scholars to achieve legitimacy to
some extent.

6.3 Communication & Appropriation

The digital footprint and interviews show that BrandHK has a well-orchestrated

40

communication strategy. Since one of the functions of BrandHK is to act as an umbrella brand
which can be promoted to other sectors, the strict guidelines and control in allowing the usage
of BrandHK to other organisations, including InvestHK, the HKTDC, and the HKTB, allow
for the communication to be consistent. Moreover, the narratives in Faces of Hong Kong and
Reflections of Hong Kong directly address stakeholders to reinforce the notions of diversity
and cosmopolitanism among others, since communication and stakeholder relations are
important to consider (Hankinson 2003). Further support is granted through print media, such
as the posters of the Faces of Hong Kong, and promotion activities, e.g. preparing students
before overseas exchange programmes in representing Hong Kong. The overall
communication is also aided by the two-way-communication with regard to the BrandHK
website with interactive functions for residents and other stakeholders, which allows BrandHK
to engage with them and take charge of stakeholders, in line with Toth (2007).
Thus, the overall integrated communication strategy is in accordance with Kavaratzis (2008),
who stresses the importance of a communication framework to effectively communicate the
city image to relevant stakeholders, in order to achieve the overall city brand vision. It also
allows communicating the citys image on different levels (Graham 2002, as cited in
Kavaratzis 2004: 62). Perceptions can thus be enhanced and influenced with clearer
communications (Trueman et al. 2004), as BrandHK enjoys a level of awareness and a rather
positive image among the international community. With the strict brand usage for the other
organisations, it can reinforce BrandHKs image. However, by communicating BrandHK as an
umbrella brand, it could also dilute the brand, making it hard to actually grasp it, which could
be slightly the case with its slogan Asias world city. Audiences may not exactly know what
Hong Kongs distinguishing features are, since the world city paradigm encompasses such a
wide range.
Overall, BrandHK has essentially followed most of the points argued by scholars for a
successful communication framework, as it has something to communicate about, and thus
something to promote (Kavaratzis 2004: 69). To this extent, BrandHK is communicating what
it is doing which is supposed to help to gain community buy-in and trust (Kavaratzis, 2008;
Underwood & Fray, 2008).
As has been described in the theoretical framework, communication is utilised in order for
audiences to appropriate the desired communicated brand values. How people interact with a
place and form an attachment or relationship with it is also influenced by their expectations.
These are generated through the brand communication, as argued by Ashworth & Kavaratzis
(2007). Academics point out that in order to be effective, the desired image must be close to
reality, believable, simple, appealing and distinctive (Kotler & Gertner, 2002:47). However,
obviously the function of a city brand is to attract audiences, and in the process mainly
attributes perceived as positive and attractive are chosen to represent its image. Although
selected local stakeholders were also involved in choosing these attributes which were
incorporated into BrandHK, it does not mean that they will match stakeholders expectations.
Ashworth & Kavaratzis (2007) advocate the importance of alignment and consistency in
managing expectations influenced through communication and promotion activities (p.528).
Positioning Hong Kong as Asias world city creates all kinds of expectations, some of which
involve putting Hong Kong on the same pedestal as London or New York. While there are
several hypotheses on what constitutes a world city, it is not so much the fact that the brand
reality of Hong Kong may not fit into some of them. It is the audiences expectations which
are influenced by the brand communication and promotional activities which have to be met.
Hong Kongs world city status may thus be compared to other world cities by skeptic

41

audiences, and if they find something missing, this can influence them to appropriate
BrandHK differently from brand steerers intentions. For instance, London and New York are
among others considered to be hotbeds of culture and creativity. Hong Kongs world city
positioning would imply the same qualities, yet at the moment they are just in the process of
driving the development of the creative economy with the help of CreateHK. Stakeholders
who expect creativity in Hong Kong and see that it is still in the process of being pushed by
the government may find their expectation not met, potentially becoming skeptic of BrandHK,
and thus not appropriating the intended brand meaning into their own context.

6.4 Authenticity
To restate the purpose of the dissertation, it is to investigate how the authenticity of a brand
can be conveyed in light of skeptical audiences. As pointed out in the theoretical framework,
communications are built on a notion of authenticity (Edwards 2010: 192- 193). The data
and analysis hitherto reveal that credibility and legitimacy supported by a communication
framework are among the mechanisms by which brand authorities are trying to convince
audiences of the brand authenticity and steer their appropriation according to the intended
meaning of the brand. BrandHK has accumulated credibility and to some extent legitimacy, by
drawing upon the place itself and the location as a referent, making links to the past and
culture. Yet the appropriation process of audiences in general has not gone in the same
direction as the overall brand vision, thus not tapping into the geist of target audiences
(Fachet 2009, as cited in Edwards 2010).
The findings about the BrandHK logo can demonstrate the nature of authenticity better. The
aim of the BrandHK logo is to represent and express the brand attributes in a non-verbal,
graphic manner. The difficulty is to align the verbal with the non-verbal. Interestingly, while
the explanation for the BrandHK logo did connect to some the brand attributes, such as the
citys versatility, diversity, dynamism and the Hong Kong peoples can-do spirit. However,
new elements, such as the mythical aura and other symbolisms in form of the ribbons to
represent other characteristics of Hong Kong, like the blue sky and sustainable environment,
were introduced. These attributes also indirectly serve to create the authenticity of the
BrandHK story. However, the latter mentioned attributes are overshadowed by the known
problem of pollution Hong Kong has been facing for several decades. This can undermine the
credibility and trust people have of the brand, and thus also decrease the perceived authenticity
of what is deemed as real.
However, as has been mentioned, authenticity is not just based on reality, but rather on what is
fabricated and perceived as real. In this sense, the perception of fabricated reality is based on
audiences expectations and managing them. Therefore, even though authenticity is considered
to be a driver of credibility (Blackshaw 2008), it is not enough for a brand to be credible and
in this context legitimate, especially if the generated expectations are not met.

42

7 Discussion & Conclusion

____________________________________________________________________________
Following the analysis of the data collection and comments on the results, this chapter now
reviews the conclusions and implications from the research findings.
____________________________________________________________________________
The analysis of the data suggests implications, which will be thematised in order to answer the
research questions. To recap, the first research question is:

-How do the legitimacy and credibility of city brands influence the

perception of authenticity in light of skeptical audiences?
As already touched upon, the conveyance of brand authenticity depends on patterns of social
interaction (Hornskov 2007), including how perceived credibility and legitimacy generate
brand expectations, which are filtered through brand communication and then appropriated by
audiences. But how people interact with a place and form an attachment relationship with it is
also influenced by their expectations. Academics point out that in order to be effective, the
desired image must be close to reality (Kotler & Gertner 2002: 47). Positioning Hong Kong
as Asias world city creates all kinds of expectations, some of which involve putting it on the
same pedestal as London and New York. While there are several hypotheses on what
constitutes a world city, it is not so much the fact that the brand reality of Hong Kong may not
fit into some of them.
However, obviously the function of a city brand is to attract audiences, and in the process
mainly attributes perceived as positive and attractive are chosen to represent its image.
Although selected local stakeholders were also involved in choosing these attributes, which
were incorporated into BrandHK and support brand credibility and reputation, it does not
mean that the experience brand reality will match stakeholders expectations. Ashworth &
Kavaratzis (2007) advocate the importance of alignment and consistency in managing
expectations influenced through communication and promotion activities (p.528).
Applied to this case, the claim about BrandHK is that it is Asias world city, which creates
certain expectations. The audiences expectations are influenced by the brand communication
and promotional activities. Hong Kongs world city status may thus be compared to other
world cities by skeptic audiences, and if they find something missing, this could undermine
the brand credibility and legitimacy. Thus, they may appropriate BrandHK differently from
brand steerers intentions. For instance, London and New York are among others considered
to be hotbeds of culture and creativity. Hong Kongs world city positioning would imply the
same qualities, yet at the moment they are just in the process of driving the development of the
creative economy. Stakeholders may thus find their expectation not met, potentially becoming
skeptic of the credibility and legitimacy of BrandHK. Consequently they may end up
appropriating the intended brand meaning differently into their own context.
While having credibility and legitimacy suggest mainly a depository of positive confirmations,
perceiving authenticity itself does not imply that all communicated attributes need to be
flawless. Moreover, it is also not given that clearer brand communication, although it may
enhance credibility and legitimacy, will necessarily increase the perception of brand
authenticity. On the contrary, it is about the persons own understanding and personal
interpretation of the brand reality and promises in a specific context. Therefore, it is not

43

necessarily the case that reality needs to be imitated in brand promotion (Kotler & Gertner
2002: 47), in order for a brand to be perceived as authentic.

Rather, how audiences interact with Hong Kong and form an attachment relationship with it,
based on brand steerers intentions, is also influenced by their expectations. Therefore, the
argument here is that rather than focusing on credibility and legitimacy, city branding is more
about effectively managing expectations (Ashworth & Kavaratzis, 2007).

-How can city brand authorities convince audiences about the authenticity
of the brand?
Rather than interpreting whether or not something can be trusted (Blackshaw 2008),
authenticity is more about a subjective assessment made by a person in a particular context. As
Beverland (2006) argues, a communicated attribute can be considered the real thing without
being regarded as credible, while another attribute can be deemed credible without being the
real thing.Tothisextent,Peterson (2005) points out that authenticity is about claims which
are either accepted or rejected by relevant others.
Furthermore, Merell (1995) argues that authenticity is based on subjective experiences, rather
than reality. Thus the authenticity of BrandHK is a construct, or more so, a fabrication of
authenticity, rather than reality (Brown et al. 2003). In this sense, the perception of fabricated
reality is based on audiences expectations and managing them. Therefore, even though
authenticity is considered to be a driver of credibility (Blackshaw 2008) it is not enough for a
brand to be credible and legitimate, especially if the generated expectations are not met.
For this reason, rather than looking at the authenticity of BrandHK in terms of its credibility
and legitimacy as Asias world city, it is of interest to understand authenticity in light of
managing expectations. To extend the argumentation, it is about the imagineering of
authenticity in connection to expectations, which can influence audiences to appropriate the
intended meaning of brand steerers. In this context, imagineering can be thought of as the
process in which authenticity can signify and symbolise the potential imagination and
expectations of audiences by which they form place attachment.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the aim of this dissertation was to conceptualise authenticity in city branding by
focusing on the concepts of credibility and legitimacy faced with skeptical audiences. This
was done by examining the case of Hong Kong. It was found that authenticity is about the
right balance between the emotional appeal of credibility and legitimacy in terms of managing
expectations. If expectations are not met, this can influence perceived authenticity to decrease.
Finally, the process of Imagineering authenticity was introduced, which serves to signify and
symbolize the potential imagination and expectations of audiences.

Limitations & Further Areas of Research

The main contribution of the study was to look at city branding from the authenticity lense,
since most cases on authenticity are found in tourism literature. The study added to the
understanding of the relations between credibility, legitimacy and the managing of
expectations, which are crucial to authenticity.

44

However, limitations in this study remain. For instance, an area of further research could
possibly focus on the process of appropriation of place brands with regard to authenticity.
Moreover, the thesis did not address the possibility that authenticity could have
multidimensional facets, which are responsible for creating multiple perceptions of
authenticity.

45

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Appendix 1: Glossary
____________________________________________________________________________
BMU- BrandHK Management Unit
BrandHK Brand Hong Kong
HKSAR- Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
HKTB- Hong Kong Tourism Board
HKTDC- Hong Kong Trade Development Council
ISD- Information Services Department
MTR- Mass Transit Railway

52

Appendix 2: Organisations
____________________________________________________________________________
Organisation

About

BrandHK Management Unit,

Information Services Dept.
Government of Hong Kong

The BrandHK Management Unit is under the ISDs PR

Outside Hong Kong Division. The ISD serves as the
Governments centralised department with PR and
marketing function. The BMU is responsible for the day-today management of the brand, as well as providing advice
on the brand application to relevant parties.

http://www.isd.gov.hk/
HK Quality of Life Research Centre
Chinese University of Hong Kong
http://www2.cuhk.edu.hk/ssc/qol/eng/i
ndex.php

It is the first centre specialising in quality of life research in

Hong Kong. The Centre develops general frameworks for
quality of life research and aims to chart the quality of life
of people living in Hong Kong, embodied in the Quality of
Life Index (QOL).
The HKQOL is multi-dimensional and cross-disciplinary.
This composite index is comprised of 21 indicators a
consolidated efforts of professors from different fields. It is
grouped into three subgroups: Social-, Economic-, and
Environmental sub-indexes. Six indices are compiled by the
Faculty of Social Science of The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, namely, the stress index, the general life
satisfaction index, the press freedom index, the government
performance index, and the index of current economic
conditions. All other indices are obtained from the
government and related institutions.

Hong Kong Tourism Board

http://www.discoverhongkong.com/

HK Trade Development Council

http://www.hktdc.com/
InvestHK
Government of Hong Kong
http://www.investhk.gov.hk/

Founded in 2001, its main objective is to promote Hong

Kong as a tourist destination and increase visitor numbers.
To this extent, the HKTB cooperates with relevant
Government departments and organisations, the travelrelated sectors, among others. Moreover, other related
activities include regular consultation with stakeholders,
and participation in a number of strategy groups and
forums.
The HKTB conducts research into visitor profiles and
preferences and uses the data, along with latest tourism
trends and patterns, to map out marketing strategies for
different visitor source markets and segments.
A statutory body established in 1966, it is the international
marketing arm for Hong Kong-based traders, manufacturers
and service providers. It provides different services to
promote Hong Kong as a platform for doing business with
China and throughout Asia.
Established in 2000, InvestHK is the governmental
department for foreign direct investment. They are
responsible for attracting and facilitating foreign direct
investment, supporting foreign and Mainland Chinese
companies who want to set up and expand business in Hong
Kong.

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Appendix 3: Interviewees
____________________________________________________________________________

Name

About

Dr. Terence Tai-Leung CHONG

Associate Professor
Chinese University of Hong Kong
Dept. of Economics

Alumnus of Chinese University and Rochester University. Main

research areas include Econometrics and Finance.
Currently the Executive Director of the Institute of Global Economics
and Finance and also responsible for the economic sub-index of the
HKQOL Index.
His papers appear in reputable international journals (e.g. Journal of
Econometrics, Financial Management, China Economic Review etc.)
covering a wide spectrum of topics in Econometrics, Finance,
Mathematics, Psychology, Education and the Hong Kong Economy.

Dr. John FLOWERDEW

Professor
City University of Hong Kong
Dept. of English Literature

Research and teaching is in the field of Applied Linguistics, focusing

on discourse studies and on language learning.
Serves on the editorial boards of a range of international journals and
book series and is regularly invited to give talks at international
conferences.
Has authored or edited 11 books and special editions of journals, e.g.
The Final Years of British Hong Kong: The Discourse of Colonial
Withdrawal (1998) Macmillan etc. Additionally, he has published
over 75 book chapters and internationally refereed journal articles.

Mr. Brett FREE

Assistant Director
BrandHK Management Unit,
Information Services Dept.
Government of Hong Kong

A former journalist with more than 30 years experience in the news,

media and PR fields.
Currently leading the HKSARG ISD Publicity & Promotions Division.
Responsible for local and international promotions and publicity,
internet resources, creative design, advertising among others. Also
provides advice for chief executive Donald Tsang.
Received several HKSAR Chief Executive's commendations in
recognition of outstanding services.

Dr. Simon Xu Hui SHEN

Associate Professor
HK Institute of Education
Dept. of Social Sciences

Trained as an international relations scholar at Yale University and the

University of Oxford. Research areas include Chinese nationalism and
Chinese foreign policy, external relations of Hong Kong, anti-terrorism
and regional security in Asia, among others. Published academic
research articles in leading internationally refereed journals.
Apart from holding adjunct professorships and honourary researcher
positions in universities and institutes around the world, he is a
frequent speaker on global issues and a regular commentator on
international relations

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Name

About

Dr. Henry STEINER

Steiner & Co.
Brand Creation & Strategy

Leading graphic designer and brand expert. Educated at the Sorbonne

and at Yale- where he studied with Paul Rand. In 1964, he founded
consultancy firm, Steiner & Co, in Hong Kong.
Created designs for some of the most identifiable brands, e.g. HSBC,
IBM, Hilton Hotels, Unilever, etc. Was commissioned to design the
city bank notes by the Hong Kong government in 1975.
Pioneered the expression of identity through branding. His skill for
incorporating Eastern cultural symbols into Western design has
garnered international acclaim. Was included in Icogradas list of the
Masters of the 20th Century in 2002, and named HK Designer of the
Year, as well as a World Master by Idea magazine.

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