Human Reproduction

1) testes
* produces sperm
* produces testosterone (male sex hormone) which:
a) regulates the maturation of sperm
b) development of secondary sex characteristics such as facial hair and a deeper voice
* the testes are located in the scrotum outside the internal body cavity to keep the testes 1-2 degrees Celsius cooler than
the body for the optimum temperature for producing and storage sperm
2) glands and tubes
* sperm are produced in the testes and are stored in the tube called the epididymis
* they are then carried through the abdominal cavity by the tube called the vas deferens which...
* connects with the urethra (leads out of the penis)
* along the way through the tubes, certain glands add fluids to the sperm to nourish them and protect them from the
acidic environment of the woman's vagina such as:
a) prostrate gland

b) seminal vesicles

c) Cowper's gland

* these secretions and sperm are referred to as SEMEN as is released during ejaculation
3) penis
* an adaptation for internal fertilization
gets the sperm up into the female's reproductive tract
B) Female Reproductive System
* carries out oogenesis; the production of one viable monoploid (usable) egg and 3 non-viable polar bodies from one
primary sex cell
* produces many hormones, including estrogen and progesterone which:
a) control menstrual cycle
b) development of secondary sex characteristics, such as development of mammary glands (breasts) and the
broadeneing of pelvis (hips)
responsible for the internal development of offspring!
1) ovaries (2 of them)
* mature eggs in small cavities called follicles (remember FSH-- Follicle Stimulating Hormone)
* all eggs are present by the time the female is born
OVULATION: when eggs are matured and released
2) oviduct
* after ovulation, the egg is transported through the oviduct (a.k.a. Fallopian tubes) heading towards the uterus
* if the egg is to be fertilized, it happens in the oviducts
3) uterus
* where the embryo implants if development occurs
* at the lower end of the uterus is the cervix, which leads to the muscular tube called the vagina
* the vagina is opening between the internal and external environment

II. The Menstrual Cycle

* begins at puberty and ends at menopause (which is a permanent cessation (stoppage)
* usually lasts approximately 28 days
* can vary a great deal due to:
1) age
2) illness
3) pregnancy
4) stress
5) other factors

* there are 4 stages to the menstrual cycle:

A) follicle stage:
* FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone), produced by the pituitary (of the endocrine system) tells the egg to mature
* estrogen is produced from the ovary to build up the uterine lining (blood vessels) in case the embryo implants AND to
stimulate ovulation
* ~days 1-14 of the cycle
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
as the estrogen levels get higher, the pituitary inhibits (slows) its production of FSH and stimulates (speeds up) the
production of LH (luteinizing hormone); this leads to...
B) ovulation:
* the mature egg is released from the follicle around day 14
* the high levels of LH (luteinizing hormone) stimulates the ruptured follicle to transform into the corpus luteum
C) corpus luteum stage:
* the newly formed corpus luteum (in the ovary) now secretes progesterone which will prepare the uterine lining for
possible fertilization/implantation
* ~days 14-26 of the cycle

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
if fertilization does not occur, the high levels of progesterone in the blood inhibits the production of LH (luteinizing hormone),
which then lowers the progesterone level
D) menstruation:
* if no zygote is implanted into the uterus, the uterine lining breaks down
* the lining of the uterus, together with some blood and mucus, pass out of the body through the vagina
* ~ days 26-28 of the cycle
make sure you know what each hormone does and where it is produced!!!
(more notes and useful graphs are in the graphing activity--The Menstrual Cycle)
III. Fertilization in Humans
* happens internally
* after ovulation, fertilization usually occurs in the oviduct (Fallopian tubes)
* if not fertilized within ~24 hours, the egg deteriorates and can no longer be fertilized
* cleavage begins in the oviduct
* ~ 6-10 days later, the developing embryo (now a blastula) may be implanted in the lining of the uterus
* gastrulation and differentiation occur after the embryo has been implanted in the uterine walls

* if more than one egg is produced, you can have more than one embryo
FRATERNAL TWINS result when 2 eggs are fertilized by 2 different sperm cels
IDENTICAL TWINS result with 1 egg gets fertilized by 1 sperm; during cleavage, the zygote breaks off into two completely
separate cells

IV. Human Development

* the time between fertilization and birth is referred to as the gestation period
* in humans, the gestation period is about 9 months
* at the end of the gestation period, the secretion of progesterone from the ovary decreases
and another hormone from the pituitary gland causes the females body to go into labor

Epithelial cells of villi contain mitochondria to provide energy for absorption

against the concentration gradient.

Plants
a A plant is a whole organism, made up of many organs including roots, stems,
leaves and flowers. A flower is an organ in which sexual reproduction takes
place.
b Stamens are the male parts of a flower, consisting of a filament and anther.
Male gametes are made inside pollen grains in the anthers. Stigmas are
part of the female parts of a flower, on which pollen grains are trapped.
c Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma. Fertilization is
the fusion of the nuclei of the male and female gametes inside the ovules.
d Wind-pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma. Winddispersal of fruits is the movement, by the wind, of a fruit from the plant
where it was formed to a different place away from the parent plant.
e A seed develops from an ovule after fertilization. It contains an embryo plant.
A fruit develops from an ovary after fertilization. It contains seeds.

The Mammalian Heart

The Heart is the organ that controls the circulatory system in mammals (and other animals). It pumps
blood around the body. Mammals have adouble circulatory system, so the heart must pump blood to the lung and to
the rest of body simultaneously.
The Structure of the Heart

On the outside, the heart mainly consists of a dark red muscle. It is attached to four very important blood
vessels: the Vena Cava, thePulmonary Artery, the Pulmonary Vein and the Aorta.

Internally, the heart is made up of four main cavities: two Atria (singular: atrium) and two Ventricles. The atria
hold blood briefly, then allow it tofall into the ventricles, which provide the actual 'pump'.

The vena cava supplies de-oxygenated blood from the body, which then flows into the right atrium then
the right ventricle. This gets pumpedthrough the pulmonary artery to the lungs where it gets oxygenated, before
returning to the heart via the pulmonary vein. This flows through the left atrium into the left ventricle, and then
gets pumped to the bodyvia the aorta. It finally returns to the heart through the vena cava, and the process repeats.
This is happening inside you right now, about once a second!
The atria are separated from the ventricles by Atrioventricular Valves(specifically called Tricuspid Valves - right;
and Bicuspid/Mitral Valves - left). These valves allow blood to flow downwards when the atria and ventricles relax,
but close to prevent blood from flowing back up to theatria when the ventricles are contracting.
The ventricles are separated from the aorta and the pulmonary artery by the Semilunar Valves (specifically
called, respectively, the Aortic and Pulmonary Valves). These prevent blood from flowing in the wrong direction back
into the heart.
The atrial walls are thin; they don't need to withstand much pressure. Theventricles walls on the other hand
are much thicker. When the ventricles contract, the blood pressure inside becomes very high, and they need to be
able to withstand this.
Also, the walls of the left ventricle are thicker than those of the right ventricle. This is because the left side of
the heart controls the systemic circuit (blood to the whole body) while the right side controls thepulmonary
circuit (blood to the lungs).
Blood in the systemic circuit needs to be at a high pressure in order to make its way around the whole
body and back again. In contrast, the lungsare very close to the heart, and contain very delicate capillaries which
would break if subjected to too great a pressure. Hence the systemic circuit requires a greater blood pressure than
the pulmonary circuit, and thus the walls of the left ventricle must be thicker than those of the right ventricle.

The Cardiac Cycle

The cycle of the beating of the heart consists of three main phases:Diastole, Atrial
Systole and Ventricular Systole. The heart cycles through each of those phases in order.

During this phase, the heart is filled with blood. The atria and ventriclesare relaxing, and blood flows from
the major veins (the vena cava and the pulmonary veins) into the atria, then into the ventricles via the open
atrioventricular valves.
The atrioventricular valves are open because the pressure in the atria isgreater than that in the ventricles.
The semilunar valves, on the other hand, are closed because the pressure in the ventricles is lower than that in
the main arteries leading from the heart.

Diastole

Atrial Systole

This is the beginning of the muscle contraction. The atria contract, whichpushes more blood into
the ventricles.

During this phase, the ventricles contract, increasing the ventricular pressure. Blood pushes against
the atrioventricular valves, since thepressure in the ventricles is now greater than that in the atria, causing them
to snap shut, which prevents blood from flowing back into the atria. This snapping shut the the audible 'lub' in the
familiar 'lub-dub' sound of the heart.
The pressure in the ventricles continues to increase until it is greater than that in the main arteries leading from
the heart. At this point, thesemilunar valves are forced open, and blood rushes out of the ventriclesout of the heart
into the arteries.
After the ventricles have finished contracting, the muscles relax, and arepulled back by elastic tissue.
This decreases the pressure in theventricles, causing the semilunar valves to shut (the 'dub' in the 'lub-dub' of the
heart) and the atrioventricular valves to open, so that the diastolephase can proceed once more.

Ventricular Systole