Petroleum systems of Oman: AUTHORS

J. M. J. Terken ⬃ NAM Business Unit Gas

Charge timing and risks Land, Beekweg 31, Postbus 1, 7760AA
Schoonebeek, Netherlands;
J. M. J. Terken, N. L. Frewin, and S. L. Indrelid j.m.j.terken@nam.nl
Jos J. M. Terken joined Shell in 1982 and has
worked in the Netherlands, Brunei, New
Zealand, and Indonesia. In 1993 he joined
ABSTRACT Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) as a
After 35 years of exploration, creaming of the conventional plays senior review geologist/basin modeler in the
in Oman is nearly complete, and consequently, the search has com- regional studies team. In close cooperation
with the geochemistry group he modeled and
menced for new, less obvious plays. Many of the new opportunities
mapped the petroleum systems of Oman.
occur beyond the known hydrocarbon provinces and are considered
Since November 1999 he has been a senior
to have significant charge risks. To define these risks, extensive basin production geologist for the Nederlandse
modeling studies have been conducted in recent years. Aardolie Maatschappij in the Netherlands. Jos
Modeling and empirical data show that Mesozoic and Cenozoic received an M.Sc. degree in geology/
kitchen areas are restricted to western north Oman, the only areas sedimentology from the University of Utrecht
currently buried at their maximum temperature. Large parts of in 1982.
north and central Oman depend on lateral migration from these
N. L. Frewin ⬃ Petroleum Development
kitchens for their charge. Progressive uplift of the east flank and
Oman; n.l.frewin@shell.com
basin inversion since the middle Paleozoic provides favorable con-
ditions for long-distance migration in the post-Carboniferous inter- Neil L. Frewin is currently a member of Shell
val. In central Oman, geochemical tracer molecules (benzocarba- International’s technology innovation team in
the Netherlands. Before 2001, he was senior
zoles) suggest that a north-south–trending, reactivated basement
petroleum geochemist for PDO, where he led
grain has funneled charge up to 300 km southeastward. Charge risks
the hydrocarbon modeling group. Prior to
increase in the deeper sequence, in which eastward migrating hy- being posted to PDO in 1997, he worked for
drocarbons have to traverse the Ghaba salt basin, a pronounced Shell International in the Netherlands as a
syncline at depths greater than 3 km. The south Oman salt basin is research geochemist. He holds a B.Sc. degree
currently cool because of shallow depths and hydrodynamic fluid- in geology from the University of Wales and a
flow activity. The shallow post-Cambrian reservoirs rely on storage Ph.D. in geology/geochemistry from the
of early (Cambrian–Ordovician) charge by the Ara salt (Cambrian) University of London. Neil spent a
sequence, followed by release of hydrocarbons as the salt edge re- postdoctoral year researching biomarker
treats through time. technologies at Delft University and NIOZ, the
Basin modeling has outlined the extent of the different petro- Netherlands.
leum systems and provided us with risk maps to guide our next S. L. Indrelid ⬃ Petroleum Development
exploration phase. It has revitalized some of the mature plays, for Oman; sarah.s.l.indrelid@pdo.co.om
instance the Gharif Formation, where oil exploration is now fo-
Sarah L. Indrelid joined Shell in 1993. Prior to
cused along Late Cretaceous and Tertiary migration paths. Deeper being posted to PDO in 1998, she worked for
sections are envisaged to have significant scope for gas. Shell International in the Netherlands as a
research geologist on thermal and pressure
modeling. After one year as senior basin
INTRODUCTION modeler in the hydrocarbon modeling group
she is currently a senior production geologist
After almost four decades of intense exploration, many of the tra- for PDO. She holds a B.A. degree in natural
ditional plays in the Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) acreage sciences from the University of Cambridge
and a Ph.D. in geology from the University of
Oxford.
Copyright 䉷2001. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received September 7, 1999; revised manuscript received October 23, 2000; final acceptance
January 8, 2001.

AAPG Bulletin, v. 85, no. 10 (October 2001), pp. 1817–1845 1817


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the contributions of various
PDO geoscientists, notably Ramon Loosveld,
Peter Nederlof, Mike Naylor, Jean Borgomano,
Wiekert Visser, Geert Konert, Jeroen Peters,
Joachim Amthor, Paul Tricker, and Pascal
Richard. We thank the Newcastle Research
Group, in particular Steve Larter and Baz
Bennett, for geochemical analyses and discus-
sions. Jeremy Dahl and Mike Moldowan at
Stanford University are acknowledged for dia-
mondoid analyses. Geochemists at Shell’s re-
search and technology group (SEPTAR) in the
Netherlands are acknowledged for numerous
reliable analyses over 20 years and continuing
discussions on Oman’s petroleum systems. In
particular, we thank Math Kohnen, Jan
Kleingeld, Kees Kommeren, and Johan
Buiskool Toxopeus for their extensive input.
Christopher Kendall, R. Scolaro, and especially
Gerard Demaison are thanked for their con-
structive reviews. We wish to thank the Minis-
try of Oil and Gas of the Sultanate of Oman
for permission to publish this article.
1818 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman
(Figure 1) are strongly creamed (Figure 2a), and in recent years the
search has commenced for other less obvious plays and subtler trap
styles. In north Oman, this led to exploration for structural traps
along Ara salt diapir stocks in the Early Cambrian Ghaba salt basin
(Faulkner, 1998) and for stratigraphic traps in turbidites of the Up-
per Cretaceous Fiqa Formation and alluvial/coastal deposits of the
Late Ordovician–Early Silurian Upper Haima Supergroup (Ghu-
dun and Safiq formations) (Figure 3) in the Late Cretaceous fore-
land basin and the Early Cambrian Fahud salt basin, respectively
(Partington et al., 1998). In south Oman, interest was renewed in
intra-Ara salt stringers in the south Oman salt basin of Early Cam-
brian age (Boserio et al., 1995; Amthor et al., 1998a; Reinhardt et
al., 1998). Many of these frontier opportunities occur beyond the
known hydrocarbon provinces and are considered to have signifi-
cant oil and gas charge risks (Figure 2b). To define the risks in new
plays and determine the remaining scope in our conventional play
portfolio, extensive basin modeling studies have been conducted in
recent years (Terken, 1999; Terken and Frewin, 1999).
Comprehensive hydrocarbon habitat studies have been carried
out for 20 years and concentrated initially on the Early Cambrian
south Oman salt basin (Al-Marjeby and Nash, 1984). Here, a
unique habitat was recognized across the east flank of this basin
(Figure 1), which was only fully understood once fission track (FT)
data (Gleadow et al., 1983; Green et al., 1989) resolved the thermal
history (Visser, 1991; Indrelid and Terken, 2000). The data showed
that hydrocarbon generation from presalt Precambrian and intrasalt
Lower Cambrian source rocks predated final entrapment by up to
400 m.y. It also highlighted the factor of Ara salt dissolution due
to hydrodynamic fluid-flow activity on trap formation and retreat
of the salt edge on charge timing (Konert et al., 1991). With the
discovery of large gas and condensate reserves in the Early Cam-
brian Fahud and Ghaba salt basins (Figure 1) in the early 1990s
(Figure 2), the focus of these studies shifted to north and central
Oman.
In recent years, increased computer power and availability of
regional seismic maps have permitted us to model the burial and
thermal histories in three dimensions and to calibrate the models
using FT data and maturity estimates derived from marine source
rocks, solid hydrocarbons, and oils. Integration with our geochem-
ical knowledge of source rocks and recovered or produced hydro-
carbon samples allowed us to locate the paleo and recent “hydro-
carbon” kitchen areas and to retrace the hydrocarbon migration
routes. Mapping the extent of the different petroleum systems has
outlined and confirmed the areas with higher charge risks, an im-
portant economic outcome of this investigation. Meanwhile, our
understanding of diagenetic sequences in reservoirs (Amthor et al.,
1998b), of the current temperature and salinity fields (Lamki and
Terken, 1996), and of the structural history (Loosveld et al., 1996)
highlighted the importance of hydrodynamic fluid-flow activity
on oil quality and hydrocarbon migration. This understanding al-
lowed the mapping of areas affected by oil biodegradation and the
Figure 1. Location map with structural setting superimposed on top Nafun Group (Buah Formation, late Precambrian) depth map.
The map shows the different basins, map areas, and cross sections discussed in the text. Contours are in kilometers.

Terken et al. 1819

1820
Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman
Figure 2. Creaming curves (a) and oil and gas fields of the conventional and frontier plays (b). Outlines mark the areas in which a high charge risk was assumed to exist for
the new frontier plays (b). UR ⳱ ultimate recoverable.
Figure 3. Stratigraphy, petroleum geology, and oil types of Oman.
mapping of the stratigraphic levels that endured high
formation temperatures where oil has cracked to gas.
This article summarizes multiple investigations that
permitted us to identify and quantify the different pe-
troleum systems and helped determine the remaining
hydrocarbon potential in our conventional portfolio as
well as the exploration potential of the frontier plays.
The three-dimensional (3-D) basin modeling was car-
ried out using Shell’s proprietary software IBS (Her-
mans et al., 1992; Giles et al., 1999).
REGIONAL SETTING AND STRATIGRAPHY
Oman lies along the eastern margin of the Arabian
plate (Figure 1) and was until the Early Triassic part of
the Gondwana continent (Loosveld et al., 1996). The
gradual breakup of this huge landmass has greatly in-
fluenced the tectonic setting and is responsible for
the many unconformities found in the stratigraphy
(Figure 3).
The oldest sequence is the prerift Abu Mahara and
Nafun succession of the late Precambrian, which is pre-
dominantly made up of siliciclastics and carbonates
(Gorin et al., 1982; Hughes-Clarke, 1988). Tectonism
during the Early Cambrian resulted in the formation
of fault basins filled with thick Ara Group evaporites,
siliceous source rocks, shales, and late synrift clastics
of the Lower Haima Supergroup (Husseini and Hus-
seini, 1990; Boserio et al., 1995; Droste, 1997). In
north Oman, onlapping marginal marine siliciclastic
sediments with occasional limestones of the Late
Cambrian–Early Silurian Upper Haima Supergroup
overlie this rift sequence and represent the postrift sag-
ging in the Ghaba salt basin. In south Oman, the Upper
Haima sediments are largely absent because basin con-
traction caused uplift of the basin’s east flank and ero-
sion during the Ordovician. Uplift and erosion of the
east flank spread to the north during the Devonian–
Carboniferous, resulting in a major stratigraphic
unconformity.
Because of this unconformity, the Haima Super-
group (Middle Cambrian–Early Silurian) sediments are
unconformably overstepped by the glacial, continental,
and shallow marine siliciclastics of the Permian–
Carboniferous Haushi Group and finally by fully ma-
rine transgressive carbonates of the Akhdar Group
(Late Permian–Early Triassic). Uplift and erosion of
Terken et al. 1821
the latter sediments in the north and east have been
associated with renewed rifting and thermal doming.
This ultimately led to the separation of the Iranian and
Lut cratons from the Gondwana continent (Blendinger
et al., 1990). Tilting of the flanks caused down-to-the-
basin gravity gliding and renewed inversion of the
Early Cambrian salt basins. In the Ghaba salt basin
proper, this led to salt doming above reactivated base-
ment fault zones. In south Oman, it triggered extensive
salt dissolution and development of a peripheral syn-
cline along the east flank of the salt basin. Platform
carbonates are characteristic of the Mesozoic Sahtan,
Kahmah, and Wasia groups and represent a passive
margin succession that bordered the neo-Tethys Ocean
(Hughes-Clarke, 1988; Le Metour et al., 1995). This
transgression reached south Oman only in the middle
Cretaceous, resulting in the deposition of the Nahr
Umr Formation (lower Wasia Group).
Opening of the Atlantic Ocean during the Late
Cretaceous led to closure of the neo-Tethys Ocean,
obduction of oceanic crust, and finally to southward
thrust stacking in the Oman Mountains (Bechennec et
al., 1995; Tj. Peters et al., 1995; Loosveld et al., 1996).
The foredeep that developed in front of the orogen was
filled with deep-marine Fiqa shales of Late Cretaceous
age that onlap the peripheral foreland bulge in the
south (Boote et al., 1990; Warburton et al., 1990). De-
velopment of a new subduction zone offshore south-
east of Iran brought temporary relaxation during the
early Tertiary and also Eocene Umm er Radhuma lime-
stone deposition (Le Metour et al., 1995). Foreland
basin sedimentation resumed, however, when conti-
nent-continent collision occurred along the Zagros su-
ture during the middle Tertiary. Compression since the
middle Tertiary has caused folding and uplift of the
Oman Mountains and further tilting of the east flank
of the salt basins, which has led to renewed down-to-
the-basin gravity gliding and active Lower Cambrian
Ara salt diapirism (Loosveld et al., 1996).
Finally, in south Oman, the Gulf of Aden rift be-
gan developing during the early Oligocene following
late Eocene uplift (Bott et al., 1992). Sea-floor spread-
ing began in the late Miocene and led to the separation
of the Arabian craton from the African continent.
DATABASE AND METHODOLOGY
Our copious data sets document several distinct petro-
leum systems. Type, quality, and distribution of oils,
gases, and source rocks are in most cases well defined
1822 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman
and supported by continuing geochemical research
over many years. The basic techniques have been de-
scribed by Lijmbach et al. (1983) and Peters and Mol-
dawan (1993). Recent advances in geochemistry, such
as the use of benzocarbazoles as indicators of relative
migration distances (Larter et al., 1996), have permit-
ted us to retrace migration routes back to their source
areas. This highlighted in one case the importance of
long-distance migration in Oman (Terken and Frewin,
1999). New biomarkers, such as triaromatic steroids
and dinorhopane, have helped us to discriminate be-
tween the different oils and source rocks within the late
Precambrian Nafun and Early Cambrian Ara salt-rich
sequences in south Oman (M. E. L. Kohnen, 1998,
personal communication).
An extensive FT database, vitrinite reflectance es-
timates, and detailed diagenetic sequence studies in
reservoirs (Amthor et al., 1998b; K. Juhasz-Bodnar et
al., 1999, unpublished data) have provided time/
temperature and time/depth constraints to recon-
struct the burial and thermal histories.
Kinetic experiments by Shell Research demon-
strated significant differences in activation energies be-
tween late Precambrian and Early Cambrian source
rocks that allowed us to accurately model their sepa-
rate generation histories. In north Oman, paragenesis
studies of bitumen and pyrobitumen in reservoirs
helped to unravel the early charge history (Huc et al.,
2000). Reservoir salinities in some 50 wells, and 1500
(corrected) formation temperatures in more than 500
exploration wells were used to outline the current hy-
drodynamic fluid-flow activity (Lamki and Terken,
1996). This present-day pattern was combined with
our knowledge of the tectonic evolution to recon-
struct the historical fluid-flow evolution within the
recognized petroleum systems.
Extensive two-dimensional (278,000 km) and
3-D (33,000 km2) seismic data sets provided the 11
regional structural maps that were used together with
3 reconstructed depth maps that considered maxi-
mum burial levels prior to major Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
and Tertiary erosional events (Figure 3). Early Cam-
brian Ara salt isopach and heat-flow maps were re-
constructed for successive time slices to model the salt
movement and thermal flux histories. The present-day
geothermal field, which is controlled by foreland basin
development in the north and rifting in the Gulf of
Aden in the south, was used to reconstruct the Late
Cretaceous to Holocene thermal history (Lamki and
Terken, 1996) In contrast, the early Paleozoic thermal
history reflects a rifting phase in the Early Cambrian
Ghaba salt basin and south Oman salt basin (Fig-
ure 1), which was also considered in the thermal
modeling.
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF OMAN
Determination of Genetic Oil Types, Mixing, and
Alteration
In the identification of charge risks in frontier areas
and remaining prospectivity in mature basins, source
rock/oil correlations and discrimination between ge-
netic oil families are key elements because they form
the foundation for the description and mapping of
distinct petroleum systems. These elements are par-
ticularly important in Oman because several sets of
major source rocks exist, ranging in age from Precam-
brian to Cretaceous (Figure 3); all have contributed
to the charging of economically significant oil fields.
Five end-member oil families have been discrimi-
nated through differences in molecular and isotopic
fingerprints (Figure 4), (Al-Ruwehy and Frewin,
1998). Two distinct oil families are derived from the
late Precambrian–Early Cambrian Huqf Supergroup
(the Huqf oils and Q oils). Two oil families are gen-
erated from Mesozoic source rocks, Late Jurassic
(Callovian–Kimmeridgian) and middle Cretaceous
(Aptian) Shuaiba/Tuwaiq oils and middle Cretaceous
(Cenomanian–Turonian) Natih oils. The only oil
family that cannot be linked to a specific source rock
is the so-called B oil family. In identifying these dis-
tinct oil families and combining geochemical infor-
mation with the geological framework and detailed
charge modeling, it is possible to outline the strati-
graphical and geographical extent of the petroleum
systems of Oman (Figure 5). This exercise can delin-
eate broad exploration targets and rank them accord-
ing to their economic charge potential.
The undisputed basic classification of Oman’s
hydrocarbons is commonly obscured by mixing of
the different oils during secondary migration from
their respective source areas along long and some-
times complex migration paths. In-house experi-
ments by Shell Research have revealed that mixing
between end members occurs along linear trends.
Contributions from several original oil types in co-
sourced reservoired oils can be effectively estimated
using modern geochemical investigative techniques
(Figure 4).
Figure 4. Different oil types
of Oman based on C27-sterane
content and total oil carbon iso-
tope value. Experiments reveal
mixing occurs along linear
trends between oil end mem-
bers. Coding in circles refers to
the oil composition of the ana-
lyzed mixtures. Only Natih oil
(Cretaceous), Shuaiba/Tuwaiq
oil (Jurassic), and Q, and north
Oman Huqf oils (both late
Precambrian–Early Cambrian)
have been used in the mixing
experiments. Cracked oils (late
Precambrian–Early Cambrian),
B oil (possibly Silurian), and
south Oman Huqf oil (late
Precambrian–Early Cambrian)
show only limited mixing and
were excluded.
Terken et al. 1823
Figure 5. Distributions of the
different oil types in Oman out-
line the geographical extent of
their petroleum systems. e.
Prec.–L. Camb. ⳱ early Pre-
cambrian to Late Cambrian.

Extract analyses of bitumen and microscopy stud-
ies of pyrobitumen indicate that thermal cracking of
liquid hydrocarbons trapped in deeply buried reser-
voirs and source rocks is a major contributor to the gas
reserves found in north Oman. Furthermore it also in-
dicates that cracked Huqf and Q oils are the main con-
tributors to these gas accumulations (Huc et al., 2000).
Light oils and condensates reveal partly or completely
degraded biomarker contents and indicate thermal
cracking of reservoired oils to commence at tempera-
tures of around 130⬚C. Thermal cracking ultimately is
expected to cause a complete breakdown of liquid hy-
drocarbons and generation of dry gas at temperatures
of around 180⬚C. Besides degradation and diminution
of the biomarker content in very light oils and conden-
sates, thermal cracking also affects the total oil d13C
isotope value. It has been observed to drop from lighter
than ⳮ30‰ in Huqf and Q oils to around ⳮ26‰ in

1824 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman

light oils/condensates and even as low as ⳮ20‰ in dry

Compounds
gas (Huc et al., 2000).

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes
No
No

No
X
Existing Oil Families and Their Related Source Rocks

Oil Characteristics

C27 Ⳮ C28
C28 Ⳮ C29

C27 Ⳮ C29
Sterane(s)
Dominant
Huqf Oil Family (Derived from Late Precambrian–Early
Cambrian Source Rocks)

C29
C29
C29

C29
C27
The broadly named Huqf oil family is derived from late
Precambrian–Early Cambrian source rocks. They are

26**–30†
Total Oil

35–40
35–40
34–39

33–35
29–31
26–28
26–27
characterized by a distinct C29-dominated sterane dis-

d13C
tribution and can be subdivided into south Oman Huqf
oils (around ⳮ36‰) and north Oman Huqf oils
(around ⳮ34‰), based on differences in whole oil

218–240 Buah/Shuram
d13C isotope values (Figure 4; Table 1). The lighter

Activation Energy

192–229 Shuaiba*
Source Rock
isotope values in the north could result from higher oil

(kJ/mol)

192–229 Hanifa
180–220 Athel
maturities. Huqf oils are also characterized by a ho-

⬎220–250*
197–240 U
mologous series of long-chain, methyl-substituted al-

192–229*
218–240
197–240
kanes (or so-called X compounds), which have been
identified elsewhere in oils of late Precambrian age
(Guit et al., 1995; Summons et al., 1998a, b).

Oxygen Index
Extract analyses indicate the Huqf oils to be
Table 1. Source Rock Characteristics Used in the Modeling and the Main Differences between the Oils

20–70

20–70
20–70
20–40
mainly derived from Early Cambrian intrasalt source

?
rocks of the Ara Group, but in places also from presalt
Nafun Group source rocks of late Precambrian age
(Figure 3). Statistical evaluation of detailed biomarker
Present-Day
Source Rock Characteristics

Hydrogen

200–800
300–800
⬍50–900

50–700
parameters by cluster analysis has permitted the sub-
Index

⬍50

⬍50
division of Huqf oils into three end members sourced
by, respectively, the Precambrian presalt Buah and
Shuram formations (Nafun Group), the Early Cam-
brian intrasalt Al Shomou Formation (Ara Group), and
Hydrogen

500–900

500–900
500–900
300–800
300–800
Original

Index

the U-Shale Formation (Ara Group). Rock-Eval anal-

?
yses and measured activation energies indicate that in-
trasalt siliceous Al Shomou Formation (or Athel sili-
Thickness (m)

cilyte) source rocks generate large volumes of oil at

Source Rock

50–400

50–500

relatively low temperatures (Table 1). The organic

50–00
50

50

?
matter in these source rocks consists predominantly of
type II/I kerogen, and the total organic carbon (TOC)
content measures up to 7%. Initial hydrogen indices
Max/Ave TOC

average around 600, but in places exceed 800 mg HC/

g TOC. Thicknesses of these source rocks are variable
15/5
7/4

7/4
8/5

6/4

–/3
(%)

and are known to range between 20 and 400 m (Bos-

erio et al., 1995; Amthor et al., 1998a; Reinhardt et
al., 1998). Most of the Huqf oils are sourced from these
Kerogen

salt-associated carbonate and siliceous source rocks,

Type

I(/II)

**B cracked oils (condensates).

II/I

II/I

I/II
II/I

and their extent is assumed to be constrained by the

*Assumed activation energy.
II

B oils from source rock.

Ara salt sequence itself. Calculations of the source po-

Shuaiba/Tuwaiq

tential index (SPI) of the Ara and Nafun source rocks

show the existence in the late Precambrian and Early
Huqf North
Huqf South

Dhahaban

Cambrian of Oman of volumetrically important source

Name

rocks. The Al Shomou Formation, for which we

Natih

hold a large database, is characterized by an SPI of 38 t

B

Terken et al. 1825

HC/m2, whereas the U-Shale features an SPI of 10 t
HC/m2; together with the Shuram Formation (7 t HC/
m2) these represent some of the richest source intervals
in the world (Demaison and Huizinga, 1994; P. Ned-
erlof, 1998, personal communication).
In north Oman the distribution of Huqf-generated
oils is stratigraphically and geographically limited to
the central area, but in south Oman, Huqf oil occur-
rences are widespread both stratigraphically and geo-
graphically (Figure 5). In north Oman, the Huqf oils
have also migrated up into middle Cretaceous Shuaiba
(upper Kahmah Group) carbonates below the regional
Nahr Umr Shale (lower Wasia Group) seal (Figure 3).
Furthermore, considerable oil reserves of Huqf oils
have also been found in the Permian Gharif fluvial and
fluviomarine sandstones sealed by intraformational
shales or Khuff Formation (Akhdar Group, Late
Permian–Early Triassic) muddy limestones. Bitumen
studies indicate that Huqf oils were once also en-
trapped in currently deeply buried Haima (Late
Cambrian–Early Silurian) sequences, but these oils
cracked to condensate and gas because of very deep
burial during the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary (Huc
et al., 2000). In the south Oman salt basin, Huqf oils
are found to occur in Precambrian–Tertiary reservoirs
along the east flank of the basin and within Early Cam-
brian intrasalt carbonate and siliceous (silicilyte)
stringer reservoirs in the central part of the basin (Ko-
nert et al., 1991; Amthor et al., 1998a).
Q-Oil Family (Presumed to Be Derived from Source Rocks of
the Late Precambrian–Early Cambrian Huqf Supergroup)
The Q oils were originally named because of their
“questionable” origin (P. Nederlof, 1999, personal
communication). Oils from this family have distinct
C27-dominated sterane distributions and intermediate
d13C isotope values of around ⳮ30.5‰ (Figure 4)
(Grantham et al., 1987). In addition, Q oils feature a
high tricyclic index compared with most other Oman
oils and are further characterized by the presence of a
peak of unknown chemical structure visible in the ster-
ane (m/z 217) mass chromatogram (Figure 3). This
peak is commonly noted as peak A (Richard et al.,
1998; Terken and Frewin, 1999). In common with the
Huqf oils (described previously), Q oils have a series
of methyl-substituted alkanes that are generally quite
evident in gas chromatograms.
This combined geochemical evidence points to a
distinctive source rock sequence for the Q oils in north
Oman, although it is probably a part of the late
Precambrian–Early Cambrian Huqf Supergroup. At-
1826 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman
tempts to link the Q oil directly to a source rock have
failed so far through lack of deep well penetrations in
north Oman. Biomarkers in these oils are characteristic
of oils originating from type II/I structureless organic
matter. Furthermore, the biomarker patterns strongly
suggest that this oil is derived from a carbonate source
rock deposited in a strongly evaporitic but not hyper-
saline environmental setting (Grantham et al., 1987).
The source of the Q oil, therefore, is suspected to be
located in Early Cambrian intrasalt or postsalt Ara
source rocks (Figure 3). In well Shara South-1 in cen-
tral Oman (Figure 1), extract analysis of an impreg-
nation indicates mixed Q-type and Huqf-type hydro-
carbons are present in the postsalt Dhahaban source
rock (see Figure 3). In nearby well Haima-1 (Figure 1),
core descriptions indicate this interval also represents
a salt dissolution cap rock, which would suggest that
its distribution is limited to that of the Ara salt se-
quence. Thickness of this unit is variable, ranging be-
tween 20 and 500 m (Terken and Frewin, 1999). The
TOC contents range up to 8%, and initial hydrogen
indices are high, averaging 600, and locally exceed 800
mg HC/g TOC. The measured activation energies are
very similar to those of most other Huqf source rocks
and range from 197 to 240 kJ/mol (Table 1).
Q oils occur mainly in the Permian Gharif For-
mation of the Haushi Group in central and north
Oman (Figures 3, 5), but significant amounts have also
been found in the middle Cretaceous Shuaiba Forma-
tion of the Kahmah Group on the other side of the
salt-structured core of the Ghaba salt basin (Terken
and Frewin, 1999). Q gases and condensates occur pre-
dominantly in the early Paleozoic Haima Supergroup,
mainly along the western margin of the Ghaba salt ba-
sin (Figure 2). Reservoirs range in depositional setting
from continental to deltaic and marginal marine
(Droste, 1997) and are sealed by intraformational ma-
rine shales.
B Oil Family (Enigmatic Character, but Potentially Sourced
from Untested Silurian Source Rocks to the West of Oman, or
from the Cracking of Early Cambrian-Sourced Oils)
B oils were named because of their indistinct or “back-
ground” signature. They are the least understood of all
oil families in Oman. No distinctive chemical attrib-
utes link B hydrocarbons to a source. The oils are sim-
ply characterized by relatively high C27 and C29 ster-
ane abundances and typically have d13C isotope values
of around ⳮ26 to ⳮ30‰ (Figure 3). Known B oil ac-
cumulations are found in the Ghaba salt basin of north
Oman (mostly condensates ⬎ 50⬚ API) and in west-
ernmost central Oman (mostly light oils ⬍ 40⬚ API).
Furthermore, noncommercial impregnations with a B
character have also been observed elsewhere through-
out Oman.
The source of the B oils is still under evaluation.
The oils were originally considered to be a mix be-
tween the salt-associated Huqf and Q end-member oils
(a tentative explanation largely deduced from the ster-
ane distribution and carbon isotope values); however,
the steranes tend to be thermally degraded and less
abundant in the condensates. The presence of B hy-
drocarbons, either as light oils (⬎50⬚ API) or as im-
pregnations, could at first glance lead us to suggest that
they are partially cracked mixtures of Early Cambrian–
sourced oils, especially because these oils are found in
pre-Silurian Haima reservoirs. Indeed, a detailed anal-
ysis of many condensates having a B character in the
Ghaba salt basin of north Oman shows clear thermal
cracking characteristics. The extent of thermal crack-
ing can be estimated from the abundance of methyl-
diamantanes, diamondoid structures that are resistant
to the thermal cracking process, relative to stigmas-
tane, a C29 sterane biomarker that is thermally unsta-
ble (Dahl et al., 1999). The extent of cracking (derived
from diamondoid data, as described by Dahl et al.
[1999]) is shown in Figure 6 for several condensates
relative to their corresponding reservoir temperature.
Oils described as B type have been selected from the
Ghaba salt basin and western central Oman. The oils
from the Ghaba salt basin are apparently highly
cracked compared with the western central Oman
samples.
In terms of source of the Ghaba basin condensates,
the lack of methyl-substituted alkanes (X compounds)
and of other distinctive biomarkers characteristic of the
Huqf and Q families would tend to negate the hypoth-
esis that these oils are originally derived from Early
Cambrian salt-associated Huqf and Q source rocks. It
should be noted, however, that the lack of methyl-
substituted alkanes in an oil does not necessarily pre-
clude an infra-Cambrian origin. Indeed, these com-
pounds do not occur uniformly in extracts from
throughout Huqf source rock sequences, there being
several organic-rich shales in which the compounds are
absent. Furthermore, other infra-Cambrian oils do not
contain X compounds. For example, an oil from the
Baghewala-1 well in India was found not to contain
these compounds (K. E. Peters et al., 1995).
For the lower-API oils of westernmost central
Oman, the remigration of mature Huqf and Q hydro-
carbons can be demonstrated using charge modeling
(see section Mapping of Petroleum Systems by Gen-
eration and Migration Modeling); however, the Safiq/
Qusaiba Member shale of Silurian age (Upper Haima
in Figure 3) in the Rub’ Al-Khali basin in eastern Saudi
Arabia (Figure 1) is seen as an alternative candidate
source rock for these B-type hydrocarbons. This sug-
gestion is not unreasonable given the location of the
Sahmah and Rija B-oil accumulations in western cen-
tral Oman (Figure 5) relative to the distribution of
mature Silurian Qusaiba source rock facies in Saudi
Arabia (Milner, 1998; Jones and Stump, 1999).
Furthermore, the oils in these accumulations show no
evidence of thermal cracking (determined from rela-
tive diamondoid abundance) (Figure 6). Marginal (i.e.,
thin) Qusaiba Silurian shales with hydrocarbon gen-
erating potential (TOC measured at 3.25 wt. %, hy-
drogen indices up to 543 mg HC/g TOC) have also
Figure 6. Difference in extent
of cracking shown only for oils
classified as B oils in western
central Oman in the Rija and
Aydan fields (see Figure 1) and
in the Saih Rawl, Barik, and
Mabrouk fields in the Ghaba
salt basin.
Terken et al. 1827
been penetrated within Oman. Molecular typing of an
extract from this thin shale (i.e., in the Fawwara-1
well in Figure 1) and determination of its correlation
with various B oils from Oman and Saudi Arabia have
been tentatively achieved. Similarities are noted in
sterane distribution, carbon isotopes, pristane/phy-
tane index, and other molecular typing results; how-
ever, we need a wider source rock database to firm up
this tentative correlation.
Despite these advances, the origin of the B-type
hydrocarbons is still not fully understood. Impregna-
tions having sterane and isotope distributions similar
to those of the B-type oils, but also having elevated
triaromatic dinosteroid levels (commonly observed in
post-Triassic source rocks), are also found throughout
Oman. Although such unexpected components are
expected to be the result of contamination by drilling
fluid additives, whose signature is enhanced by the
low abundance of hydrocarbons associated with im-
pregnations, those mixed messages tend to confuse
our appraisal of the B-type oil family. Furthermore,
the possibility of cosourcing from sources of different
ages cannot be entirely eliminated.
Shuaiba/Tuwaiq Oil Family (Originating from Late Jurassic
[Callovian–Kimmeridgian] and Middle Cretaceous [Aptian]
Source Rocks)
Shuaiba/Tuwaiq oils commonly display whole-oil
d13C isotope values of around ⳮ26.5‰ and about
equal amounts of C28 and C29 steranes, but lower
amounts of C27 (Figure 3).
Shuaiba/Tuwaiq oils are sourced by type II/I ma-
rine source rocks (Lijmbach et al., 1992). Geochem-
ically, minor variations can be observed between oils
found in the Shuaiba and Tuwaiq, which suggest
slight differences exist between source rocks within
the Mesozoic Sahtan/Kahmah and Thamama groups.
The most likely source rocks are the Bab Member in
the Shuaiba Formation and the Diyab (Hanifa) For-
mation (Taher, 1997). Both source rocks were depos-
ited in intracratonic basins, which covered most of the
Abu Dhabi emirate in the United Arab Emirates
(UAE) and may extend into northern Oman. The
TOC values measured in the UAE exceed 4 wt. % by
weight, and the thickness of both source intervals
ranges from 30 to 100 m. In the foreland basin of the
UAE, the TOC in the Thamama Group drops grad-
ually and averages only 1.4 wt. % near the Oman bor-
der where most of the organic matter is overmature
and has only minor residual gas potential (Taher,
1997). The high maturity is due not only to greater
1828 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman
burial, but also to significantly higher formation tem-
peratures related to the hydrodynamic fluid-flow re-
gime in the foreland basin (Lamki and Terken, 1996).
Initial hydrocarbon yields may have been as high as
800 mg HC/g TOC (Taher, 1997). The actual mea-
sured activation energies for the Hanifa source rocks
are in the range of 192–229 kJ/mol (Table 1). Because
both source rock intervals are very similar in charac-
ter, a similar range was also assumed for the Shuaiba
source rock.
Shuaiba/Tuwaiq oils are restricted to northwest-
ern Oman but are common in the UAE (Lijmbach et
al., 1992). In Oman, these oils occur predominantly
in the Late Jurassic Tuwaiq and middle Cretaceous
Shuaiba formations.
Natih Oil Family (Derived from Middle Cretaceous
[Cenomanian to Turonian] Wasia Group Source Rocks)
Natih oils are characterized by a relatively high C27
sterane abundance and a d13C isotope value of
around ⳮ27‰. The C27 sterane percentage is gen-
erally around 35% and exceeds the amount of C28,
which, in turn, is higher than the amount of C29
(Figure 3).
The oils are sourced by marine type I/II source
rocks within the Natih Formation. Evaluation of all
well penetrations shows the source rock facies to be
restricted to western north and central Oman (Ter-
ken, 1999). Deposition most likely occurred in a re-
stricted possibly oxygen-depleted intracratonic marine
basin on the Arabian craton that was connected to the
open (Tethys) ocean in the northwest (Murris, 1980).
The source rock facies occurs at two levels, and the
combined source interval commonly exceeds 50 m
and is excellent in quality (van Buchem et al., 1996).
The TOC values range up to 15%, but average around
5%. Hydrocarbon indices may be as high as 800 mg
HC/g TOC (Terken, 1999). Activation energies for
the source rock are assumed to range between 192
and 229 kJ/mol (Table 1), values typical of high-
quality marine type I/II source rocks.
Nearly all Natih oil is reservoired within the Natih
Formation itself. This carbonate sequence is Ceno-
manian–Turonian in age. Deep-marine shales of the
Late Cretaceous Fiqa Formation onlap its top and pro-
vide an excellent seal in most parts of north Oman.
Natih oils are restricted to a small area in central north
Oman, a distribution that is structurally controlled to
the south by the peripheral bulge of the foreland basin
and to the east by the deformed core of the Ghaba
salt basin (Terken, 1999).
Mapping of Petroleum Systems by Generation and
Migration Modeling
For details of the methodology used, the reader is re-
ferred to the Appendix.
Late Precambrian and Early Cambrian Huqf and Q Petroleum
Systems in North Oman
Burial and thermal modeling of the presalt Nafun, in-
trasalt Ara, and postsalt Dhahaban intervals, the
sources of both Huqf and Q oils, indicate early oil gen-
eration during the Paleozoic in large parts of Oman
(Figure 7). In the center of the Ghaba salt basin, these
sequences expelled most of their hydrocarbons during
the deposition of the Haima Supergroup during the
early to middle Paleozoic (520–350 Ma). Along the
western margin of the Ghaba salt basin, the remaining
oil and gas potential was expelled during Akhdar
Group (Permian) deposition (260–230 Ma), when a
new burial maximum was reached. In the Fahud salt
basin, the Nafun and Ara (late Precambrian and Early
Cambrian) source rocks expelled most of their oil dur-
ing Akhdar Group (Permian) deposition. Only the
shallowest source rocks of the postsalt Dhahaban in-
terval continued to generate oil into the Tertiary, and
it is the only Cambrian source rock that remains in the
hydrocarbon generation window today, although it
now generates only dry gas.
In-house migration modeling shows that the early
Paleozoic charge from the northerly Ghaba salt basin
spread across this sag basin to its flanks (Figure 8)
and either accumulated in Haima Group (Middle
Figure 7. Oil generation histories for the different source rocks in Oman. SR ⳱ source rock.
Cambrian–Early Silurian) closures or reached the sur-
face. Middle Paleozoic erosion brought these early
trapped hydrocarbons within reach of meteoric water,
causing oil biodegradation and formation of tar sands
before late Paleozoic deposition. Deep reburial and
high formation temperatures since the Late Cretaceous
have turned the early tar into pore-filling pyrobitumens
and substantially reduced the reservoir quality in these
early traps (Figure 9). They may still, however, hold
some secondary charge potential for gas from thermal
cracking (Huc et al., 2000). Charges expelled from the
western Ghaba basin margin and Fahud salt basin dur-
ing the late Paleozoic to Late Cretaceous are inter-
preted to have migrated laterally eastward within the
Haushi Gharif Formation (Permian) reservoirs toward
the tilted east flank of the basin (Terken, 1999)
(Figure 10).
After the Late Cretaceous, migration in north
Oman was strongly influenced by the development
of the peri-Tethys foreland basin. The present-day
oil-type distribution suggests that Huqf (late
Precambrian—Early Cambrian) oils, which were gen-
erated in the northern half of the Fahud salt basin,
migrated initially toward and along the peripheral
bulge of the foreland basin (Figures 10, 11, 12). This
bulge is somewhat interrupted across the Fahud salt
basin because of uplift of its east flank and the
associated inversion of the Ghaba salt basin. This
caused a shift of the depocenter in the foreland basin
toward the northwest. Modeling shows that hydrocar-
bons migrated mainly toward the east at Haima (Late
Cambrian–Early Silurian) and Haushi (Permian)
Terken et al. 1829
Figure 8. Kitchen area and
migration style in the Ghaba
salt basin during the middle Pa-
leozoic (400 Ma). (The location
of this line is shown on
Figure 9.)

levels; however, migration proceeded both toward the
east and the west in shallower Akhdar (Permian), Sah-
tan (Jurassic), and Wasia (Cretaceous) reservoirs (Fig-
ures 10, 11). Vertical migration occurred along exten-
sional faults associated with the prograding peripheral
bulge.
Migration from the southern half of the Fahud salt
basin within the Gharif Formation of the Haushi (Per-
mian) Group initially progressed also toward the east
but shifted gradually southward during the Late Cre-
taceous and Tertiary (Figures 11, 13). This shift in di-
rection has been linked to the advance of the tectonic

Figure 9. Old oil traps west

of the coarse dashed line were
affected by early biodegrada-
tion and may be filled with
pore-filling bitumen. Oil crack-
ing and formation of pyrobitu-
men due to high formation
temperatures most likely have
occurred in the gray-patterned
area. The eastern part of the
Ghaba salt basin has a signifi-
cantly higher charge risk than
the western part in the pre-
Haushi sequence. (Location of
this map is shown on Figure 1.)
Figure 8 shows the early kitch-
ens and migration paths in this
area, whereas Figure 10 (from
Yibal to the east flank) shows
the present-day generation ar-
eas and migration paths.

1830 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman

Figure 10. West-northwest–east-southeast cross section across north Oman showing the Shuaiba/Tuwaiq petroleum system in the
foreland basin and north Oman late Precambrian–Early Cambrian Huqf and Q petroleum systems in the Fahud and Ghaba salt basins.
Hydrocarbons generated on the Fahud salt basin initially rise vertically and subsequently migrate to the east at Gharif level and to
the east and west at Shuaiba level. Note that at the deeper Haima level hydrocarbons fail to cross the deep syncline in the Ghaba
salt basin. Note also the limited extent of the Shuaiba/Tuwaiq petroleum system. Thermal cracking of oil to condensate and gas is
assumed to occur at temperatures in excess of 130⬚C. (For stratigraphic legend see Figure 3; SR ⳱ source rock.)

front in northern Oman and the southward expansion
of the Mesozoic foreland basin across and over the Fa-
hud salt basin. Subsidence caused the regional tilt to
increase and also a shift to a northerly azimuth.
Use of benzocarbazoles as geochemical tracer mol-
ecules (Larter et al., 1996) has permitted an estimation
of the relative lateral migration distances for the dif-
ferent accumulations of Q oil (Early Cambrian–
sourced). Benzocarbazoles are polar compounds,
which tend to selectively partition between oil, water,
and mineral surfaces during oil migration; thus ben-
zocarbazole ratios have been successfully used as mo-
lecular indicators of relative oil migration distance
(Larter et al., 1997). A plot of benzocarbazole ratios
against northing highlights a substantial migration dis-
tance of some 300 km (Figure 13). This finding allowed
us to retrace the origin of the Q oils to the southern
part of the Fahud salt basin and also to a rim basin
present along the western margin of the Ghaba salt
basin (Richard et al., 1998; Terken and Frewin, 1999).
North-south–oriented structural trends related to re-
activated basement faults together with a favorable hy-
drodynamic regime and effective top seals (intrafor-
mational Gharif shales and the thick Khuff Formation)
facilitated the observed long-distance Q-oil migrations.
Migration modeling of the Huqf-type and Q-type
oil distributions in north Oman has permitted a sub-
division of the Fahud salt basin into three distinct
source areas, or hydrocarbon kitchens: (1) a western
part that is regarded as the source of mainly pure Huqf
oils, (2) a southern kitchen that sourced only Q-type
oil, and (3) an eastern kitchen that has generated
mostly Huqf-dominated mixtures of both types of oils
(Figure 12).
The Huqf petroleum system of north Oman has
been genetically classified as a normally charged, ver-
tically drained, fault-controlled high-impedance petro-
leum system, whereas the Dhahaban (Q) system of

Terken et al. 1831

Figure 11. Cross section from the foreland basin in the north across central Oman to the northern part of the south Oman salt
basin showing the middle Cretaceous Natih, the late Precambrian–Early Cambrian north Oman Huqf, Q, and south Oman Huqf
petroleum systems. Hydrocarbons generated in the Fahud salt basin initially rise vertically and migrate to the east and south at Gharif
level. Oil may have been initially stored at the deeper Haima level and remigrated 300 km to south Oman after gas charge because
of oil-cracking–caused spillage in the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary. Note the limited extent of the Natih petroleum system, which is
bounded by the Fahud fault in the south. Thermal cracking of oil to condensate and gas is assumed to occur at temperatures in
excess of 130⬚C. (For stratigraphic legend see Figure 3; SR ⳱ source rock.)

north Oman immediately above the salt is thought to
represent a normally charged, foreland-type, laterally
drained, low-impedance petroleum system (Figure 14)
(Demaison and Huizinga, 1994).
Late Precambrian to Early Cambrian Huqf Petroleum System
of South Oman
Apatite fission track analyses data indicate that maxi-
mum burial temperatures in south Oman were reached
during deposition of the Haima Supergroup (Middle
Cambrian–Early Silurian) (see Appendix) (Indrelid
and Terken, 2000) and that, as in the Ghaba salt basin
to the north, oil generation occurred mostly during the
early Paleozoic (Figure 7) (Konert et al., 1991; Visser,
1991). This suggests intermediate storage, by the ex-
cellent quality salt seal, followed by remigration of oil
into shallower reservoirs. Early expelled oil was prob-
ably initially trapped in Nafun fault blocks sealed by
Ara salt and/or in carbonate and silicilyte stringers en-
cased in Ara salt (Figure 15). The seals of these traps
were breached during the basinward retreat of the salt
edge, and the oils were released. Salt dissolution and
trap formation in the east flank occurred in steps be-
ginning with the onset of tilting in the late Paleozoic.
Ara salt most probably once covered the whole of the
basin’s east flank in south Oman, and where the salt
has dissolved out one can observe, on seismic, rem-
nants of the intrasalt facies and Dhahaban cap rocks
resting on top of the presalt Nafun sequence
(Figure 16).
Several Haushi (Permian)/Haima (Middle Cam-
brian–Late Silurian) reservoired accumulations espe-
cially in the upflank areas were truncated and exposed
to the surface during the Early Cretaceous erosion

1832 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman


phase, with consequent loss of oil to the surface. New
traps were formed during Late Cretaceous and Tertiary
salt dissolution phases, and hydrocarbons were released
from successively unroofed early Paleozoic Huqf traps.
This sequence of events can explain the presence of
Huqf oils in much younger reservoirs, despite the fact
that generation is thought to have occurred much ear-
lier. In addition, new accumulations were locally
breached by faulting or tilting, which gave rise to ver-
tical remigration of oil into Cretaceous Natih and
Umm er Radhuma reservoirs, leaving tarry oil deposits
Figure 12. Basin modeling
suggests Mesozoic and Tertiary
kitchen areas to be restricted to
the Fahud salt basin and fore-
land basin. Oil types in the
fields are raster coded, and
modeled migration paths are
shown. SR ⳱ source rock.
or oil residues at Haima (Middle Cambrian–Late Si-
lurian) and Haushi (Permian) levels (Konert et al.,
1991).
The distribution of the different Huqf-generated
(late Precambrian—Early Cambrian) oils shows a good
relationship with the lithofacies map of the intrasalt
sequence (Figure 15). It strongly suggests that most
migration along the east flank has a vertical component
(Figure 16). Oil gravities range widely from about 10
to 35⬚ API, and tarry occurrences are common. The
low gravities may be related not only to early expulsion
Terken et al. 1833
Figure 13. Relative oil migra-
tion distances can be estimated
from geochemical tracer mole-
cules. Analyses of 18 (late
Precambrian–Early Cambrian)
Q oils suggest one kitchen area
immediately to the west of Saih
Rawl in a small rim basin and
another in the southern tip of
the Fahud salt basin. Youngest
migration paths are used by B
oils and cracked oils.
of immature oil from carbonate- and silica-rich source
rocks, but also to subsequent biodegradation by hydro-
dynamic fluid-flow activity. The south Oman Huqf pe-
troleum system is interpreted to be a supercharged and
(prior to salt dissolution) laterally drained, low-
impedance petroleum system (Figure 14).
Hypothetical B Petroleum System in Central Oman
Condensates in pre-Silurian Haima clastic reservoirs of
the Ghaba salt basin are most likely the result of in-
reservoir thermal cracking of predominantly Q-type
oils (Table 2). An alternative hypothesis to explain the
occurrence of B-type oils only in the most recent, late
Tertiary migration paths (Figure 12) is the existence of
a mature Paleozoic shale rather than a carbonate source
rock in the southern part of the Fahud salt basin; how-
ever, the hypothetical Paleozoic shale must be mod-
eled using a significantly higher activation energy than
that of the carbonate Huqf source rocks to satisfy this
charge mechanism timing (Table 1). Another proposed
1834 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman
hypothesis is remigration from breached or gas-
charged structures of earlier, thermally cracked Huqf
and/or Q oils. This mechanism cannot be excluded at
this time.
The generation modeling of a Silurian Qusaiba
Member source for these B oils in westernmost central
Oman has not been undertaken for this article, pri-
marily because of the lack of data on the western
margin of Oman and the eastern margin of Saudi
Arabia. Milner (1998), however, recently carried out a
maturity mapping exercise using BasinMod; well Al
Hashman-1 was used for thermal calibration. This
work demonstrated that the Safiq-equivalent Qusaiba
Member may be of middle-late maturity west of
Oman. This mapping suggests that oil may have lat-
erally migrated into westernmost central Oman since
its Late Cretaceous generation. This Silurian source
rock was intersected in the Oman well Fawwara-1 and
was found to be immature to just mature for hydro-
carbon generation.

The B petroleum system has been tentatively clas-
sified, if the oils are derived from the Qusaiba source
rock, as an undercharged, laterally drained, low-
impedance system, and, in case the condensates are
derived from thermally cracked Huqf and Q oils, as
an undercharged, vertically drained, high-impedance
system.
Shuaiba/Tuwaiq Petroleum System of North Oman
Thermal modeling of Late Jurassic and middle Creta-
ceous source rocks in the UAE (Taher, 1997) and
Oman (J. M. J. Terken, 1996, unpublished data) shows
that oil generation (Figure 7) started in the Late Cre-
taceous in the Diyab (Hanifa) Formation and in the
Paleocene in the Shuaiba Formation (Bab Member).
Currently, Diyab source rocks are, where present in
Oman, overmature in the foreland basin, whereas the
Shuaiba, which is only a lean source rock, is in the
optimum level of the oil window. To the west of the
Lekhwair high and in central UAE, Diyab source rocks
are currently within the gas window, whereas excellent
quality Shuaiba source rocks are in the oil window
(Taher, 1997).
Figure 14. The genetic classi-
fication of petroleum systems
consists of applying three geo-
logical factors: charge factor,
migration drainage style, and
entrapment style (Demaison
and Huizinga, 1994).
The Lekhwair high is the highest point on the pe-
ripheral foreland bulge, and hydrocarbons generated in
its surroundings charge several fields on this large struc-
tural high (Figures 10, 12). The Shuaiba/Tuwaiq pe-
troleum system has been classified as a normally
charged, laterally drained, low-impedance foreland pe-
troleum system (Figure 14).
Natih Petroleum System of North Oman
Burial and thermal modeling of the source rocks in the
middle Cretaceous (Cenomanian–Turonian) Natih
Formation of the Wasia Group (Figure 3) indicates that
oil generation began during the Late Cretaceous and
continues today (Figure 7). The interval is currently in
the oil window in most of the Oman foreland basin
and has just entered the oil window in a shallow ex-
tension along the Maradi fault zone (marked MFZ on
Figure 12).
Modeling shows oil migration at the Natih For-
mation level was initially directed toward the inverted
Ghaba salt basin and peripheral bulge of the basin;
however, formation of the Fahud fault (marked FF on
Figure 12), early in the development of the foreland
Terken et al. 1835
Figure 15. (a) Paleo-Ara salt
edge positions and charge tim-
ing and (b) lithofacies of intra-
salt sequence and oil types
found in fields along the east
flank with oil types calculated
from biomarker compositions
using cluster analysis.

basin, created an extensive shadow zone and is the
most likely reason Natih oils have not been found
across the Fahud salt basin (Figure 11).
Gas generation from the predominantly oil-prone
Natih source rocks is limited. Modeling indicates this
gas generation only commenced in the latest Tertiary
in the deepest part of the Oman foreland basin. This
deep thermal gas currently migrates to the Lekhwair
high and Salakh arch. In the latter, the Natih For-
mation is exposed. Thus the gas most probably es-
capes to the surface. An alternative explanation is that
most of the gas found in the Natih Formation may
instead be derived from the deeply buried, highly ma-
ture Early Cambrian Ara source rocks (Figure 11).

1836 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman

Figure 16. Cross section across the south Oman salt basin showing the late Precambrian–Early Cambrian south Oman Huqf
petroleum system. Hydrocarbons generated by Precambrian Nafun and Early Cambrian Ara Group source rocks were released only
after the Ara salt dissolved and were trapped below younger seals in structures that resulted from halokinesis in the peripheral rim
syncline. No economic hydrocarbon accumulations have so far been discovered above the Ara salt basin proper. Thermal cracking
of oil to condensate and gas is assumed to occur at temperatures in excess of 130⬚C. For stratigraphic legend see Figure 3; SR ⳱
source rock.

Like the Natih, this source rock is initially mainly oil
prone (Terken, 1999). Consequently, the majority of
the gas is expected to originate from thermal cracking
of oil in deep traps.
The Natih petroleum system of north Oman is
classified as a supercharged, laterally drained, high-
impedance foreland petroleum system (Figure 14).
Despite the advance of the thrust front, charge mi-
gration has remained mainly lateral because of de-
tachment within the deeply buried Early Cambrian
Ara salt sequence, which caused most of the com-
pressional stress to be accommodated along wrench
faults high on the gently northward dipping flank
of the peripheral foreland bulge. Undisturbed mi-
gration routes and large structural closures are re-
garded as the main reasons for the high generation-
trapping efficiency in this petroleum system
(Terken, 1999).
ENTRAPMENT STYLES AND TRAP TIMING
In north Oman, most structures are fault/dip or pop-
up closures aided by salt-assisted footwall uplift. Many
were initiated in the Paleozoic and resulted from syn-
depositional halokinesis and downbuilding (grounding
of the overburden) near active fault zones. Younger
structuration is the result of Late Cretaceous and Ter-
tiary compression related to the foreland basin devel-
opment and contemporaneous northward drift of
greater India. During the first Alpine tectonic phase,
obduction of the Semail Ophiolite and downbending
of the foreland in the Late Cretaceous and early Ter-
tiary (Figure 1) led to normal faulting and formation
of conjugate sets of transtensional strike-slip faults.
During the second Alpine phase in the middle to late
Tertiary, normal and strike-slip faults near the thrust
front were inverted, and more distant faults were

Terken et al. 1837

 reactivated and reversed both vertically and laterally

Very small
Petroleum

Significant
Ranking
System
(Loosveld et al., 1996).

Small†
Large
Large
Large
In central Oman, most structures are located along
Hydrocarbons northerly plunging structural highs that formed during
the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary in response to reac-
Hydrocarbons Generation/ Recoverable Recoverable Recoverable

tivated north-south–trending basement faults. Traps

(%)

0.1
0.4
1.8
1.8
0.5
1.0
consist mostly of fault/dip closures below the regional
Khuff (Permian) seal, but combined stratigraphic
structural traps are expected wherever east-west–
trending Gharif channels cross north-south–trending
(109 kg)
Gas

230
290
80

13
9 structural noses (Terken and Frewin, 1999). These
–

could hold substantial undiscovered reserves.

Trapping in the south Oman salt basin is strongly
controlled by the Early Cambrian Ara salt. In the core
(109 kg)

520
330
260
210
17
9

of the basin, where the salt is still present, most of the

Oil

oil generated in the Paleozoic is still trapped in intrasalt

carbonate and siliceous (silicilyte) stringers. In the pe-
Accumulation

ripheral syncline along the east flank, salt dissolution is

Ratio (%)

the controlling parameter of structural style and trap

1.4
1.0
6.3
9.0
1.3
3.0

formation (Heward, 1990), whereas retreat of the salt

Table 2. Oman’s Petroleum Systems Ranked by Recoverable Hydrocarbons in Billions of Kilograms (109 kg)

edge is the main factor for charge timing (Figure 15).

Traps in Paleozoic clastics were initially formed by
halokinesis, and subsequently by salt dissolution. The
(109 kg)
in Place

Numbers assume that B oil is derived from a B source rock and is not the result of thermal cracking of Huqf and Q oils.
3380
1350
1800
1100
80
60
Total

latter process removed most of the salt along the east

flank of the south Oman salt basin, and thus it is largely
responsible for the present-day structures. They mimic
a negative image of the structures formed during the
Volume Hydrocarbons Oil in Place Gas in Place
(109 kg)

earlier halokinesis stage wherever early withdrawal ba-

120
350
440

20
30
–

sins became inverted into turtle structures. Anticlines

resulted from drape of strata over Haima and Al Khlata
turtle structures and laterally discontinuous siliceous
(109 kg)

and carbonate stringers. Those became grounded rem-

3260
1000
1360
1100
60
30
*Source area is mature but stopped generating hydrocarbons more than 400 Ma.

nants and now form chaotic solution residues.

Small in Oman, but a giant petroleum system in the United Arab Emirates.
**Only Mesozoic and Cenozoic source areas in the Fahud salt basin.

REGIONAL PETROLEUM CHARGE RISKS IN

Generated

(109 kg)

275,000
140,000
29,000
12,000
6,000
2,000

ONSHORE OMAN

Basin modeling and petroleum system analysis explain

why the areas with remaining significant petroleum
(1010 m3)
Mature
Source

180**

10††

charge risks are restricted to the Fahud salt basin and

300*

36
10
5

foreland basin in northwestern Oman (Figure 17).

They have also highlighted the importance of long-
Geographical

distance oil migration along regional arches, in places

40,000
50,000
50,000
20,000
10,000
5,000
Extent
(km2)

up to 300 km away from the source kitchens (Figure

13). Migration modeling shows that the petroleum
charge generated during the early and middle Paleozoic
from late Precambrian and Early Cambrian Nafun and
Huqf South
Huqf North
Dhahaban

Ara source rocks in the Ghaba salt basin in north Oman

Tuwaiq
Name

spread out across the flanks of this sag basin. Some of

Natih

this early charge was biodegraded and turned into tar

††
B

1838 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman

Terken et al.
Figure 17. Generation and migration histories together with processes that affect the quality of the oil for (a) middle Paleozoic, (b) late Paleozoic–early Mesozoic, and (c) late
Mesozoic and Cenozoic. (If not indicated, marked areas reflect presalt Nafun and intra- and postsalt Ara kitchens.)

1839
following middle Paleozoic erosion. High formation
temperatures since the Late Cretaceous, subsequently,
turned the tar accumulation into pore-filling residual
pyrobitumens (Huc et al., 2000). Reservoir quality in
old, early-formed structures, therefore, can be ex-
pected to be poor. Thus exploration should preferably
target younger structures related to foreland basin de-
velopment since the Late Cretaceous to reduce reser-
voir quality risks (Figure 17a, c). Insufficient structur-
ation, however, during the Mesozoic passive margin
development period may have caused much of the late
Paleozoic–middle Cretaceous regional charge to dis-
perse or escape (Figure 17b).
Restriction of the more recent Mesozoic to Terti-
ary charging to the west flank in the Fahud salt basin
of northwestern Oman has also increased the charge
risk for the Haima (Middle Cambrian–Early Silurian)
sequence in the eastern half of the Ghaba salt basin.
Eastward migrating hydrocarbons in the eastern half
are hindered by a pronounced syncline at depths
greater than 3 km in this basin. So far, hydrocarbons
on the eastern side of the Ghaba salt basin axis have
been found only in the post-Haima (Permian and Me-
sozoic) sequence (Figure 18). Favorable structural dips
and good seal integrity in the Permian Gharif and mid-
dle Cretaceous Shuaiba formations permit lateral mi-
gration of hydrocarbons. Seal integrity is only mini- Figure 18. Oil and gas charge risks for the post-Haima (Late
mally interrupted by isolated piercing salt diapirs in the Carboniferous–Tertiary) sequence.
core of the Ghaba salt basin (Figure 19).
An adverse timing exists between early Q-oil gen-
eration during the Permian and Triassic in the south of quent) seal breaching in the Tertiary is the most likely
the Fahud salt basin and trapping mechanisms in cen- reason for the escape of the hydrocarbons. Similar re-
tral Oman along migration paths that became active sidual Q-oil columns occur below oil and gas accu-
only during the Late Cretaceous and Tertiary (Figures mulations in Haima (Late Cambrian–Early Silurian)
7; 11; 17b, c). This suggests that the Q oil may have and Gharif (Permian) reservoirs along the western
been initially stored in deep traps somewhere, before margin and in the core of the Ghaba salt basin. Many
being remobilized at shallower depth and in younger of these discoveries of major dead oil residual columns
reservoirs to its current trapped locations up to 300 km may be only remnants in the culminations of once
away from the generative kitchens (Figures 11, 13). supergiant accumulations. In central Oman, several of
Long-term storage of hydrocarbons from an evolving these structures are deeply buried and have never been
kitchen would explain why there is relatively limited tested because of their gas risk, but with the explora-
influence of oil maturity on benzocarbazole ratio, al- tion focus gradually shifting from oil to gas, substantial
lowing it to be used very effectively as a migration dis- new opportunities may emerge in this area.
tance indicator in this case. Modeling and empirical data in south Oman have
Physical indications for breached or currently gas- shown that hydrocarbon generation from late Precam-
charged closures that could have functioned as tem- brian to Early Cambrian Huqf source rocks predates
porary oil reservoirs have been found in several places. final entrapment by up to 400 m.y. Furthermore, they
For example in Hazar (Figure 17c), a long residual oil have highlighted the factor of Ara salt dissolution,
column in Haima (Late Cambrian–Early Silurian) res- which has been the result of hydrodynamic fluid-flow
ervoirs indicates that once a large Q-oil accumulation activity. Salt dissolution has determined the structural
existed in this location. Gas charging and/or (subse- style and timing of trap formation, whereas retreat of

1840 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman


Figure 19. Oil and gas charge risks for the pre-Haushi (Early
Cambrian–middle Paleozoic) sequence.
the basin’s salt edge has controlled the timing of oil
charging in the traps (Figures 15, 17, 18, 19). Conse-
quently, the risk for finding oil is low in the peripheral
syncline and in intrasalt reservoir stringers, but high in
the postsalt sequence above the salt basin proper.
Virtually all source rock systems in Oman had a
predominant oil-prone character, at least initially.
Consequently, a large part of the gas is thought to be
the by-product of thermal cracking of earlier trapped,
liquid charges in reservoirs and source rocks. The risk
for oil and the probability for finding gas increases sig-
nificantly in reservoirs hotter than 130⬚C, which is the
temperature generally interpreted to mark the onset of
thermal cracking of oil to gas with completion at 150–
175⬚C (Hunt, 1996). Although relatively hot oil res-
ervoirs are known (e.g., Price, 1982), these lower tem-
peratures are modeled for the oils in Oman (Figures
10, 11, 16). Given the amount of temperature data and
the number of 3-D models available, prediction of ar-
eas at or above these threshold temperatures should be
straightforward.
This basin modeling effort has permitted us to map
the areal extent and to genetically classify the different
petroleum systems of Oman (Figure 14). Table 2 sum-
marizes the total quantity of hydrocarbons expected to
have been generated in onshore Oman by the different
source rocks, the discovered amounts of oil in place,
the actually recoverable petroleum volumes, and the
generation-trapping efficiencies of the different petro-
leum systems. The high-impedance Natih (middle
Cretaceous, Cenomanian–Turonian) petroleum sys-
tem in the foreland basin appears to be the most effi-
cient system for oil retention in Oman, whereas the
initially prolific Huqf systems of late Precambrian–
Early Cambrian age, are the least efficient because only
a small percentage of the oil volumes initially generated
have been preserved.
CONCLUSIONS
Modeling and measured empirical data together pro-
vide an understanding of the petroleum charge risks in
Oman. Areas of Mesozoic and Cenozoic charge are re-
stricted to northwestern north Oman, the only area
where rather prolific late Precambrian–Early Cambrian
and Mesozoic source rocks are currently at their max-
imum temperature levels.
Large parts of north and central Oman depend on
long-distance lateral migration from the Huqf and Q
kitchens for their charge. We can demonstrate, both
geologically and geochemically, that favorable condi-
tions in central Oman have permitted lateral migration
to transport oil some 300 km away from its source area.
The south Oman salt basin depends solely on Early
Cambrian–Ordovician charge, which is released in
stages from traps below the Ara salt sequence and in
stringers encased in the Ara salt. This occurred when
the salt edge retreated because of salt dissolution
caused by hydrodynamic fluid-flow activity.
Source rocks in Oman are multiple, generally rich,
and fairly widespread marine sequences. They are pre-
dominantly oil prone, and most of the gas found is in-
terpreted to result from thermal cracking of liquid hy-
drocarbons trapped in deep reservoirs and retained in
source rocks. The chance of finding gas increases sig-
nificantly in reservoirs hotter than 130⬚C, which is a
boundary generally observed to mark the onset of oil
cracking to gas.
This petroleum review, combining geology, geo-
physics, and geochemistry, has revitalized some of the
mature plays such as the Gharif Formation play, where
Terken et al. 1841
oil exploration is now refocused along Late Cretaceous
and Tertiary migration paths existing on regional
arches. Furthermore, deeper stratigraphic targets are
envisaged to offer economically significant potential for
major gas reserves. The deep Haima (Middle
Cambrian–Early Silurian) gas play in north and central
Oman can now be usefully subdivided into a low-risk
western and a higher-risk eastern sector, a useful as-
sessment capable of guiding the deployment of explo-
ration funds.
Modeling has also outlined the extent and deter-
mined the styles and efficiencies of the different petro-
leum systems of Oman. The generation-trapping effi-
ciency is clearly highest in the high-impedance
foreland basin Natih (middle Cretaceous, Cenoman-
ian–Turonian) petroleum system of northern Oman.
APPENDIX: TECHNICAL ANNEX
Modeling Input Parameters
The 3-D in-house geohistory modeling package used to model the
hydrocarbon generation history has been designed to solve the 3-D
heat-diffusion equation (Giles et al., 1999). The program uses as
input the mantle heat-flow history, the heat capacity and thermal
conductivity for the various lithologies, the surface temperature his-
tory, and the burial history. Calculations are iterated by adjustment
of the crustal radiation constant, until the calculated present-day
temperature field fits the observed thermal structure constructed
from well-log temperature measurements. Modeled maturities and
paleotemperatures are iterated against the vitrinite reflectance esti-
mates from source rocks and FT data for best fit. Full decompaction
is applied in the reconstruction. Migration modeling was carried out
Figure 20. Heat-flow and surface-temperature histories used for the modeling.
1842 Charge Timing and Risks in Petroleum Systems of Oman
using a simple updip migration algorithm (Hermans et al., 1992) that
takes pressure, volume, and temperature effects into account in pre-
dicting oil vs. gas. Decompacted burial history maps and predicted
porosity maps were generated during thermal modeling and were
also part of the modeling input.
Heat-Flow History
The paleo–heat-flow history used in the modeling reflects Oman’s
structural evolution (Figure 20). This is approximately subdivided
into three phases of evolution: intracratonic rifting in the early
Paleozoic–middle Paleozoic, passive margin development from the
late Paleozoic to the middle Mesozoic, and active margin tectonics
since the Late Cretaceous (Loosveld et al., 1996).
Highest heat flows are postulated to have occurred in the
early Paleozoic in the Ghaba salt basin to the north and the south
Oman salt basin (Figures 1, 20). Although both areas are thought
to have experienced slightly different tectonic histories during the
final stage of the early and middle Paleozoic extensional event
(Loosveld et al., 1996), similar heat-flow histories were used.
Another heat pulse of lesser magnitude, related to regional
uplift, is assumed to have occurred during the late Paleozoic, but
it affected mainly eastern Oman. Tectonic quiescence and normal
to low heat flows mark the late Paleozoic–middle Mesozoic, a
period of continental drift and margin subsidence. Since the Late
Cretaceous, the thermal flux history has clearly been influenced
by the hydrodynamic fluid-flow activity associated with the rise
of the Oman Mountains in the north and the Dhofar Mountains
in the south (Lamki and Terken, 1996). Currently, high subsur-
face temperatures, which result from rising hydrodynamic dis-
charge and hot formation waters squeezed from intervals being
buried below the advancing thrust belt in the Oman Mountains,
mark the foreland basin (K. Juhasz-Bodnar et al., 1999, unpub-
lished data) and also extend into central Oman (Terken and Fre-
win, 1999). Low subsurface temperatures outline areas with hy-
drodynamic recharge by cool meteoric water in large parts of
south Oman and along the east flank in north Oman. It has to
be realized that the extent of the recharge areas still reflects much
wetter conditions during the last Quaternary glacial period (Lamki
and Terken, 1996). As a result of these thermal history recon-
structions, 14 heat-flow history maps were used to model the
thermal flux history.
Surface Temperature History
The paleosurface (or water-sediment) interface temperatures were
estimated from the paleolatitudes of Oman (Lamki and Terken,
1996) and the depositional environment. The curve (Figure 20)
shows mainly long warm periods marked by deposition of evaporites,
red beds, and carbonates interrupted only by shorter cold spells re-
lated to glacial events during the Vendian, Ordovician, and Late
Carboniferous–Devonian, the latter being suggested by the presence
of diamictites.
Burial and Thermal Histories
The Oman stratigraphic rock sequence shows large hiatuses, mainly
due to erosion related to the progressive tilting of the east flank and
associated basin contraction (Figure 3). Seismic data show no pro-
nounced thinning of the individual units within the postrift Haima
(Late Cambrian–Early Silurian) Group, but the unconformity at the
base of the overlying Haushi (Permian) Group cuts into increasingly
older formations toward the east and indicates differential uplift oc-
curred during the Carboniferous. The Mesozoic formations clearly
display an easterly thinning wedge and show that the missing over-
burden at unconformities during this period is less than that between
the Permian Haushi and Late Cambrian–Early Silurian Haima
groups. The base Tertiary unconformity displays again clear under-
lying truncations.
Figure 21. Map showing
thermal provinces in Oman. Ap-
atite fission track (AFT) data in-
dicate that the only area at
near maximum temperature to-
day is western Oman.
Terken et al. 1843
 Missing overburdens at these unconformities have been quan-
tified from seismic data, compaction trends from sonic velocity logs,
FT analyses, and maturities estimates (vitrinite reflectance estimates)
derived from coals (desmocollinite), solid hydrocarbons, and oils
(biomarker ratios, Tmax). The FT data indicate that a large part of
Oman experienced maximum temperatures during the Paleozoic
(Figure 21). Areas currently at maximum burial temperature are re-
stricted to the Fahud salt basin, the foreland basin in northwestern
north Oman, and the Rub’ Al-Khali basin in western south Oman
(Visser, 1991; Indrelid and Terken, 2000). Significant erosion of
some 2500 m along the east flank and up to 800 m in the west is
estimated to have occurred prior to Haushi (Permian) Group dep-
osition, whereas a similar tilting during the Late Triassic may have
removed some 600 m of Triassic–Permian Akhdar Group sediments
in the east. Uplift along the east flank of the basin in the Tertiary
may amount to 1000 m; however, the contribution by hydrodynamic
fluid-flow activity to the observed cooling of the east flank is difficult
to quantify.
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