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Confusing Families

The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.

There are a series of English words which are frequently confused by students. This
article aims to identify them and correct those mistakes.
1. bring vs. take vs. carry vs. fetch
TO BRING (like "come") has the idea of movement towards the speaker.
TO TAKE (like "go") has the idea of movement away from the speaker.
TO CARRY has the idea of going somewhere with sth. in your arms or on your
back, transporting it.
TO FETCH implies going somewhere, collecting sth./s.o. and bringing it/him/her
back to the place you started from.
e.g. Bring the book here.
e.g. Take the cat there.
e.g. Two African girls were carrying food on their heads.
e.g. We should offer to fetch uncle Tony from the station.
2. critic vs. critique vs. review
A CRITIC is a person who writes about films, books, etc.
A CRITIQUE is a text which criticises s.o. else's ideas or policies.
A REVIEW is an article (by a critic) which evaluates a book, film, etc.
e.g. The film critic wrote a damning review about the movie.
e.g. I have just read an excellent critique of Shakespeare.
3. kill vs. murder vs. assassinate
TO KILL is the general word for taking the life of a person or animal.
TO MURDER is to kill deliberately and unlawfully.
TO ASSASSINATE means to murder s.o. who is famous.
e.g. A body-guard was killed when the terrorists tried to assassinate the
President.

4. wait vs. expect vs. hope


TO WAIT means to stay in a specific place until sth. happens.
TO EXPECT means to believe that sth. is going to occur.
TO HOPE means to want sth. to occur.
e.g. I'll wait for you here until eight o'clock.
e.g. I expect my team will lose the match.
e.g. I hope my team will win.
5. fault vs. blame vs. accuse
IT IS YOUR FAULT = YOU ARE TO BLAME
However, we don't say "to have fault" but "to be to blame"
"To find fault" means "to criticise".
We BLAME S.O. FOR STH. but ACCUSE S.O. OF DOING STH.
e.g. It's my fault and I only can blame myself for what happened.
e.g. Joe is to blame for the failure of the project =
e.g. I blame Joe for the failure of the project =
e.g. The failure of the project is Joe's fault =
e.g. I accuse Joe of causing the project's failure.
Glossary
towards (UK English) - toward (US English): in the direction of
policies: (political) programme
damning: condemnatory, destructive
unlawfully: illegally
failure: fiasco, collapse, lack of success

Confusing Words
The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.

There are a series of English words which are frequently confused by students.
This article aims to identify them and correct those mistakes.

1. beside vs. besides


Beside means "next to".
Besides means "in addition (to)", "also", "moreover"
e.g. You can sit down beside me if you want.
e.g. I don't like that TV programme. Besides, I don't have time to watch it.
2. chair vs. seat
A chair is a moveable seat for one person.
A seat is a place to sit in a cinema, train, bus, etc.
e.g. There are four chairs around the kitchen table.
e.g. When I arrived in the compartment someone was sitting in my seat.
3. classic vs. classical
Classic means "best", "first-class" or "masterly".
Classical means "old and established" or "traditional".
e.g. His most recent novel is a classic.
e.g. I don't like classical music very much.
4. cook vs. cooker .
A cook is a person who cooks.
A cooker is a machine for cooking food.
e.g. Jennifer is training to be a cook.
e.g. You should clean the cooker at least once a week.

5. control vs. inspect


To control means "to have power over", "make s.o. or sth. do what you want".
To inspect means "to check", "examine" or "verify".
e.g. Will the police be able to control the hooligans?
e.g. The ticket-officer inspected the passengers' tickets.
6. dish vs. plate
Both dish and plate can refer to round ceramic containers for food. Food is often
brought to the table in a dish from which people serve their individual plates.
However, when plates (and cups, etc.) are dirty they are called "the dishes". But

when they are clean they are called "plates". We use dish for a specific
combination of food.
e.g. Could you do the dishes and them put the clean plates away?
e.g. We need some more plates, could you fetch them?
e.g. Paella is my favourite dish.
7. economic vs. economical
Economic means "relating to the economy".
Economical means "cheap", "inexpensive".
e.g. His thesis was about long-term economic growth.
e.g. I think you'll find out products very economical.
8. efficient vs. effective
Efficient means "quick and "without waste".
Effective means "producing the result that you want"
e.g. This machine is very efficient, so you'll have a higher production in less time
with a lower electricity bill.
e.g. These pills are the most effective against headaches, though they
takeslightly longer to take effect.
9. floor vs. ground
The floor is what you walk on inside a building.
The ground is what you walk on outside a building.
e.g. Come indoors and clean the floor, will you?
e.g. In the morning the ground was frozen solid.

Word Order: Adverbs & Adjectives


The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.

We depend heavily on word order because there are so few inflections in


English. In fact, as inflections have gradually disappeared over the centuries,
word order has become more and more rigid. For instance, there is a great
difference in meaning between "Happily she died." and, "She died happily."

Simple English sentences use the sequence SUBJECT-VERB-COMPLEMENT


(e.g. Sarah raisedher hand). However, word order becomes more complicated as other elements
are added to a sentence. This article intends to clarify, the main areas of difficulty for learners.

Adverbs
Adverbs can go at the beginning of a sentence, at the end, or before the verb:
Quickly Sarah raised her hand.
Sarah raised her hand quickly.
Sarah quickly raised her hand.

In other words we never put the adverb between the verb and its object.

ADVERBS OF MANNER go before the verb (IF THE ADVERB IS ONLY ONE WORD) or at
the end of the sentence and after the verb "to be". BEFORE THE VERB means "before the main
verb but after the auxiliary verb", if one is used. Nearly all adverbs ending -ly are adverbs of
manner.
e.g.:
She
was
never
happy
at
home.
e.g. Sarah happily raised her hand or Sarah raised her hand happily.

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY (always, usually, generally, frequently, often, sometimes,


seldom,
occasionally,
rarely,
e.g. Sarah sometitnes raises her hand.

never)

go

before

the

verb

ADVERBS OF DEFINITE TIME go at the beginning or the end of a sentence.


e.g. Yesterday Sarah raised her hand or Sarah raised her hand yesterday.

EVALUATING

ADVERBS are

e.g. He read the poem well or

placed

at

the

end

of

sentences.

I like this coffee very much.

The NORMAL ORDER OF ADVERBS is MANNER (how?) - PLACE (where?) - TIME


(when?);
e.g.
Sarah
raised
her
hand quickly
Sarah quickly raised her hand in class yesterday.

in

class

yesterday or

However, adverbs (or adverbial phrases) of time are also often placed at the beginning of the
sentences for clarity. e.g.: Yesterday Sarah raised her hand quickly in class.

Some Specific Adverbs


STILL >> is usually used mid-position (i.e. before the main verb).
e.g. Are you still talking about that? or
I still can't decide which dress to buy or
It's still snowing..
YET >> is placed at the end of the sentence.
e.g. Has she arrived yet? or I haven't seen "American Psycho" yet.
ALREADY >> is usually placed before the main verb.
e.g. She has already finished the course.
However, for emphasis it can be placed at the end of the sentence;
e.g. She has finished the course already!
QUITE >> if quite is followed by a noun, it usually goes before the article.
e.g. It was quite a good film, but I'm not sure you would like it.
e.g. Paris is quite a beautiful city.
RATHER >> can be used before or after the article if there is an adjective.
e.g. That's rather a good idea or That's a rather good idea.
REALLY >> in spoken English, really at the beginning or the end of a sentence makes a sentence
more hesitant (expressing doubt, unsure) and less strong.
e.g. I don't think you should have said that, really.
Really can be placed before the auxiliary verb to make a sentence more emphatic.
e.g. I really don't like him or He really has improved the work in this office.
HERE >> if a sentence begins with here, the verb comes before the subject (unless the subject is
a pronoun). e.g. Here comes John! but Here he comes!

Adjectives

Adjectives usually go before the noun they describe. When there are several adjectives the order
is:

FIRST >>

more general

or

subjective

adjectives;

(e.g.

pretty,

nice).

e.g. She wore a beautiful, golden costume.

LAST >> more specific and objective adjectives; (e.g. colours, styles, nationalities and
nouns used as adjectives). e.g. An exquisite, old carved wooden table; A long boring
technical book; An unbelievable ghost story.

If

two

adjectives

are EQUALLY

EXACT,

we

put

the

shorter

one

first.

e.g. a quiet intelligent woman.


Remember: ENOUGH can qualify a noun or an adjective, and comes before nouns and after
adjectives.
e.g. I haven't got enough money or Is your car big enough for all of us?
e.g. The baby isnt big enough for the bed.

Word Order of Objects

The

indirect

object

is

usually

placed

before

the

direct

object.

e.g. They gave the camels water.

However, if the indirect object is much longer than the direct object, the order is reversed.
e.g. They gave water to the thirsty Indian camels.

With some verbs the indirect object has to be used after the direct object. These
are:explain, describe, announce, introduce, suggest, propose and say.
e.g. They announced the name of the winner to the expectant people.

After as, how, so and too, the adjective comes before the indefinite article (a, an), if there
is
one.
e.g. It was so warm a day that we went swimming (= It was such a warm day .. ).
e.g. However well-trained your dog may be, you cannot bring him into the restaurant.
e.g. It was too generous an offer for me to refuse (= reject, not accept).
e.g. So superstitious were they that (they) always touched wood everywhere.

Glossary
raised: lift, put high in the air (e.g. when a child wants to answer a question in class)
carved: cut into an artistic shape

Countable & Uncountable Nouns


The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns are easy to recognize and express things you can count. For
example: "chair". You can count chairs. You can have one, two, three or more chairs
at home. Here are some more countable nouns: dog, cat, animal, man, person,
bottle, box, litre, coin, note, dollar, cup, plate, fork, table, chair, suitcase.

Countable nouns can be singular or plural: My cat is playing; My cats are hungry.

You can use the indefinite article A/AN with countable nouns: A cat is an animal.

When a countable noun is singular, you must use a word like A/THE/MY/THISwith it:
I want an orange. (not I want orange); Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?).

When a countable noun is plural, you can use it alone: I like oranges; Bottles can
break.

You can use SOME and ANY with countable nouns: I've got some dollars; Have
you got any pens?

You can use A FEW and MANY with countable nouns: I've got a few dollars; I
haven't got many pens.

TIP

"People" is countable. "People" is the plural of "person". You can count


people. i.e. There is one person here. There are three people here.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts, etc. that you cannot divide into
separate elements. You cannot "count" them. For example, you cannot count "milk".
You can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but YOU CANNOT COUNT "milk"
itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns: music, art, love, happiness, advice,
information, news, furniture, luggage, sugar, butter, water, electricity, gas, power,
money (YOU CANNOT SAY: one money, two moneys, BUT you can say: ONE
dollar note, TWO dollar notes).

You usually consider uncountable nouns as singular. In that case, you must use
aSINGULAR VERB. For example: This news is very important; Your
luggagelooks heavy.

You do not usually use the indefinite article A/AN with uncountable nouns. You
CANNOT SAY "an information" or "a music". But you can say a "something" of: a
piece of news, a bottle of water, a grain of rice, a can of Coke, etc.

You can use SOME and ANY with uncountable nouns: I've got some money; I
need some water; Have you got any rice?

You can use A LITTLE and MUCH with uncountable nouns: I've got a littlemoney; I
haven't got much rice.

TIP

Drinks (coffee, water, juices, etc.) are usually uncountable. But if you are
thinking of a cup/glass, we can also say: Two teas and one coffee, please.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns


Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning.

COUNTABLE

NOUNS

UNCOUNTABLE

There are two hairs in my coffee!

hair

I don't have much hair.

There are two lights in our bedroom.

light

Close the curtain. There's too much

light!
Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise.

noise

I can't work when there is too much


noise.

Have you got a newspaper to read?

paper

I want to draw. Have you got some


paper?

Our house has seven rooms.

room

Is there room for me to sit here?

We had a great time at the party.

time

Have you got time for a coffee?

La Traviata is one of Verdi's works.

work

I have no money. I need work!

Past Contrast
The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.

English has nine tenses for talking about past time. The objective of this article is to clarify the dif
between these tenses by comparing them. It is not suitable as an introduction to the past but rath
be used as a general perspective when all (or most) of the tenses have been learned independen

PAST SIMPLE vs. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

The PAST SIMPLE (DID, PAINTED) refers to past time and there is no association with the
present. Usually "when" is important in a past simple sentence. Either we say explicitly "when" or
we assume (presume, suppose) that the other person knows "when".

TENSE MARKERS (words that suggest the use of a specific verbal tense):
yesterday, ago, last (week, month, year, etc.), then, when, once,
in (1970, 2000), at (12 o'clock, tea-time), on (Monday), etc.
The PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE (HAVE DONE, HAS PAINTED) always tells you something
about "now". If we explicitly say when something happened, we cannot use the Present Perfect.
A good way to test if the Present Perfect Simple should be used is to ask yourself if you can

make a corresponding sentence in the Present Simple.


It is useful to consider the Present Perfect as a "bridge" tense which connects past events or
actions with present result, or suggests that something has happened until the present (and may
continue or not).

TENSE MARKERS:
for, already, yet, still, always, never, ever, lately, recently,
today, this week, this month, this year, so far, up to now.
The two tenses can often be used to describe the same event, but the focus is different:
e.g. I have lost my glasses ( = I don't have my glasses now, and I can't read this to you).
e.g. I lost my glasses last night ( = it was last night when I lost my glasses, so I didn't leave
them on the bus. Perhaps I found them just this morning).
On TV and papers news is usually presented in the Present Perfect. After that, the details (when?
where? why? how?) are given in the past simple:
e.g. The ex-Prime Minister has been assassinated. He was killed in front of his home by a
gunman at 10:00 last night.
Just to confuse things, the British and Americans use these tenses differently when referring to
something that happened very recently. In British English you say have just done while in
American English you say just did:
e.g. Markus has just. ( = UK English); Brad just left. ( = US English)

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE vs. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The Present Perfect Simple focuses on the (present) result of an action.

TENSE MARKERS:
How much...? How many...?
Numbers (100 miles, 18 cigarettes, two coffees), always, ever.
The PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS (HAVE BEEN DOING, HAS BEEN EATING) focuses on
the activity, the result of the activity. Whether it is completed or not is not important. This verbal
tense often refers to activities which have recently finished.

TENSE MARKER:
How long...?
e.g. I have been driving all day. I have driven 300 km.
e.g. a) I have been cleaning the house (that's why my clothes are dirty); b) I have

cleaned the house ( = the house is clean now).

PAST SIMPLE vs. PAST CONTINUOUS

The PAST CONTINUOUS (WAS DOING, WERE EATING) is a dependent tense. It usually refers
to an action in progress at a particular moment, or when something else occurred (in the Past
Simple):
e.g. I cut my finger while I was preparing the pizza ( = I was preparing the pizza before I cut
my finger, at the time I cut my finger and, probably, after cutting my finger).
However, it is possible to use two sentences in the Past Continuous together if two events which
happened over a period of time coincided (simultaneous actions):
e.g. While I was cleaning the house, he was enjoying herself in the pub !!
The Past Continuous is used for temporary situations. If a situation is more permanent, we use
either the Past Simple or Used to (please, refer to rule # 7 underneath).
The Past Continuous is not used for talking about habits. For habits we use either the Past Simple
or Used to.

PAST SIMPLE vs. PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

The PAST PERFECT SIMPLE (HAD DONE, HAD EATEN) tells you that one thing in the past
happened before another thing in the past. If we list events in chronological order we usually use
the Past Simple.
The Past Perfect Simple is used to clarify the sequence of events when we break that
chronological order.

TENSE MARKERS:
just, already, before, when, how many times...?
e.g. When Paul arrived at the theatre his girlfriend had already left.

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE vs. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

The PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS (HAD BEEN DOING, HAD BEEN EATING) has the same
relationship to the Past Perfect Simple as the Present Perfect Continuous does to the Present
Perfect Simple.
The Past Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an activity which took place a certain period of
time before something else happened.
The important thing is not the result but the activity. We are interested in the continuity or duration

of the activity or situation.

TENSE MARKER:
How long...?
e.g. Tony looked tired. He had been working all day. He had written three chapters of his
new novel.

PAST SIMPLE vs. PAST OF INTENTION

The PAST OF INTENTION (WAS GOING TO DO, WERE GOING TO EAT) expresses what
someone planned or intended to do in the past. Usually this plan was never fulfilled (completed,
performed) becaue something convinced the person to do something else.
e.g. I was going to fly to New York by Concord but after the accident I decided to go in a
regular flight.

PAST SIMPLE vs. USED TO

USED TO (negative, DIDN'T USE) emphasizes that something happened regularly over a period
of time, but does not happen now.
e.g. I used to smoke when I was younger (but I don't any more).
USED TO cannot be used to say how often something happened:
e.g. We went to Africa three times in my childhood (not "we used to go to Africa three
times..."),
USED TO canot be used with specific time periods (e.g. "for five years"):
e.g. England controlled parts of France for over four centuries (not "used to control...").

USED TO vs. WOULD

WOULD can be used to talk about past routine. With WOULD we have to mention a specific time
(if not, it sounds like a conditional).
USED TO is used to talk about past routine (discontinued habits and past states), and is much
more common in modern English. Always remember this: IF YOU ARE IN DOUBT USE "USED
TO".
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.

When I was 25, I used to go on jogging every morning.


I would go jogging every morning when I lived in New York.
I used to have a small hairy dog. (not WOULD)
There used to be a post office on the corner of that street. (not WOULD)

e.g. He used to be a handsome man but now he is fat and bald !!


e.g. Slovenia used to be part of Yugoslavia.

Gerund or Infinitive?
The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.

"TRY TO WIN THE GAME" or "TRY WINNING THE GAME"?


English has two types of verbal nouns, the infinitive (with or without "to") and the gerund (the -ing
form). Most verbs which take a verbal noun can be followed by only one or the other (either the
gerund or the infinitive, but not both).
However there are certain verbs which can be followed by either a gerund or an infinitive and they
are the subject of this article.
1. VERBS
Some verbs can be followed by either the gerund or the infinitive and it is only a matter of style
which you use. These include continue, start and begin.
e.g. The fans continued to shout / shouting at the referee.
e.g. Helen started to cough / coughing because of her bad cold.
e.g. It began to rain / raining.
Some verbs can take either gerund or infinitive in most tenses (though British English prefers the
gerund, the infinitive is common in US English), but are only used with the infinitive when they are
in the conditional. These are: hate, love, can't bear, like, dislike and prefer.
e.g. I hate talking to her.
e.g. I like to get up early on Sunday mornings and go riding.
... but:
e.g. I like getting up early on Sunday mornings to go riding.
e.g. I couldn't bear to live in that country.
e.g. I'd prefer to see the manager early tomorrow.
2. WHEN MEANING CHANGES
However with a number of verbs the meaning of the sentences changes, depending on whether

we use the gerund or the infinitive.


a. Reference to the Future and the Past
With the verbs remember and forget, the gerund refers to an action which took place before the
act of remembering or forgetting. So,
e.g. I remember giving him the key means
I remember having given him the key or
I remember the moment in which I gave him the key.
e.g. I will never forget going water rafting in Africa means
I will never forget the occasion on which we went water rafting in Africa.
However with remember and forget, the infinitive refers to an action which took place after the
act of remembering or forgetting. So,
e.g. I remember to feed the cat means
I remember that it was my responsibility to feed the cat and I fed her.
e.g. I forgot to post that letter means
I did not post the letter because I forgot.
b. Regret
The verb regret is similar. Regret + gerund refers to the past whereas regret + infinitive is used
to introduce bad news (I regret to say..., I regret to tell you..., I regret to inform you...).
So we say:
e.g. I regret telling him the secret means
I regret having told him the secret or
I wish I hadn't told him the secret.
e.g. I regret to say that I just ran over your dog! means
I'm very sorry but I just killed your dog with my car.
e.g. I regret to inform you that your son is missing in action means
It is my sad responsibility to inform you that we don't know if your son is alive or dead.

c. Stop
Stop + gerund means that you interrupt the activity mentioned in the gerund:
You must stop smoking.
However, stop + infinitive means that you interrupt the activity that you are doing to do the

activity mentioned in the infinitive. So,


e.g. The window-cleaners stopped to smoke means
They stopped cleaning the windows in order to have a cigarette.
d. Go on
Go on + gerund means the same as continue + gerund / infinitive:
He went on talking about himself, even though nobody was listening.
However, go on + infinitive means to start something new:
e.g. He went on to talk about his childhood in Hong Kong means
He was talking about one thing and then he changed the subject and started to talk about his
childhood in Hong Kong.
e. Try
There is a subtle difference between try + infinitive and try + gerund. Try +infinitive suggests
that the action in the infinitive is difficult and the person may not be successful in doing that action:
Try to open the window. I can't because I'm not very strong and it has recently been painted.
He tried to climb the cliff.
However, try + gerund suggests that the action in the gerund is not difficult but we don't know if
the consequence of that action will be what we want. We use try + gerund when we do
something to discover what the consequence will be.
A: Phew! It's hot in here!
B: Try opening the window. Although it's probably just as hot outside!
f. Need
With the verb need, the infinitive has an active meaning and the gerund has a passive meaning.
e.g. I need to talk to you means I must talk to you.
e.g. My shoes need cleaning means My shoes need to be cleaned.
e.g. The car needed servicing means The car needed to be serviced.
Glossary
to bear: tolerate, put up with
to feed: give food to
to regret: feel sorry about something you have done
whereas: while, in contrast

How to pronounce -ED


Many students have difficulties with the -ED ending of regular verbs. The
objective of this article is to clarify how to pronounce past simple and past
participle correctly.

GENERAL REVISION
The past simple tense and past participle of all regular verbs end in -ed. For example:

base verb
(1)

past simple
(2)

past participle
(3)

work

worked

worked

In addition, many adjectives are made from the past participle and so end in -ed. For
example: I like painted furniture (represented in a painting); He likes naked paintings
(completely unclothed); He was a wicked old man (morally bad).

PRONUNCIATION OF -ED
We can pronounce the -ED form of the past simple and past participle in THREE different
ways: /id/ or /t/ or /d/
The chart below can help you to understand the differences.

If the base verb ends in


one of these sounds:

Example base verb


(*):

Example
with -ed:

Pronounce
the -ed:

Extra
syllable?

UNVOICED

want

wanted

/id/

yes

/t/

VOICED

/d/

end

ended

/p/

hope

hoped

/f/

laugh

laughed

/s/

fax

faxed

/t/

UNVOICED

VOICED

/S/

wash

washed

/tS/

watch

watched

/k/

like

liked

play

played

allow

allowed

beg

begged

all other sounds,


for example...

no

/d/

(*) Note that it is the SOUND that is important, not the letter or spelling. For example, "fax"
ends in the letter "x" but the sound /s/; "like" ends in the letter "e" but the sound /k/.

EXCEPTIONS
Please, remember that the following adjectives ending in -ED are always pronounced

with/id/:

AGED
DOGGED
RAGGED

BLESSED
LEARNED
WICKED

CROOKED
NAKED
WRETCHED

Reported Speech - Part 1/3

When we want to say what someone said we can either


put his/her words between inverted commas (e.g. He
said, "You are mad") or we can express the idea in
Reported Speech (e.g. He said that I was mad).

Direct Speech is common in novels, in plays (theatrical pieces) and when giving quotes(repetition
of famous phrases). However Indirect Speech is more normal in live conversation, in reports and
academic work. Moreoever you need to know how to use Indirect Speech if you are going to do an
exam in English.
The conversion from Direct Speech to Indirect Speech (or Reported Speech) is particularly
appropiate for transformation exercises, such as those in FCE (Cambridge First Certificate),
Paper Three.
Underneath you will find a CONVERSION TABLE (from Direct Speech to Reported Speech and
viceversa) which we hope you find useful and practical.

INDIRECT STATEMENTS
Occasionally the reporting verb (e.g. he says, he tells me, etc.) is in the present. In this case,
pronouns will change in Indirect Speech, but the tenses in the reported clause stay the same:
DIRECT SPEECH: He says, "I will do it".
REPORTED SPEECH: He says that he will do it.

However, it is much more common that the reporting verb is in the past (she said, she told me,
etc.). In this case the tenses in the reported clause have to change. The changes of tense are
governed by what we call the "ONE-TENSE-BACK" RULE. This simply says that the tense of the
verb has to go one tense further into the past, as this Conversion Table shows:

DIRECT SPEECH

REPORTED SPEECH

Present Simple

Past Simple

She said, "I am happy".


He said: "I work everyday".

She said that she was happy.


He said that he worked everyday.

Present Progressive (Continuous)

Past Progressive (Continuous)

You said, "They are swimming".

You said that they were swimming.

Present Perfect Simple

Past Perfect Simple

He said, "I have bought a car".

He said that he had bought a car.

Past Simple

Past Perfect Simple

He said, "I bought a hamster".

He said that he had bought a hamster.

Past Progressive (Continuous)

Past Perfect Progressive (Continuous)

You said, "I was working".

You said that you had been working.

Future of Intention ("going to")

Past of Intention ("going to")

She said, "I am going to win".

She said that she was going to win.

Future Simple

Conditional

They said, "We will lose".

They said that they would lose.

Future Perfect

Perfect Conditional

She said, "I will have bought it by Friday".

She said that she would have bought it by


Friday.

Future Progressive (Continuous)

Progressive (Continuous) Conditional

She said, "I will be having tea at 8 pm".

She said that she would be having tea at 8


pm.

Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous)

Past Perfect Progressive (Continuous)

She said, "I have been painting the ceiling".

She said that she had been painting the


ceiling.

Reported Speech - Part 2/3

This is Reported Speech, Second Part.


Let's see what happens to Auxiliary Verbs; learn about
special verbs you can use to improve your reporting;
additional changes in time-clauses, and more...
The Past Perfect tenses, the Conditional tenses and the Past of Intention cannot be
mademore past, so these tenses do not change:
Past Perfect Simple

DIRECT SPEECH: He said, "I had gone to bed very early".


REPORTED SPEECH: He said he had gone to bed very early.

Conditional

DIRECT SPEECH: They said, "We would like to visit Venice".


REPORTED SPEECH: They said they would like to visit
Venice.

Past of Intention

DIRECT SPEECH: She said, "I was going to win".


REPORTED SPEECH: She said she was going to win.

OTHER AUXILIARY VERBS


Some auxiliary verbs have a past tense, and in these cases they go "one tense back" in
reported speech. Remember that they can also be replaced by their similars with able to(in
the case of "can") or have to (in the case of "must"):

DIRECT
SPEECH

REPORTED
SPEECH

can

could

may

might

must

must / had to

However, other auxiliary verbs (could, would, should, might, ought to, used
to andmustn't) have no past form and so they do not change. Some examples:
could

DIRECT SPEECH: He said, "I could fly because the weather was fine".
REPORTED SPEECH: He said he could fly because the weather was fine.

ought to DIRECT SPEECH: They said, "We ought to pay him a better salary".
REPORTED SPEECH: They said they ought to pay him a better salary.
used to

DIRECT SPEECH: She said, "I used to live in London".


REPORTED SPEECH: She told me she used to live in London.

OMISSION OF "THAT"
It is possible to omit the relative pronoun that after the reporting verb (he said that...; he
told that...). In general, USE this relative pronoun when you are writing and OMIT it when
you are speaking.

SAY / SAID vs. TELL / TOLD


In general:

1. Use SAY when the person spoken to is not mentioned in the sentence: e.g. I said I was
angry.
2. Use TELL when the person spoken to is given: e.g. I told him I was angry.

VERBS USED IN REPORTED STATEMENTS


SAY and TELL are the most common verbs used in indirect or reported statements. But
other common verbs used in the reporting clause
include: agree, mention, notice,promise and think. You can also
use complain (criticise), confide (admit confess), deny(contradict,
refuse), grumble (complain, moan), speculate (conjecture), and warn (alert, caution).
PLEASE notice that we DO NOT NORMALLY OMIT the relative that after these more
formal verbs.
e.g. They agreed that we should visit them on Monday.
e.g. He promised that he would come next day.
e.g. The murderer denied that he had killed the old man.
A number of verbs in reported speech have to have an indirect object (like tell). These
include: assure, convince, inform, notify, persuade, reassure (comfort)
and remind(make someone remember something):
e.g. I assured them that I wouldn't arrive late. You cannot say: "I assured that I wouldn't
arrive late").
e.g. She convinced me that I could travel to Spain.
e.g. They notified us that we were fired.
Certain verbs (admit, deny, mention and report) CAN BE FOLLOWED by a that-clauseor
by an -ing clause:
e.g. He denied that he had taken the money = He denied taking the money
e.g. She mentioned that she had seen Jim = She mentioned seeing Jim.

SOME ADDITIONAL CHANGES


Certain words which are specific to the context in which direct speech happens, also NEED
TO BE CHANGED. The general rule is:

DIRECT
SPEECH

REPORTED
SPEECH

this

that or the

these

those or the

here

there

now

then

ago

before

today

that day

this morning

that morning

last week

the previous week

last month

the previous month

last year

the previous year

next week

the following week

next month

the following month

next year

the following year

yesterday

the day before

tomorrow

the next day or


the following day

the day before


yesterday

two days before

the day after


tomorrow

in two days time or


two days later

However, in reality it may be necessary to be more specific:


THIS
THE BOOK HE WAS HOLDING IN HIS HAND
e.g. He asked, "Who does this belong to?".
He asked who the book in his hand belonged to. (We don't say: "that book"; it is not very
specific).
HERE
IN THE SITTING ROOM
e.g. She said, "My father was here".
She said that her father had been in the sitting room. (We don't say: "there"; it is not very
specific).

Reported Speech - Part 3

This is Reported Speech, Third Part.


You will learn how to report questions, requests and
commands; the use of special reporting verbs for
recommendations, offers and refusals, and more...

REPORTED QUESTIONS
1. Indirect questions are just a special case of reported statements. When the reporting
verb is in the past the one-tense back rule applies in the same way. The difference is that
we have to change the word order because the reported clause is not a question
anymore. If the reported clause uses the auxiliary verb do/did, these disappear. And you
must use the conjunction if ( = on the condition that; supposing that).
e.g. She asked, "Do you work on Saturdays?".
She asked me IF I WORKED on Saturdays. (We don't say: She asked me do you work on
Saturdays).
2. If the reported clause has an inverted verb this inversion is reversed.
e.g. He asked, "Can I come?".
He asked me IF HE COULD COME.
e.g. Helen asked, "Can I make a phone call?".
Helen asked IF SHE COULD MAKE a phone call.
e.g. Jim asked, "Should I buy that book?".
Jim asked IF HE SHOULD BUY that book.
PLEASE, REMEMBER THIS: In colloquial style you can use the conjunction if instead
ofwhether (pronounced as uder and also translated as "si" in Spanish), but in formal
English you must use whether: Jim asked WHETHER HE SHOULD BUY that book (OR
NOT).

3. If the direct question includes a question word (i.e. how, when, where, who, why, etc.)
this question word is used in the reported question. If it does not, we use if or whether:

e.g. He asked, "How old are you?".


He asked me how OLD I WAS.
e.g. He asked, "When is she leaving the office?".
He asked when SHE WAS LEAVING the office.
e.g. He asked, "Where can I leave my coat?".
He asked where HE COULD LEAVE his coat.
e.g. He asked, "Who is going to Buenos Aires?".
He asked who WAS GOING to Buenos Aires.
e.g. Julie asked, "Why are you in California?".
Julie asked why I WAS in California.

REPORTED REQUESTS AND COMMANDS


REQUEST: appeal, petition, asking (pedido, solicitud, requerimiento, in Spanish)
COMMAND: order (orden, in Spanish)
In reported requests and commands we often use the verbs ASK (for requests) and TELL
(for commands). However, these verbs are not used in the same way as in reported
statements or reported questions, and they are followed by an INFINITIVE STRUCTURE:
STANDARD USE: e.g. She asked, "Do you know them?"
She asked me if I knew
them.
REQUESTS: She said, "Please, be quiet !!"
She asked me TO BE QUIET. (infinitive
structure)
STANDARD USE: e.g. He said, "I will come home"
He told me he would come.
COMMANDS: He ordered, "Sit down !!"
He told me TO SIT DOWN.
Other verbs that use this INFINITIVE STRUCTURE include:

VERBS

English

Spanish

advise
command
compel
expect
instruct
invite
order
persuade
recommend

give an advice
order
force, oblige
look forward
give instructions
offer someone an invitation
tell someone to do something
cause someone to do something
give a recommendation

aconsejar
ordenar
forzar, obligar
esperar
instruir
invitar
ordenar
persuadir
recomendar

remind
request
urge
warn

recall someone from memory


ask for
encourage
notify of danger or risk

recordar a alguien (que haga algo)


solicitar
alentar, estimular
advertir, alertar.

RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Verbs such as SUGGEST, PROPOSE, RECOMMEND are used to make
recommendations. If the speaker includes himself/herself in the recommended action,
we use the -ING FORM (gerund) in the reported clause:
e.g. Ana suggested, "Why don't we go to the park".
Ana suggested going to the park. (Ana included herself in the suggestion)
2. However, if the speaker does not include himself/herself in the suggestion, we use
a "THAT" CLAUSE:
e.g. Ana suggested, "Why don't you go to the park".
Ana suggested that I should go to the park. (Ana didn't include herself in the suggestion)
3. With these verbs we can use the present subjunctive (e.g. "go") or should (e.g.: "should
go") in the reported clause:
e.g. Ana proposed that we go to the park
park

or

Ana proposed that we should go to the

OFFERS AND REFUSALS


With the verbs OFFER and REFUSE we use the infinitive structure but NO indirect object:
e.g. She said, "Shall I carry your bag, Tommy?".
She offered to carry Tommy's bag.
e.g. He said, "I won't come to the party !!".
He refused to come to the party.

Describing Personality & Character


The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.

Whether you believe in horoscopes or not, they


do provide twelve standard character types
which can be useful if you need to describe
someone's personality. You may have to
describe a person's character in either the
written or the speaking part of the exam. The
vocabulary will be useful for any part of
the First Certificate Examination and indeed for
any exam.
The Signs of The Zodiac
ARIES (21 March 20 April) is the first sign of the zodiac and is innocent and immediate. S/he
is motivated by seIf-interest and is, above all, active. Aries' innocence means that s/he is
idealist but, at the same time, tactless and rude. His/her immediacy can mean that Aries
isrash and clumsy. Since Aries is a doer, s/he is usually ambitious, adventurous,
enthusiastic,outgoing and competitive. However, Aries' self-interest can mean that s/he is selfcentred andruthless. Above all, Aries is a straight-forward person.
TAURUS (21 April - 20 May) is the least spiritual of star signs. S/he tends to be possessive
and materialistic. In a good sense this may mean that Taurus is stable and level-headed and,
as a lover, s/he can be affectionate and even passionate. However, at times s/he can become
taciturn and selfish.
GEMINI (21 May 20 June) is all about curiosity and communication. Gemini tends to be quickwitted, resourceful, extrovert, rebellious and communicative. Gemini has an independent
spirit. However, s/he can sometimes seem two-faced, superficial, hypocritical, dishonest and
even unscrupulous.
CANCER (21 June - 21 July) likes emotional security. Cancer's maternal instinct means that
s/he is protective, nostalgic, sentimental and sensitive. When Cancer feels threatened s/he
can be aggressive. On the negative side, Cancer is capable of being fickle, whimsical and
immature. Nevertheless, s/he can be imaginative.
LEO (22 July - 21 August) is a creative and dominant star sign. S/he is self-assured and
proud. At times, s/he can be immodest and even arrogant. To some people Leo may come
across as bossy, boastful and pompous. Indeed, Leo can be very vain and often gullible in
the face of flattery. On the other hand, s/he can be sociable, magnanimous and tolerant. As a
friend, Leo is generous, considerate and, above all, loyal. As a lover, s/he can be sensitive and
passionate. Leo is a hedonist and loves the good things in life, but at the same time s/he is
usually disciplined.

VIRGO (22 August - 21 September) is adaptable. On the one hand, Virgo is servile,
obedient,shy and humble. On the other, Virgo is very analytical and practical. S/he is rational,
logical and methodical, though sometimes a little sceptical. Virgo is also hardworking. At the
same time, Virgo is a perfectionist. When s/he applies this characteristic to the work and habits
of others, Virgo can be demanding, picky, and petty. Despite this, Virgo is generally a good
friend since s/he is honest, truthful and reliable.
LIBRA (22 September - 22 October) is balanced - harmony and beauty are important to
her/him. S/he is generally easy-going and carefree. People sopmetimes think that this attitude
to life is because Libra is lazy. Libra is often intellectual and inquisitive. On a good day, Libra is
charming, however, s/he can also be spiteful.
SCORPIO (23 October- 21 November) can be either spiritual or scatological. S/he is
energetic and strong-willed. Taken to an extreme, Scorpio can become authoritarian,
intolerant and narrow-minded. However, if Scorpio's ideas conflict with the established
authority, s/he will be rebellious and undisciplined. Scorpio's conflictive nature means that s/he
is at times aggressive, and even sadistic. Scorpio is often self-destructive. Even if these
extremes are not reached, Scorpio is often irritable. If Scorpio is aware of his/her conflictive
nature, s/he may become withdrawn. In any case, s/he is always forthright and never
insincere.
SAGITTARIUS (22 November -20 December) is a visionary and an optimist. S/he is energetic,
enthusiastic, forthright and open but these characteristics can also mean that Sagittarius can
be tactless and hot-blooded. S/he can be playful and light-hearted but his/her time is also spent
in the serious pursuit of meaning and freedom.
CAPRICORN (21 December - 19 January) is a control-freak. S/he is determined, disciplined
and ambitious. As a controller Capricorn is usually sensible, patient, stable and thoughtfuI.
However, s/he can also be pessimistic and even moody.
AQUARIUS (20 January - 18 February) likes groups. S/he is humane and is often gentle,
compassionate and understanding. S/he is intellectual but also idealist and spiritual. At the
same time, s/he can be unpredictable and eccentric. Aquarius is usually lively but can also
bestubborn a times.
PISCES (19 February 20 March) is humane, generous and even sometimes selfless.
However, s/he is also capable of being emotional and temperamental. This means that Pisces
often comes across as unstable, fickle and weak-willed. Pisces is very sensitive and, at
times, impressionable. Her/his sensitivity can mean that s/he is melancholic.

GLOSSARY
self-conscious: insecure
self-righteous: smug, sanctimonious, selfsatisfied, superior

shy: timid
humble: modest

tight-fisted: ungenerous, miserly, mean,


stingy
to be tactless: not have tact, be
unintentionally impolite
rude: (false friend) impolite
rash: impetuous, impulsive
clumsy: awkward, uncoordinated, inept
doer: person who "does", active person
outgoing: extrovert
self-centred: selfish, egocentric
ruthless: brutal, cruel, merciless, relentless,
without pity
straight-forward: uncomplicated
selfish: egotistical
quick-witted: alert, astute, smart
resourceful: clever, capable, ingenious,
inventive
two-faced: insincere
threatened: under attack, menaced
fickle: changeable, unpredictable, volatile
whimsical: capricious
nevertheless: however, despite this
self-assured: confident, self-confident
to come across (intransitive): seem, appear
bossy: authoritarian, despotic, dictatorial
boastful: arrogant, having a tendency to talk
about his/her successes (= "victories")
gullible: credulous, innocent, naive
flattery: adulation, sycophancy

methodical: meticulous, systematic


picky: critical, fussy
petty: obsessed about unimportant details
truthful: sincere, honest
reliable: dependable, predictable, responsible,
trustworthy
easy-going: relaxed
carefree: untroubled, without worries
(=preoccupations), easy-going
spiteful: vindictive
scatological: (semi-false friend) showing an
unpleasant interest in excrement, sex and death.
strong-willed: determined, resolute
to be aware of: be conscious of
withdrawn: reserved
forthright: frank, direct, candid
control-freak: person who needs to be
controlling everything and everyone.
sensible: (false friend) responsible
thoughtful: contemplative, pensive, reflective
moody: melancholic, sullen
gentle: tender
lively: vivacious
stubborn: obstinate
selfless: altruistic, self-sacrificing
unstable: unbalanced
fickle: changeable, unpredictable, volatile
weak-willed: indecisive

60 FCE Common Mistakes


These mistakes were found by teachers when they were correcting FCE
written papers or checking the speaking tests, so pay close attention ...

WRONG
1. Everyday, he gets up early.

RIGHT
Every day, he gets up early. (EVERYDAY is an

adjective; EVERY DAY is an adverb)


2. The weather is unstable here.

The weather is unpredictable here.

3. This is a scene describing a natural disaster. This is a scene showing a natural disaster.
4. He was wearing a long pants.

He was wearing a pair of long pants.

5. They seems to be happy.

They seem to be happy.

6. I would do something indoor.

I would do something indoors.

7. I stayed in the washroom for 30 minutes.


Hopefully my body will be dry by then.

I stayed in the washroom for 30 minutes.


Hopefully my body would be dry by then.

8. There were eyes looking at me.

There were people looking at me.

9. ... to switch the fan to a higher volume.

... to switch the fan's knob to a cooler


position.

10. From time to time loud crushes ...

From time to time loud crashes ...

11. I could see the asian house.

I could see the ancient house.

12. I saw a human feature.

I saw a human figure.

13. ... intent on getting there revenge.

... intent on getting their revenge.

14. We changed into different clothings.

We changed into different clothes.

15. I agree to the statement that she made.

I agree with the statement that she made.

16. I came down the bus.

I came down from the bus.

15. We were chit chatting.

We were engaging in chitchat.

18. There were a lot people.

There were a lot of people.

19. Although it is late, but I will still come.

Although it is late I will still come.

20. I was awaiting my results.

I was waiting for my results.

21. The reporter was biased towards him, and


was always criticising him.

The reporter was biased against him, and


was always criticising him.

22. He complained about the biasness of the


reporter.

He complained about the reporter's bias.

23. I will bring you there.

I will take you there.

24. He was of medium built.

He was of medium build.

25. They were China-made.

They were Made in China.

26. He ran pasted me.

He ran past me.

27. Your essay is out of point.

Your essay is off the point.

28. What time do you reach home?

What time do you get home? (REACH implies


difficulty in attainment)

29. ... for her family members.

... for her family.

30. ... with my fellow schoolmates.

... with my schoolmates. (or "fellow


students")

31. Her mother is going to fetch her from


school.

Her mother is going to pick her up from


school. (FETCH is used for objects)

32. She was filial.

She had filial piety.

33. We arranged the furnitures.

We arranged the furniture.

34. I had to collect the equipments.

I had to collect the equipment.

35. There were three evidences.

There were three pieces of evidence.

36. She suffers from gastric.

She suffers from gastric problems.

37. He gave away the prizes.

He presented the prizes. (GAVE AWAY implies


they were free)

38. Let's go for a show.

Let's go to see a show.

39. We tried to go up the bus.

We tried to board the bus.

40. We went up the stage.

We went up onto the stage.

41. When I phoned her, they said that she


hadgone back already.

When I called her, they said that she had


already gone home.

42. They talked about the going-ons.


.

They talked about the goings-on.

43. Hand up your homework.

Hand in your work.

44. She was having a fever.

She was running a fever. (or HAD A FEVER)

45. Please help me to switch on the light.

Switch on the light for me. (PLEASE


HELPimplies that you are crippled and cannot do
it)

46. He was horning at me.

He was sounding his horn at me.

47. We tried to cope up with the problem.

We tried to cope with the problem.

48. I was considered as a real angel.

I was considered a real angel.

49. He was always dependant.

He was always dependent.

50. His standard has deproved.

His standard has gone down. (or DROPPED)

51. Irregardless of what has happened ...

Regardless of what has happened ...

52. My mother disallowed me from going out.

My mother forbade me to go out.

53. Her dressing was very attractive.

She dressed very attractively.

54. I dressed up in my school uniform.

I dressed in my school uniform. (DRESSED

UP implies using special care in dressing)


55. I want to emphasise on this point.

I want to emphasise this point. (or PUT


SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON)

56. ... even-thought she was French.

... even though she was French.

57. I have ever seen this before.

I have seen this before.

58. She had never being to Paris.

She had never been to Paris.

59. He was always demanding for help.

He was always calling for


help. (orREQUIRING)

60. They look forward to provide a friendly


service to customers...

They look forward to providing a friendly


service to customers...

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