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There are a series of English words which are frequently confused by students. This
article aims to identify them and correct those mistakes.
1. bring vs. take vs. carry vs. fetch
TO BRING (like "come") has the idea of movement towards the speaker.
TO TAKE (like "go") has the idea of movement away from the speaker.
TO CARRY has the idea of going somewhere with sth. in your arms or on your
back, transporting it.
TO FETCH implies going somewhere, collecting sth./s.o. and bringing it/him/her
back to the place you started from.
e.g. Bring the book here.
e.g. Take the cat there.
e.g. Two African girls were carrying food on their heads.
e.g. We should offer to fetch uncle Tony from the station.
2. critic vs. critique vs. review
A CRITIC is a person who writes about films, books, etc.
A CRITIQUE is a text which criticises s.o. else's ideas or policies.
A REVIEW is an article (by a critic) which evaluates a book, film, etc.
e.g. The film critic wrote a damning review about the movie.
e.g. I have just read an excellent critique of Shakespeare.
3. kill vs. murder vs. assassinate
TO KILL is the general word for taking the life of a person or animal.
TO MURDER is to kill deliberately and unlawfully.
TO ASSASSINATE means to murder s.o. who is famous.
e.g. A body-guard was killed when the terrorists tried to assassinate the
President.
Confusing Words
The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.
There are a series of English words which are frequently confused by students.
This article aims to identify them and correct those mistakes.
when they are clean they are called "plates". We use dish for a specific
combination of food.
e.g. Could you do the dishes and them put the clean plates away?
e.g. We need some more plates, could you fetch them?
e.g. Paella is my favourite dish.
7. economic vs. economical
Economic means "relating to the economy".
Economical means "cheap", "inexpensive".
e.g. His thesis was about long-term economic growth.
e.g. I think you'll find out products very economical.
8. efficient vs. effective
Efficient means "quick and "without waste".
Effective means "producing the result that you want"
e.g. This machine is very efficient, so you'll have a higher production in less time
with a lower electricity bill.
e.g. These pills are the most effective against headaches, though they
takeslightly longer to take effect.
9. floor vs. ground
The floor is what you walk on inside a building.
The ground is what you walk on outside a building.
e.g. Come indoors and clean the floor, will you?
e.g. In the morning the ground was frozen solid.
Adverbs
Adverbs can go at the beginning of a sentence, at the end, or before the verb:
Quickly Sarah raised her hand.
Sarah raised her hand quickly.
Sarah quickly raised her hand.
In other words we never put the adverb between the verb and its object.
ADVERBS OF MANNER go before the verb (IF THE ADVERB IS ONLY ONE WORD) or at
the end of the sentence and after the verb "to be". BEFORE THE VERB means "before the main
verb but after the auxiliary verb", if one is used. Nearly all adverbs ending -ly are adverbs of
manner.
e.g.:
She
was
never
happy
at
home.
e.g. Sarah happily raised her hand or Sarah raised her hand happily.
never)
go
before
the
verb
EVALUATING
ADVERBS are
placed
at
the
end
of
sentences.
in
class
yesterday or
However, adverbs (or adverbial phrases) of time are also often placed at the beginning of the
sentences for clarity. e.g.: Yesterday Sarah raised her hand quickly in class.
Adjectives
Adjectives usually go before the noun they describe. When there are several adjectives the order
is:
FIRST >>
more general
or
subjective
adjectives;
(e.g.
pretty,
nice).
LAST >> more specific and objective adjectives; (e.g. colours, styles, nationalities and
nouns used as adjectives). e.g. An exquisite, old carved wooden table; A long boring
technical book; An unbelievable ghost story.
If
two
adjectives
are EQUALLY
EXACT,
we
put
the
shorter
one
first.
The
indirect
object
is
usually
placed
before
the
direct
object.
However, if the indirect object is much longer than the direct object, the order is reversed.
e.g. They gave water to the thirsty Indian camels.
With some verbs the indirect object has to be used after the direct object. These
are:explain, describe, announce, introduce, suggest, propose and say.
e.g. They announced the name of the winner to the expectant people.
After as, how, so and too, the adjective comes before the indefinite article (a, an), if there
is
one.
e.g. It was so warm a day that we went swimming (= It was such a warm day .. ).
e.g. However well-trained your dog may be, you cannot bring him into the restaurant.
e.g. It was too generous an offer for me to refuse (= reject, not accept).
e.g. So superstitious were they that (they) always touched wood everywhere.
Glossary
raised: lift, put high in the air (e.g. when a child wants to answer a question in class)
carved: cut into an artistic shape
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize and express things you can count. For
example: "chair". You can count chairs. You can have one, two, three or more chairs
at home. Here are some more countable nouns: dog, cat, animal, man, person,
bottle, box, litre, coin, note, dollar, cup, plate, fork, table, chair, suitcase.
Countable nouns can be singular or plural: My cat is playing; My cats are hungry.
You can use the indefinite article A/AN with countable nouns: A cat is an animal.
When a countable noun is singular, you must use a word like A/THE/MY/THISwith it:
I want an orange. (not I want orange); Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?).
When a countable noun is plural, you can use it alone: I like oranges; Bottles can
break.
You can use SOME and ANY with countable nouns: I've got some dollars; Have
you got any pens?
You can use A FEW and MANY with countable nouns: I've got a few dollars; I
haven't got many pens.
TIP
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts, etc. that you cannot divide into
separate elements. You cannot "count" them. For example, you cannot count "milk".
You can count "bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but YOU CANNOT COUNT "milk"
itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns: music, art, love, happiness, advice,
information, news, furniture, luggage, sugar, butter, water, electricity, gas, power,
money (YOU CANNOT SAY: one money, two moneys, BUT you can say: ONE
dollar note, TWO dollar notes).
You usually consider uncountable nouns as singular. In that case, you must use
aSINGULAR VERB. For example: This news is very important; Your
luggagelooks heavy.
You do not usually use the indefinite article A/AN with uncountable nouns. You
CANNOT SAY "an information" or "a music". But you can say a "something" of: a
piece of news, a bottle of water, a grain of rice, a can of Coke, etc.
You can use SOME and ANY with uncountable nouns: I've got some money; I
need some water; Have you got any rice?
You can use A LITTLE and MUCH with uncountable nouns: I've got a littlemoney; I
haven't got much rice.
TIP
Drinks (coffee, water, juices, etc.) are usually uncountable. But if you are
thinking of a cup/glass, we can also say: Two teas and one coffee, please.
COUNTABLE
NOUNS
UNCOUNTABLE
hair
light
light!
Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise.
noise
paper
room
time
work
Past Contrast
The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.
English has nine tenses for talking about past time. The objective of this article is to clarify the dif
between these tenses by comparing them. It is not suitable as an introduction to the past but rath
be used as a general perspective when all (or most) of the tenses have been learned independen
The PAST SIMPLE (DID, PAINTED) refers to past time and there is no association with the
present. Usually "when" is important in a past simple sentence. Either we say explicitly "when" or
we assume (presume, suppose) that the other person knows "when".
TENSE MARKERS (words that suggest the use of a specific verbal tense):
yesterday, ago, last (week, month, year, etc.), then, when, once,
in (1970, 2000), at (12 o'clock, tea-time), on (Monday), etc.
The PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE (HAVE DONE, HAS PAINTED) always tells you something
about "now". If we explicitly say when something happened, we cannot use the Present Perfect.
A good way to test if the Present Perfect Simple should be used is to ask yourself if you can
TENSE MARKERS:
for, already, yet, still, always, never, ever, lately, recently,
today, this week, this month, this year, so far, up to now.
The two tenses can often be used to describe the same event, but the focus is different:
e.g. I have lost my glasses ( = I don't have my glasses now, and I can't read this to you).
e.g. I lost my glasses last night ( = it was last night when I lost my glasses, so I didn't leave
them on the bus. Perhaps I found them just this morning).
On TV and papers news is usually presented in the Present Perfect. After that, the details (when?
where? why? how?) are given in the past simple:
e.g. The ex-Prime Minister has been assassinated. He was killed in front of his home by a
gunman at 10:00 last night.
Just to confuse things, the British and Americans use these tenses differently when referring to
something that happened very recently. In British English you say have just done while in
American English you say just did:
e.g. Markus has just. ( = UK English); Brad just left. ( = US English)
TENSE MARKERS:
How much...? How many...?
Numbers (100 miles, 18 cigarettes, two coffees), always, ever.
The PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS (HAVE BEEN DOING, HAS BEEN EATING) focuses on
the activity, the result of the activity. Whether it is completed or not is not important. This verbal
tense often refers to activities which have recently finished.
TENSE MARKER:
How long...?
e.g. I have been driving all day. I have driven 300 km.
e.g. a) I have been cleaning the house (that's why my clothes are dirty); b) I have
The PAST CONTINUOUS (WAS DOING, WERE EATING) is a dependent tense. It usually refers
to an action in progress at a particular moment, or when something else occurred (in the Past
Simple):
e.g. I cut my finger while I was preparing the pizza ( = I was preparing the pizza before I cut
my finger, at the time I cut my finger and, probably, after cutting my finger).
However, it is possible to use two sentences in the Past Continuous together if two events which
happened over a period of time coincided (simultaneous actions):
e.g. While I was cleaning the house, he was enjoying herself in the pub !!
The Past Continuous is used for temporary situations. If a situation is more permanent, we use
either the Past Simple or Used to (please, refer to rule # 7 underneath).
The Past Continuous is not used for talking about habits. For habits we use either the Past Simple
or Used to.
The PAST PERFECT SIMPLE (HAD DONE, HAD EATEN) tells you that one thing in the past
happened before another thing in the past. If we list events in chronological order we usually use
the Past Simple.
The Past Perfect Simple is used to clarify the sequence of events when we break that
chronological order.
TENSE MARKERS:
just, already, before, when, how many times...?
e.g. When Paul arrived at the theatre his girlfriend had already left.
The PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS (HAD BEEN DOING, HAD BEEN EATING) has the same
relationship to the Past Perfect Simple as the Present Perfect Continuous does to the Present
Perfect Simple.
The Past Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an activity which took place a certain period of
time before something else happened.
The important thing is not the result but the activity. We are interested in the continuity or duration
TENSE MARKER:
How long...?
e.g. Tony looked tired. He had been working all day. He had written three chapters of his
new novel.
The PAST OF INTENTION (WAS GOING TO DO, WERE GOING TO EAT) expresses what
someone planned or intended to do in the past. Usually this plan was never fulfilled (completed,
performed) becaue something convinced the person to do something else.
e.g. I was going to fly to New York by Concord but after the accident I decided to go in a
regular flight.
USED TO (negative, DIDN'T USE) emphasizes that something happened regularly over a period
of time, but does not happen now.
e.g. I used to smoke when I was younger (but I don't any more).
USED TO cannot be used to say how often something happened:
e.g. We went to Africa three times in my childhood (not "we used to go to Africa three
times..."),
USED TO canot be used with specific time periods (e.g. "for five years"):
e.g. England controlled parts of France for over four centuries (not "used to control...").
WOULD can be used to talk about past routine. With WOULD we have to mention a specific time
(if not, it sounds like a conditional).
USED TO is used to talk about past routine (discontinued habits and past states), and is much
more common in modern English. Always remember this: IF YOU ARE IN DOUBT USE "USED
TO".
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
Gerund or Infinitive?
The meaning of highlighted words is explained at the end of the passage.
c. Stop
Stop + gerund means that you interrupt the activity mentioned in the gerund:
You must stop smoking.
However, stop + infinitive means that you interrupt the activity that you are doing to do the
GENERAL REVISION
The past simple tense and past participle of all regular verbs end in -ed. For example:
base verb
(1)
past simple
(2)
past participle
(3)
work
worked
worked
In addition, many adjectives are made from the past participle and so end in -ed. For
example: I like painted furniture (represented in a painting); He likes naked paintings
(completely unclothed); He was a wicked old man (morally bad).
PRONUNCIATION OF -ED
We can pronounce the -ED form of the past simple and past participle in THREE different
ways: /id/ or /t/ or /d/
The chart below can help you to understand the differences.
Example
with -ed:
Pronounce
the -ed:
Extra
syllable?
UNVOICED
want
wanted
/id/
yes
/t/
VOICED
/d/
end
ended
/p/
hope
hoped
/f/
laugh
laughed
/s/
fax
faxed
/t/
UNVOICED
VOICED
/S/
wash
washed
/tS/
watch
watched
/k/
like
liked
play
played
allow
allowed
beg
begged
no
/d/
(*) Note that it is the SOUND that is important, not the letter or spelling. For example, "fax"
ends in the letter "x" but the sound /s/; "like" ends in the letter "e" but the sound /k/.
EXCEPTIONS
Please, remember that the following adjectives ending in -ED are always pronounced
with/id/:
AGED
DOGGED
RAGGED
BLESSED
LEARNED
WICKED
CROOKED
NAKED
WRETCHED
Direct Speech is common in novels, in plays (theatrical pieces) and when giving quotes(repetition
of famous phrases). However Indirect Speech is more normal in live conversation, in reports and
academic work. Moreoever you need to know how to use Indirect Speech if you are going to do an
exam in English.
The conversion from Direct Speech to Indirect Speech (or Reported Speech) is particularly
appropiate for transformation exercises, such as those in FCE (Cambridge First Certificate),
Paper Three.
Underneath you will find a CONVERSION TABLE (from Direct Speech to Reported Speech and
viceversa) which we hope you find useful and practical.
INDIRECT STATEMENTS
Occasionally the reporting verb (e.g. he says, he tells me, etc.) is in the present. In this case,
pronouns will change in Indirect Speech, but the tenses in the reported clause stay the same:
DIRECT SPEECH: He says, "I will do it".
REPORTED SPEECH: He says that he will do it.
However, it is much more common that the reporting verb is in the past (she said, she told me,
etc.). In this case the tenses in the reported clause have to change. The changes of tense are
governed by what we call the "ONE-TENSE-BACK" RULE. This simply says that the tense of the
verb has to go one tense further into the past, as this Conversion Table shows:
DIRECT SPEECH
REPORTED SPEECH
Present Simple
Past Simple
Past Simple
Future Simple
Conditional
Future Perfect
Perfect Conditional
Conditional
Past of Intention
DIRECT
SPEECH
REPORTED
SPEECH
can
could
may
might
must
must / had to
However, other auxiliary verbs (could, would, should, might, ought to, used
to andmustn't) have no past form and so they do not change. Some examples:
could
DIRECT SPEECH: He said, "I could fly because the weather was fine".
REPORTED SPEECH: He said he could fly because the weather was fine.
ought to DIRECT SPEECH: They said, "We ought to pay him a better salary".
REPORTED SPEECH: They said they ought to pay him a better salary.
used to
OMISSION OF "THAT"
It is possible to omit the relative pronoun that after the reporting verb (he said that...; he
told that...). In general, USE this relative pronoun when you are writing and OMIT it when
you are speaking.
1. Use SAY when the person spoken to is not mentioned in the sentence: e.g. I said I was
angry.
2. Use TELL when the person spoken to is given: e.g. I told him I was angry.
DIRECT
SPEECH
REPORTED
SPEECH
this
that or the
these
those or the
here
there
now
then
ago
before
today
that day
this morning
that morning
last week
last month
last year
next week
next month
next year
yesterday
tomorrow
REPORTED QUESTIONS
1. Indirect questions are just a special case of reported statements. When the reporting
verb is in the past the one-tense back rule applies in the same way. The difference is that
we have to change the word order because the reported clause is not a question
anymore. If the reported clause uses the auxiliary verb do/did, these disappear. And you
must use the conjunction if ( = on the condition that; supposing that).
e.g. She asked, "Do you work on Saturdays?".
She asked me IF I WORKED on Saturdays. (We don't say: She asked me do you work on
Saturdays).
2. If the reported clause has an inverted verb this inversion is reversed.
e.g. He asked, "Can I come?".
He asked me IF HE COULD COME.
e.g. Helen asked, "Can I make a phone call?".
Helen asked IF SHE COULD MAKE a phone call.
e.g. Jim asked, "Should I buy that book?".
Jim asked IF HE SHOULD BUY that book.
PLEASE, REMEMBER THIS: In colloquial style you can use the conjunction if instead
ofwhether (pronounced as uder and also translated as "si" in Spanish), but in formal
English you must use whether: Jim asked WHETHER HE SHOULD BUY that book (OR
NOT).
3. If the direct question includes a question word (i.e. how, when, where, who, why, etc.)
this question word is used in the reported question. If it does not, we use if or whether:
VERBS
English
Spanish
advise
command
compel
expect
instruct
invite
order
persuade
recommend
give an advice
order
force, oblige
look forward
give instructions
offer someone an invitation
tell someone to do something
cause someone to do something
give a recommendation
aconsejar
ordenar
forzar, obligar
esperar
instruir
invitar
ordenar
persuadir
recomendar
remind
request
urge
warn
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Verbs such as SUGGEST, PROPOSE, RECOMMEND are used to make
recommendations. If the speaker includes himself/herself in the recommended action,
we use the -ING FORM (gerund) in the reported clause:
e.g. Ana suggested, "Why don't we go to the park".
Ana suggested going to the park. (Ana included herself in the suggestion)
2. However, if the speaker does not include himself/herself in the suggestion, we use
a "THAT" CLAUSE:
e.g. Ana suggested, "Why don't you go to the park".
Ana suggested that I should go to the park. (Ana didn't include herself in the suggestion)
3. With these verbs we can use the present subjunctive (e.g. "go") or should (e.g.: "should
go") in the reported clause:
e.g. Ana proposed that we go to the park
park
or
VIRGO (22 August - 21 September) is adaptable. On the one hand, Virgo is servile,
obedient,shy and humble. On the other, Virgo is very analytical and practical. S/he is rational,
logical and methodical, though sometimes a little sceptical. Virgo is also hardworking. At the
same time, Virgo is a perfectionist. When s/he applies this characteristic to the work and habits
of others, Virgo can be demanding, picky, and petty. Despite this, Virgo is generally a good
friend since s/he is honest, truthful and reliable.
LIBRA (22 September - 22 October) is balanced - harmony and beauty are important to
her/him. S/he is generally easy-going and carefree. People sopmetimes think that this attitude
to life is because Libra is lazy. Libra is often intellectual and inquisitive. On a good day, Libra is
charming, however, s/he can also be spiteful.
SCORPIO (23 October- 21 November) can be either spiritual or scatological. S/he is
energetic and strong-willed. Taken to an extreme, Scorpio can become authoritarian,
intolerant and narrow-minded. However, if Scorpio's ideas conflict with the established
authority, s/he will be rebellious and undisciplined. Scorpio's conflictive nature means that s/he
is at times aggressive, and even sadistic. Scorpio is often self-destructive. Even if these
extremes are not reached, Scorpio is often irritable. If Scorpio is aware of his/her conflictive
nature, s/he may become withdrawn. In any case, s/he is always forthright and never
insincere.
SAGITTARIUS (22 November -20 December) is a visionary and an optimist. S/he is energetic,
enthusiastic, forthright and open but these characteristics can also mean that Sagittarius can
be tactless and hot-blooded. S/he can be playful and light-hearted but his/her time is also spent
in the serious pursuit of meaning and freedom.
CAPRICORN (21 December - 19 January) is a control-freak. S/he is determined, disciplined
and ambitious. As a controller Capricorn is usually sensible, patient, stable and thoughtfuI.
However, s/he can also be pessimistic and even moody.
AQUARIUS (20 January - 18 February) likes groups. S/he is humane and is often gentle,
compassionate and understanding. S/he is intellectual but also idealist and spiritual. At the
same time, s/he can be unpredictable and eccentric. Aquarius is usually lively but can also
bestubborn a times.
PISCES (19 February 20 March) is humane, generous and even sometimes selfless.
However, s/he is also capable of being emotional and temperamental. This means that Pisces
often comes across as unstable, fickle and weak-willed. Pisces is very sensitive and, at
times, impressionable. Her/his sensitivity can mean that s/he is melancholic.
GLOSSARY
self-conscious: insecure
self-righteous: smug, sanctimonious, selfsatisfied, superior
shy: timid
humble: modest
WRONG
1. Everyday, he gets up early.
RIGHT
Every day, he gets up early. (EVERYDAY is an
3. This is a scene describing a natural disaster. This is a scene showing a natural disaster.
4. He was wearing a long pants.