Conservation Laws and Symmetry

Dr. Kristel Toroko

February 22, 2014

Background
Suppose we have a particle of mass m in one spatial dimension. It has position x, which gives the
distance from some arbitrary origin, shown below.

Note - although the position of the origin is arbitrary, once it is chosen, it is fixed. The first time
derivative of the position, dx
dt , gives the speed of the particle, and the second time derivative of the
2

position, d 2x , gives the acceleration of the particle. Note: the derivative means the rate of change.
dt
We can now define the linear momentum of the particle, p, as mass times speed
p=m

dx
dt

Newtons Second Law of Motion states that the net force F on the particle is equal to the rate of
change of its linear momentum,
dp
F =
dt
.

Background
Suppose F is a conservative force, this means that the work done by F in moving a particle from
point A to point B is not dependent on the path taken.

Note: in particular, if the particle travels in a closed loop, the net work done by a conservative force
is zero. Here the work done by a conservative force F is the same independent of which of the above
paths was taken between A and B. Examples of conservative forces include gravity and the spring
force. Examples of non-conservative forces include friction. A conservative force depends only on the
position of the particle and it can be expressed as the negative rate of change of a potential u,
F =

@u
@x

@
In general, the potential u can be a function of position x and time t, u = u(x, t). The notation @x
means a partial derivative with respect to x, and @u
means
that
we
only
dierentiate
u(x,
t)
with
@x
respect to x, keeping any other variables such as t constant. Thus, for a particle of mass m in a
conservative force field, we can write Newtons Second Law of motion as

dp
=
dt
.

@u
@x

Conservation Laws

Conservation of a particular measurable property of a physical system, such as linear momentum p,

means that this property does not change as the system evolves, i.e. dp
dt = 0.
If something does not change, it means the rate of change is zero, and thus this something is a
constant, or an invariant.
From Newtons Laws of motion, we can derive the following conservation laws:
(i) the conservation of linear momentum p :

dp
dt

(ii) the conservation of angular momentum L :

(iii) the conservation of energy E :

dE
dt

=0
dL
dt

=0

=0

These conservation laws, although derived from Newtons laws, can be generalised to situations
beyond the reach of classical physics. Furthermore, in the following chapter we will connect these
conservation laws to the continuous symmetries of space and time.

Symmetries 1 - Translations in Space

This symmetry is based on the idea that space is the same everywhere, sometimes called the
homogeneity of space. Since space is the same everywhere, we expect the laws of Physics to be the
same everywhere.
Consider a particle of mass m at position x from some origin O. In this frame it has linear
momentum px = m dx
dt .
The same particle considered in a dierent frame has position x 0 from O 0 and has linear momentum
0
px0 = m dx
dt .
The two frames are related by a linear translation x 0 = x
, with some constant, such that
d(x )
d
px0 = m dt
= m dx
dt = px , since dt = 0. So,
0

px = px
Thus, the linear momentum is translation invariant. Furthermore, recalling Newtons Second Law
@u
of motion dp
dt =
@x , we see that for an isolated system, that is, a system with no external forces
F = 0 or @u
=
0,
the
linear momentum is conserved/unchanged, dp
@x
dt = 0, by any parallel
displacement of the entire system in space.

Symmetries 1 - Translations in Space

The concept of an isolated system is useful for understanding a basic principle. Be we should also
consider what happens when we have an external potential u = u(x, t). Under the above translation
u ! u(x 0 , t) = u(x
, t) and in general @u
@x 6= 0. Thus for systems in an external field the
momentum is conserved only if the potential does not depend on x, i.e. the potential is a constant
du
or a function of time, and thus dx = 0, which gives by Newtons Second Law of motion dp
dt = 0, the
condition for linear momentum conservation.
In 3 dimensions, we can have 3 conserved quantities: px , py , pz provided that
@u
@z

= 0 respectively.

Let us illustrate this by the following example.

@u
@x

= 0,

@u
@y

= 0 and

Projectile in 2 dimensions: particle of mass m in a gravitational field

Initially we give the potential a horizontal velocity v , such that at t = 0 the horizontal component of
speed is dx
dt and the vertical component of speed is 0. The particle has momentum in two directions
: horizontal px and vertical py .
No changes in the horizontal direction, no external forces in x direction ! symmetry, i.e.
x
horizontally the particle keeps doing what it started o doing, dp
dt = 0. In the vertical direction, we
have an external field - gravity. This breaks the symmetry, i.e. up is dierent from down. No
dp
@u
symmetry ! No conserved quantity. Py not conserved. dty = @y
6= 0.

Projectile in 2 dimensions: particle of mass m in a gravitational field

Consequently, in the vertical direction the particles momentum changes, such that vertically the
particle does not continue doing what it started o doing, and the resulting trajectory is shown in
the diagram.