Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
To cite this article: Paul Tracey (2012) Religion and Organization: A Critical Review
of Current Trends and Future Directions, The Academy of Management Annals, 6:1,
87-134, DOI: 10.1080/19416520.2012.660761
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2012.660761
PAUL TRACEY
Judge Business School, University of Cambridge
Abstract
Given the profound role that religion continues to play in contemporary
societies, it is surprising that management researchers have not explored the
intersection between religion and organization in a more meaningful and
determined way. This may be because religion is considered too far removed
from the commercial organizations that form the empirical focus of much
work in the discipline, or simply because it is deemed too sensitive. Whatever
the reason, the upshot is that we know relatively little about the dynamics of
religious organizational forms or the inuence of these forms (and the
values and practices that underpin them) on broader social processes and
other kinds of organization. This paper is designed to highlight the potential
of religion as a domain of study in management and to provide concrete suggestions for taking forward research in this area. The paper consists of three
parts. I begin by reviewing some of the key literature in the sociology of religion
and religious organizations. I then evaluate the existing literature on religion
Email: p.tracey@jbs.cam.ac.uk
87
88
Introduction
The eld of complex organizations is rich with insight, theory, and analytical
technique. The arena of religious organizations is rich with distinctive organizational designs, special interorganizational relationships, and a large presence across the landscape of society. Religious organizations have long
served as foundries of organizational forms and issues. Thus, there is
immense potential for research payoff in attending to them. The eld of
complex organizations would be well-advised to treat religious institutions
more seriously, and scholars of religion would do well to study the emerging
scholarship on organizations of all sorts. (Demerath & Schmitt, 1998, p. 396)
Despite the predictions of secularization theory, the importance of religious
beliefs and practices to contemporary forms of organization has arguably
increased in recent decades. Indeed, from the mid-1970s onwards, a series of
major socio-political events have forced religion back onto the scholarly table
for social scientists to consider (Smith, 2008, p. 1561). These events include
the rise of religious conservatism and the evangelical movement in the US, the
growth of Pentecostalism across Africa, Latin America and large swathes of
Asia, and most obviously the emergence of militant forms of Islam and their conict with the West. But religion has also had important effects on other domains,
including those of commerce. For example, religious groups have played a key
role in the rise of the fair trade movement (Clarke, Barnett, Cloke, & Malpass,
2007), the social enterprise and social business movements (Spear, 2007), and
spearheaded the move to encourage institutional investors, particularly global
pension funds, to consider social problems as important foci of their investment
strategies (Proftt & Spicer, 2006). More broadly, with the notable exception of
Western Europe, much of the world is as religious as it has ever been, and in
some places is more religious than ever (Berger, 2001, p. 445).
And yet, for the most part, management researchers have stubbornly
refused to engage meaningfully with religion and religious forms of organization, or to consider the effects of religious beliefs and practices on secular
organizations. Of course, there are some important exceptions. There is a signicant body of work connecting religion and business ethics, and the notion
of workplace spirituality has also generated considerable attention. However,
these debates have largely taken place outside the major journals, and can
hardly be said to have permeated thinking on management and organization.
Indeed, my review of the mainstream management literature identied just 86
papers that engage with the topic of religion. Moreover, the existing literature
89
90
outline what I see as the main theoretical traditions in the sociology of religion
with relevance to management and organization.
91
There are two main strands to Webers thinking (McKinnon, 2010). The rst,
and the one for which he is particularly well known, is his writing on the Protestant Ethic (Weber, 1904 5/1965). The crux of his argument here is that
various Protestant beliefs and practices fused together at a particular point
in time to undermine the traditional economic order and to produce the capitalist spirit. This spirit was driven by both the notion of a vocation or calling
(that God is served through work) and the idea that hard work can lead to salvation (and the avoidance of damnation). The result is that Protestants hold
values and beliefs that encourage discipline, hard work, integrity and thrift.
The second strand to Webers work, and arguably the most important,
involved a comparative sociology designed to explore the role of religion in
shaping the development of different parts of the world (including books on
Confucianism and Taoism in China, and Hinduism and Buddhism in India).
He was clear that the relationship between religion and society (or ethic and
context) must be understood by considering each case individually. His
central idea is that each religion has a primary status group with a particular
lifestyle and prestige, whose members associate with one another but exclude
those from other groups. It is Webers contention that the beliefs and practices
of the dominant status groups provide the basis of the cultures of whole
societies.5
Durkheim approached the study of religion from a functionalist perspective, and was essentially interested in its social consequences (Davie, 2006).
For Durkheim (1912/1995), religion has four core features (Ramp, 2010).
First, it is a collective phenomenon. Second, it comprises beliefs and practices.
Third, it is not the same as magic. Fourth, it is based on a fundamental distinction between the sacred and the profane. It is, of course, the distinction
between the sacred and the profane for which Durkheims work on religion
is most well-known. The sacred is set apart from everyday activities, while
the profane has a functional quality, and is used or consumed for a particular
purpose. However, objects are not intrinsically sacred. They become so
because of the meaning that is ascribed to them by religious communities
in the context of specic situations that are repeated over time (a Christian
drinking a glass of wine in a bar would not consider the wine to represent
the blood of Christ, as she would do in the context of a church communion).
Crucially, all sacred objects represent parts of the collective. The sacred thus
has a totemic quality, converting the collective into a set of categories which
form the basis of a system of meaning or logic in a particular society. In light
of this, Durkheims work has been criticized for equating religion to nothing
more than the symbolic expression of religious experience (Davie, 2006,
p. 175). Nonetheless, the idea that objects become sacred in a given organization because of the collective meaning ascribed to them by a particular community has important implications for the study of organizations, both
religious and secular.6
92
93
94
95
96
97
Table 1 Number of Papers in the Main Management Journals that Include a Focus on Religion
Journal title
0
1
5
2
10
1
2
31
1
0
3
1
2
5
5
0
6
1
6
3
1
Each paper was assigned to a theme with the exception of Bartunek (2006)
who offers a personal reection on her own career and work, and Cooper
(2007) who uses the Church to illustrate his postmodern critique of organization as a social body or collection of organs (p. 1547) and whose article
dees straightforward classication. Again, the process of assigning papers to
themes was not an exact one, and some of the papers could have been classied
within multiple themes. A list of the papers assigned to each category is
included in Table 2. In the remainder of this section, I summarize some of
the key papers from each theme, where relevant connecting with related
ideas and literatures, and evaluate the key insights that they offer.
Religion and the Environment
Ten of the papers included in my review examine the relationship between religious organizations and the contexts in which they are embedded and/or the
effects of religious beliefs and values on the cultural or institutional environments of organizations. Four of the ten draw explicitly on ideas from social
movement theory. For example, Hiatt, Sine, and Tolbert (2009) show how
a faith-based social movement organization, the Womens Christian
Creed, W.E.D., DeJordy, R., & Lok, J. (2010). Being the change: Resolving institutional contradiction through identity
work. Academy of Management Journal, 53(6), 13361364.
Hiatt, S.R., Sine, W.D., & Tolbert, P.S. (2009). From Pabst to Pepsi: The deinstituionalization of social practices and the
creation of entrepreneurial opportunities. Administrative Science Quarterly, 54(4), 635 667.
Jenkins, J.C. (1977). Radical transformation of organizational goals. Administrative Science Quarterly, 22(4), 568586.
Khan, F.R., & Koshul, B.B. (2011). Lenin in Allahs court: Iqbals critique of Western capitalism and the opening up of the
postcolonial imagination in critical management studies. Organization, 18(3), 303 322.
King, M.D., & Haveman, H.A. (2008). Antislavery in America: The press, the pulpit, and the rise of antislavery societies.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 53(3), 492 528.
Nelson, R.E. (1989). Organization-environment isomorphism, rejection, and substitution in Brazilian Protestantism.
Organization Studies, 10(2), 207 224.
Nelson, R.E. (1993). Authority, organization, and societal context in multinational churches. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 38(4), 653 682.
Proftt, W.T., & Spicer, A. (2006). Shaping the shareholder activism agenda: Institutional investors and global social
issues. Strategic Organization, 4(2), 165 190.
Robertson, A. (1969). Penal policy and social change. Human Relations, 22(6), 547 563.
Smith, E.A. (1957). Bureaucratic organization: Selective or saturative. Administrative Science Quarterly, 2(3), 361 375.
Coghlan, D. (1987). Corporate strategy in Catholic religious orders. Long Range Planning, 20 (1), 44 51.
Hussey, D.E. (1974). Corporate planning for a church. Long Range Planning, 7(2), 61 64.
King, M., & Smith, D.K. (1982). Planning the deployment of clergy. Long Range Planning, 15(2), 104111.
McGrath, P. (2005). Thinking differently about knowledge-intensive rms: Insights from early mediaeval Irish
monasticism. Organization, 12(4), 549 566.
Miller, K.D. (2002). Competitive strategies of religious organizations. Strategic Management Journal, 23(5), 435456.
Papers
Subject category
98
Table 2 Breakdown of Papers in the Main Management Journals that Include a Focus on Religion by Subject Category
4. Organizational culture
(n 2)
5. Power, authority and
discrimination (n 10)
99
3. Organizational change
(n 7)
Odom, R.Y., & Boxx, W.R. (1988). Environment, planning processes, and organizational performance of churches.
Strategic Management Journal 9(2), 197 205.
Pearce II, J.A., Fritz, D.A., & Davis, P.S. (2010). Entrepreneurial orientation and the performance of religious
congregations as predicted by rational choice theory. Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice, 34(1), 219 248.
Wasdell, D. (1980). Long range planning and the church. Long Range Planning, 13(3), 99 108.
Webb, R.J. (1974). Organizational effectiveness and the voluntary organization. Academy of Management Journal, 17(4),
663 677.
Bartunek, J.M. (1984). Changing interpretive schemes and organizational restructuring: The example of a religious order.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 29(3), 355 372.
Bartunek, J., & Franzak, F. (1988). The effects of organizational restructuring on terms of reference and cooperation.
Journal of Management, 14(4), 579 592.
Bartunek, J.M., & Ringuest, J.L. (1989). Enacting new perspectives through work activities during organizational reform.
Journal of Management Studies, 26(6), 541 560.
Ludwig, D.C. (1993). Adapting to a declining environment: Lessons from a religious order. Organization Science, 4(3),
41 56.
Kohl, J.P. (1984). Strategies for growth: Intervention in a church. Long Range Planning, 17 (6),
76 81.
Mintzberg, H., & Westley, F. (1992). Cycles of organizational change. Strategic Management Journal, 13(S2), 39 59.
Plowman, D.A., Baker, L.T., Beck, T.E., Kulkarni, M., Solansky, S.T., & Travis, D.V. (2007). Radical change accidentally:
The emergence and amplication of small change. Academy of Management Journal, 50(3), 515 543.
Angus, L.B. (1993). Masculinity and women teachers at Christian Brothers College. Organization Studies, 14(2), 235 260.
Sorensen, B.M. (2010). St. Pauls conversion: The aesthetic organization of labour. Organization Studies, 31(3), 307 326.
Dietrich, D. (1981). Holocaust as public policy: The Third Reich. Human Relations, 34(6), 445 462.
Ghumann,S., & Jackson, L. (2010). The downside of religious attire: the Muslim headscarf and expectations of obtaining
employment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(1), 4 23.
Hinings, C.R., & Bryman, A. (1974). Size and the administrative component in churches. Human Relations, 27(5), 457 475.
Katz, E. & Zloczower, A. (1961). Ethnic continuity in an Israeli town. Human Relations, 14(4), 293 308.
Kleiner, R.J., Tuckman, J. & Lavell, M. (1959). Mental disorder and status based on religious afliation. Human Relations,
12(3), 273 276.
Lauer, R.H. (1973). Organizational punishment: Punitive relations in a voluntary associationa minister in a Protestant
church. Human Relations, 26(2): 189202.
Satow, R.L. (1975). Value-rational authority and professional organizations: Webers missing type. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 20(4), 526 531.
Watson, J. (1950). Some social and psychological situations related to change in attitude. Human Relations, 3(1), 15 56.
Weima, J. (1965). Authoritarianism, religious conservatism, and sociocentric attitudes in Roman Catholic groups. Human
Relations, 18(3): 231 239.
Wilken, P.H. (1971). Size of organizations and member participation in church congregations. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 16(2), 173 179.
Anson, O., Carmel, S., Bonneh, D.Y., Levenson, A., & Maoz, B. (1990). Recent life events, religiosity, and health: An
individual or collective effect. Human Relations, 43(11), 10511066.
Chusmir, L.H., & Koberg, C.S. (1988). Religion and attitudes towards work: A new look at an old question. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 9(3), 251262.
Drakopoulou Dodd, S., & Spearman, P.T. (1998). Religion and enterprise: An introductory explanation. Entrepreneurship
Theory & Practice, 23(Fall), 71 86.
Friedlander, F. (1975). Emerging and contemporary lifestyles: An inter-generational issue. Human Relations, 28(4)
329 347.
Furnham, A. (1997). The half full or half empty glass: The views of the economic optimist vs. pessimist. Human Relations,
50(2), 197 209.
Jones Jr., H.B. (1997). The Protestant ethic: Webers model and the empirical literature Human Relations, 50(7), 757 778.
Laumann, E.O., & Rapoport, R.N. (1968). The institutional effect on career achievements of technologists: A multiple
classication analysis. Human Relations, 21(3), 227 239.
6. Religion and
individual behavior in
organizations (n 11)
Papers
Subject category
100
Table 2 Breakdown of Papers in the Main Management Journals that Include a Focus on Religion by Subject Category (Continued)
8. Comparative studies
(n 8)
101
7. Business ethics (n 2)
Nielsen, E., & Edwards, J. (1982). Perceived feminine role orientation and self-concept Human Relations, 35(7),
547 558.
Reilly, M.E. (1978). A case study of role conict: Roman Catholic priests. Human Relations, 31(1), 77 90.
Sagie, A., & Elizur, D. (1996). The structure of personal values: A conical representation of multiple life ideas. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 17(S1), 573 586.
Senger, J. (1970). The religious manager. Academy of Management Journal, 13(2), 179 196.
Boling, T.E. (1978). The management ethics crisis: An organizational perspective. Academy of Management Review,
3(2), 360 365.
Bell, E., Taylor, S., & Driscoll, C. (forthcoming). Varieties of organizational soul: The ethics of belief in organizations.
Organization.
Ajiferuke, M., & Boddewyn, J. (1970). Socioeconomic indicators in comparative management. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 15(4), 453 458.
Dow, D., & Karunaratna, A. (2006). Developing a multidimensional instrument to measure psychic distance stimuli.
Journal of International Business Studies, 37(5), 578 602.
Greif, A. (1996). The study of organizations and evolving organizational forms through history: Reections from the late
medieval family rm. Industrial and Corporate Change, 5(2), 473 502.
Niles, F.S. (1999). Towards a cross-cultural understanding of work-related beliefs. Human Relations, 52(7), 855 867.
Parboteeah, K.P., Hoegl, M., & Cullen, J. (2009). Religious dimensions and work obligation: A country institutional prole
model. Human Relations, 62(1), 119 148.
Sagy, S., Orr, E., & Bar-On, D. (1999). Individualism and collectivism in Israeli society: Comparing religious and secular
high-school students. Human Relations, 52(3), 327 348.
Schiffman, L.G., Dillon, W.R., & Ngumah, F.E. (1981). The inuence of subcultural and personality factors on consumer
acculturation. Journal of International Business Studies, 12(2), 137143.
Tang, L., & Koveos, P.E. (2008). A framework to update Hofstedes cultural value indices: economic dynamics and
institutional stability. Journal of International Business Studies, 39, 1045 1063.
Cairns, E., & Mercer, G.W. (1984). Social Identity in Northern Ireland. Human Relations, 37 (12), 1095 1102.
10. Workplace
spirituality (n 9)
Essers, C., & Benschop, Y. (2009). Muslim businesswomen doing boundary work: The negotiation of Islam, gender and
ethnicity in entrepreneurial contexts. Human Relations, 62 (3), 403 423.
Gutierrez, B., Howard-Grenville, J., & Scully, M., (2010). The faithful rise up: Split identication and an unlikely change
effort. Academy of Management Journal, 53(4), 673 699.
Hall, D.T., & Schneider, B. (1972). Correlates of organizational identication as a function of career pattern and
organizational type. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17(3), 340 350.
Herriott, P., & Scott-Jackson, W. (2002). Globalization, social identities and employment British Journal of Management,
13(2), 249 257.
Hofman, J. (1982). Social identity and the readiness for social relations between Jews and Arabs in Israel. Human
Relations, 35(9), 727 741.
Mael, F., & Ashforth, B.E. (1992). Alumni and their alma mater: A partial test of the reformulated model of organizational
identication. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13(2), 103 123.
Maoz, I., Bar-On, D., Bekermann, Z., & Jaber-Massarwa, S. (2004). Learning about good enough through bad enough:
A story of a planned dialogue between Israeli Jews and Palestinians. Human Relations, 57(9), 1075 1101.
Maoz, I., Steinberg, S., Bar-On, D., & Fakhereldeen, M. (2002). The dialogue between the Self and the Other: A
process analysis of Palestinian-Jewish encounters in Israel. Human Relations, 55(8), 931 962.
Weaver, G.R., & Agle, B.R. (2002). Religiosity and ethical behavior in organizations: A symbolic interactionist perspective.
The Academy of Management Review, 27(1) 77 97.
Bell, E., & Taylor, S. (2003). The elevation of work: Pastoral power and the new age work ethic. Organization, 10(2), 329
349.
Bell, E., & Taylor, S. (2004). From outward bound to inward bound: The prophetic voices and discursive practices of
spiritual management development. Human Relations, 57(4) 439466.
Boyle, M .V., & Healy, J. (2003). Balancing mysterium and onus: Doing spiritual work with an emotion-laden
organizational context. Organization, 10(2), 351 373.
Papers
Subject category
102
Table 2 Breakdown of Papers in the Main Management Journals that Include a Focus on Religion by Subject Category (Continued)
103
Cash, K., & Gray, G. (2000). A framework for accommodating religion and spirituality in the workplace. Academy of
Management Executive, 14 (3), 124 133.
Cullen, J.G. (2009). How to sell your soul and still get into Heaven: Steven Coveys epiphany-inducing technology of
effective selfhood. Human Relations, 62(8), 1231 1254.
Driver, M., (2005). From empty speech to full speech? Reconceptualizing spirituality in organizations based on a
psychoanalytically-grounded understanding of the self. Human Relations, 58(9), 1091 1110.
Fry, L., & Kriger, M. (2009). Towards a theory of being-centred leadership: Multiple levels of being as context for effective
leadership. Human Relations, 62(11), 1167 1696.
Lynn, M.L., Naughton, M.J., & VanderVeen, S. (2011). Connecting religion and work: Patterns and inuences of workfaith integration. Human Relations, 64(5), 675 701.
Zaidman, N., Goldstein-Gidoni, O., & Nehemya, I. (2009). From temples to organizations: The introduction and
packaging of spirituality. Organization, 16(4), 597 62.
Ackers, P., & Preston, D. (1997). Born again? The ethics and efcacy of the conversion experience in contemporary
management development. Journal of Management Studies, 34(5), 677 701.
Finch-Lees, T., Mabey, C., & Liefooghe, A. (2005). In the name of capability: A critical discursive evaluation of
competency-based management development. Human Relations, 58(9), 1185 1222.
Gabriel, Y. (1997). Meeting God: When organizational members come face to face with
the supreme leader. Human Relations, 50(4), 315 342.
Hall, D.T., & Chandler, D.E. (2005). Psychological success: When the career is a calling. Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 26(2), 155 176.
Shenkar, O. (1996). The rm as a total institution: Reections on the Chinese state enterprise. Organization Studies, 17(6),
885 907.
Wilson, F. (1992). Language, technology, gender, and power. Human Relations, 45(9), 883 904.
Bartunek, J., (2006). The Christmas gift: A story of dialectics. Organization Studies, 27(12), 1875 1894.
Cooper R. (2007). Organs of process: Rethinking human organization. Organization Studies, 28(10), 1547 1573.
104
105
106
107
Organizational Change
It is interesting that, while relatively small in overall numbers (n7), several
of the management papers on religion that have arguably had the greatest
visibility and inuence focus on organizational change. These papers
include three by Jean Bartunek, the organizational scholar whose work on
religion is perhaps the most well-known. The empirical setting for all three
papers is an organizational restructuring in an international womens
Roman Catholic religious order, which involved the creation of a single
national province in the US to replace ve existing provinces. While the
empirical setting is the same, the data used in each paper are different.
Bartunek (1984) shows how organizational members shared interpretive
schemes were altered as the structure of the order changed. In a second
paper, Bartunek and Franzak (1988) explore how changes in organization
structure affect frames of reference and cooperation. More specically, the
authors set out to examine the extent to which the merger of the ve provinces into a single province had succeeded in changing organizational
members understanding of key concepts, and the extent to which the
merger had succeeded in promoting cooperation between different groups
in the order. In a third paper, Bartunek and Ringuest (1989) focus on the
effects of organizational change on lower level organizational members.
They found that different groups in the organization had varying experiences
of the change process, with some developing new interpretive schemes and
others retaining the existing ones. Interestingly, lower level members who,
through their work, developed and enacted new interpretive schemes were
less likely to be appointed to organizational committees and more likely to
leave the order. Those members who enacted new interpretive schemes and
who remained in the order came to view themselves as less important in
the eyes of organizational leaders, but more inuential in the order as a
whole.
The way that Bartunek and her co-authors treat their empirical context is
interesting; the religious setting is in many ways downplayed, with the focus
on the organizational dynamics associated with the restructuring of the
order. Two of the papers have sections that directly address the implications
of the setting in which the research took place. For example, Bartunek and
Ringuest note that religious orders differ from other work settings with
respect to their identity dynamics and the role of the environment. But
rather than minimizing. . . [the studys] applicability to other settings, the
authors argue that the context of a religious order highlights the value of
researchers attending to some aspects of transformation that have not yet
received very much attention (p. 556). This statement neatly captures the
potential of studying religious organizations. Not only do we learn about
particular organizational forms that have seldom been subject to systematic
108
analysis by organization theorists, but there is also the potential to gain fresh
perspectives on the study of organizations in general.
In addition to the work of Bartunek and her co-authors, there are other
important papers that examine religious organizations and change. For
instance, Mintzberg and Westley (1992) developed a model of change based
on different types of cycle. Intriguingly, in order to illustrate their model
they used cases in world religion. According to the authors, all organizations experience circumstances in which their existence is threatened, but
what distinguishes the world religions is that they have found ways to
sustain themselves through these changes (p. 52). This arguably makes
them particularly interesting settings through which to study change. In
doing so, they draw parallels between the strategies of the Catholic Church
in thirteenth century Italy and IBM (both of which sought to control and
isolate change in a strategy they term enclaving), the Protestant church in
eighteenth century North America and Hewlett Packard (both of which
sought to respond to change by encouraging a pluralism in points of view
in a strategy they term cloning), and early Buddhism in India and the
Body Shop (both of which sought to maintain the intensity of charismatic leadership into the later stages of organizational development in a strategy
termed uprooting). In developing these arguments, the authors show creatively the link between religious organizations and contemporary management practices.
A more recent paper by Plowman et al. (2007) also makes important theoretical contributions to the literature on change. Drawing on a compelling single
case study, the authors question dominant perspectives which have tended to
classify change as (1) episodic or continuous (e.g. Weick & Quinn, 1999) or (2)
convergent or radical (e.g. Tushman and Romanelli, 1985). The authors
examine how a small and apparently minor changein this case, the decision
of a group of young people who belonged to a church in the Southwest of the
US to offer hot breakfasts to homeless people each Sunday morningcan be
amplied by small subsequent actions, leading to unplanned radical change.
The actions in question involved one of the volunteers (a physician) who
served food on Sunday mornings deciding to offer free medical advice,
which in turn led to a wave of full-scale medical, dental and orbital clinics
based at the church, which in turn precipitated funding to provide job training,
legal assistance, and other support services for homeless people, which in turn
led to homeless people joining the church and radically altering its culture,
creating tensions and conict in the process.
Like much of the change literature in management, these papers emphasize
the complexity of organizational change and the difculties of managing it purposefully. But by focusing on a very different context, that of religious organizations, they shift our attention to aspects of the change process which, though
present, may be less visible in a for-prot context.
109
Organizational Culture
It is perhaps surprising given both its central place in management theory
and its obvious relevance to religious organizations that organizational
culture hardly features at all in this review, with just two papers on the
topic. In one of the papers, Angus (1993) uses an ethnographic study of a
Catholic boys school in a provincial Australian city to explore the construction of masculine subjectivities (p. 235) in the school and of women teachers experiences of the organizations coercive, physical, competitive,
individualistic culture. He notes that the schools culture, and more specically its gender regime (p. 253), is internalized in a complex manner by
pupils. The internalization of gender stereotypes was part of the hidden
curriculum (p. 253) of the school, but was reinforced through more
formal practices and indeed the academic curriculum itself. Several
women teachers sought to contest aspects of the schools culture, and succeeded in developing more productive and supportive relationships with students, at least in their own classes. But the struggle was not an easy one, as it
involved challenging the norms and practices rooted in a particular form of
Catholicism.
Sorensens (2010) paper is focused on organizational aesthetics rather than
culture per se, and compares two versions of the Conversion of Saint Paul by
Caravaggio (the Italian Renaissance painter) with two contemporary forms
of organization. The rst version of the painting was rejected by the Catholic
Church, while the second was accepted. The two versions provide radically
different interpretations of what conversion can accomplish (p. 308). Sorensens argument is designed to highlight how aesthetic artifacts are used both
for the purposes of control and serve as a locus of resistance and a means
of escape (p. 308).
These two papers hint strongly at the promise of the concept of organizational culture in the study of religion. However, one of the papers is almost
20 years old, and neither explicitly taps into the so-called second wave
(Dacin & Weber, 2007, p. 742) of cultural analysis in organization studies;
the more recent literature on the topic emphasizes the potential of culture as
both a resource and a constraint on behavior, as well as the relationship
between an organizations culture and broader social processes. Given the idiosyncratic nature, and indeed the sheer strength in terms of social control, of the
cultures that characterize many religious organizations, this is clearly an area
that is ripe for further investigation.
Power, Authority, and Discrimination
Ten of the papers were categorized as being concerned with power, authority,
or discrimination, although several of the articles in other categories, most
notably organizational change and organizational culture, are also of course
110
concerned to a large extent with aspects of power and control. Two key insights
can be drawn from this group of papers.
First, the exercise of authority and control pose distinct problems in the
context of religious organizations. For example, in an important study of
Church of England and Methodist churches in England, Hinings and
Bryman (1974) argue that, in contrast to for-prot rms, religious organizations may need to increase the proportion of administrative staff as they
grow in order to exert effective control. This is explained by (1) organizational
complexity, dened by the number of different tasks performed, which is high
in religious organizations11 and (2) the spatial dynamics of religious organizations, with tasks allocated on a geographical basis, which reduces the scope
to generate administrative efciencies. The authors conclude that religious
organizations may operate within constraints over which they have little or
no control, and with belief systems that do not put a great stress on rationality
or efciency (p. 474).
In addition, Wilken (1971) argues that religious organizations face particular difculties when seeking to control and encourage the participation of their
members (i.e. their congregations), because they cannot turn to the nancial
incentives used in utilitarian organizations or the physical sanctions used
in coercive organizations. These problems are likely to increase as the size of
the congregation increases. Partly because of the challenges of control outlined
by Hinings and Bryman and by Wilken, ideological norms, rather than formal
rules or sanctions, constitute a particularly strong basis of control in religious
organizations. Indeed, the ability of organizational leaders to ensure
compliance from followers depends, in part, on the extent to which the
content of the instructions is consistent with the goals of the ideology
(Satow, 1975).
A second key insight from this group of papers is that members of religious
faiths may be discriminated against on the grounds of their religion. This might
be because of their religious attire which makes them stand out, leading to discrimination in the workplace as in the case of Muslim women in the United
States (Ghumman & Jackson, 2010). Or it might be because of deliberate
attempts by the state or other powerful actors to vilify and demonize a particular religious group, as was the case in the Third Reich, leading ultimately to
state-sanctioned mass murder (Dietrich, 1981). Discrimination can also have
less obvious implications for members of religious faiths. For example,
Kleiner, Tuckman, and Lavell (1959) show that the frustration that emanates
from discrimination may manifest itself in increased mental health problems.
However, social attitudes toward particular religious groups are not static, and
social interaction between different groups may play an important role in ameliorating discrimination (Watson, 1950). Clearly, these papers only scratch the
surface of the issues relating to power, authority, and discrimination in the
context of religion.
111
112
religious managers were more likely to be rated highly with respect to all-round
competence, they were less likely to be promoted to very senior positions (cf.
Laumann & Rapoport, 1968). On the basis of his ndings, Senger speculates
that religious managers will have a positive effect on the workplace because
they are likely to pursue their socially oriented goals while at work, improving
the working conditions of all organizational members. Other researchers found
relationships between religious beliefs and role orientation (Nielsen &
Edwards, 1982), lifestyle (Friedlander, 1975), and optimism (Furnham, 1997).
The upshot is that the management literature does not offer a clear picture
of the effects of religious beliefs on individual values, attitudes, or behavior in
organizations. Nor does it tap directly into work in other social sciences that
distinguishes more concretely between ve core dimensions of individual religiosity (Stark & Glock, 1968): (1) the experiential dimension (individual religious feelings concerning communication with a divine power); (2) the
ideological dimension (beliefs about the nature of the divine); (3) the intellectual dimension (knowledge about particular doctrines); (4) the ritual dimension (individual religious practices); and (5) the consequential dimension
(the connection between non-religious and religious beliefs, experiences, and
practices). While these dimensions are not uncontested (Brechon, 2007), engaging meaningfully with them may provide management researchers with an
important opportunity to move work in this area forward. Specically, understanding more about how individual religiosity affects behavior has the potential to shed light on a range of key issues in management including leadership,
power and politics, and decision-making.
Business Ethics
Closely related to the previous section on religion and individual behavior in
organizations is the topic of business ethics. Only two papersBoling (1978)
and Bell, Taylor, and Driscoll (forthcoming)were placed in this category,
although Weaver and Agle (2002), discussed below, could also have been
included. Bowlings paper argues that the dominant theistic approach to
business ethics, which focuses on Judeo-Christian morality, is inadequate in
the context of complex modern corporations, and calls instead for cooperative
ethical contracts (p. 363) in which rms devote as much energy to developing
and enforcing ethical codes as they do to effective production and
management.
Writing from a critical management perspective, Bell et al. (forthcoming)
also suggest that current conceptions of business ethics, which in the US are
rooted partly in cultural traditions that stem from inspirational religion
(p. 3), are inadequate because they do not encourage organizational members
to question critically the norms and practices that they encounter. They
argue that the nineteenth century philosopher, psychologist, and physician
113
William James idea of a sick organizational soul has the potential to provide
a more robust ethical framework for businesses because it encourages an
ethical skepticism in organizational activities (p. 1).
While my review has only identied a small number of papers pertaining to
religion and business ethics in the mainstream management journals, a signicant literature on this topic does exist in the specialist business ethics and ethics
journals, most notably Journal of Business Ethics and Business Ethics Quarterly.
At the core of this work is the question of whether people who hold religious
beliefs are more or less likely to behave ethically than people who do not hold
such beliefs. As one might expect, there is evidence to support both positions
(see Rashid & Ibrahim 2008 for a review). While this debate has a somewhat
sterile feel to it, the role of particular individuals and organizations in precipitating the recent global nancial crisis has again xed a spotlight rmly on
ethical behavior in corporations, and developing a more nuanced understanding of the role of religion in this context certainly seems an issue deserving of
attention in the leading management journals. It is also important to note that
the study of ethics in organizations need not only relate to corporations but
may apply equally to religious organizations. For example, an edited collection
of papers by Bartunek, Hinsdale, and Keenan (2006) explores Church ethics in
its organizational context, and considers the ethical issues raised by the sex
abuse scandal in the Catholic Church.
Comparative Studies
Eight papers adopted what can be termed a comparative perspective, looking at
religion as aspects of different national cultures and the effects on (mostly individual) behavior. For example, in a study that sought to update Hofstedes
(1980) cultural dimensions framework, Tang and Koveos (2008) found that
religion has an important effect on individualism and uncertainty avoidance
in a given country, while Schiffman, Dillon, and Ngumah (1981) sought to
show, somewhat unconvincingly in practice, that there are meaningful personality differences (p. 142) between Christians and Muslims in Nigeria.
Niles (1999) conducted a study designed to compare the meaning of work in
Christian Australia and Buddhist Sri Lanka. He found no signicant difference
in how people perceived work in either country. However, he did nd that Sri
Lankans are more strongly committed to hard work, but that Australians have
a stronger belief in the link between hard work and workplace success. In a particularly interesting paper, Parboteeah, Hoegl, and Cullen (2009) draw on Kostovas (1999) study of country institutional proles to show that there are
positive relationships between some aspects of religion and the norms surrounding work obligation. The researchers also found negative relationships
between countries characterized by state religionwhere the government
regulates religion by, for instance, appointing religious leaders and collecting
114
115
What comes through from these papers is that religion matters for identity.
However, there is a very large literature on social identity in the context of religious organizations in sociology and social psychology (see Greil & Davidman,
2007 and Ysseldyk, Matheson, & Anisman, 2010), and this represents a
crowded space for management researchers to enter. An area where management scholars arguably have greater potential to make a distinctive contribution concerns the role of religious identity in secular organizations. For
example, exploring the relationship between individuals religious identity
and their professional identity, the tensions and contradictions that may
exist between them, and the processes through which they are reconciled,
has the potential to make an important contribution.
Workplace Spirituality
The topic of workplace spirituality (including related ideas such as spiritual leadership and spiritual management development (SMD)) featured relatively
prominently, with nine papers pertaining to this subject in the journals that
formed the focus of my review. There has, of course, been an explosion of
work on this topic in other disciplines and other parts of the management literature, and there are specialist journalssuch as Journal of Management
Spirituality and Religion, and Journal of Spirituality Leadership and Managementdevoted to various aspects of workplace spirituality (see Ashforth &
Pratt, 2003, and Liu & Robertson, 2011 for reviews). As a concept, spirituality
has its roots in psychology. As noted below, there is little agreement in the
management literature on what spirituality is or how to dene it, but based
on a synthesis of the literature Ashforth and Pratt (2003) posit that spirituality
comprises three core dimensions: (1) transcendence of the self (i.e. a belief that
one is connected to other people, ideas, nature, or some kind of higher
power); (2) holism and harmony (i.e. the integration of different aspects of
ones self into a coherent and symbiotic conception of the self); and (3)
growth (i.e. a clear sense of what one is seeking to become and what one
needs to do to achieve self-actualization).
With regard to the scholarship on workplace spirituality in the mainstream literature, some authors strongly support both the practice of spiritual
management and the need for greater scholarly inquiry into the topic.
Fry and Kriger (2009), for instance, argue that being-centered leadership
has the potential to provide a truly dynamic, multi-level contingency
theory of leadership that indicates where and how the highest levels of
self-actualization can be lived (p. 1690). In a similar vein, Cash and Gray
(2000) posit that accommodating spirituality in the workplace can help
employees nd meaning in their lives. Others offer a different view. Most
notably, Bell and Taylor (2004, p. 439) warn against the dangers of SMD,
arguing that by dening managerial identity in terms of the inner self
116
117
In a similar vein, Wilson (1992) shows how women are marginalized in organizations through the use of various discourses, including discourses characterized by religious metaphors rooted in the Christian faith, some of which are
evangelical in nature, while the religious order is one of four organizational
forms that Shenkar (1996) uses to illustrate the organization of Chinese
state-owned enterprises.
The central point to be gleaned from all of these papers is that religious
ideas and practices may seep powerfully into other types of organization, particularly those that place strong demands on their members. These papers are
important, because they call into question the neat distinction between religious and secular organizational forms. It other words, it could be regarded
as undermining the continued relevance of Durkheims insight that the
sacred is best understood in contrast to the profane, and Webers idea that
the rise of legal-rational authority is a corollary of religious secularization. I
turn again to the role of religious ideas and practices in secular organizations
towards the end of the following section.
118
limited repertoire of institutional concepts, most notably diffusion, isomorphism, and legitimacy. Certainly, there has been less engagement with
the conceptual tools that underpin recent work in the organizational
version of new institutional theory, such as institutional logics (Greenwood,
Diaz, Li, & Lorente, 2010), institutional entrepreneurship (Maguire, Hardy,
& Lawrence, 2004), institutional work (Lawrence & Suddaby, 2006), and
translation (Sahlin & Wedlin, 2008), or with the scholarship that has
sought to rediscover the microfoundations of institutions (Barley, 2008).
This suggests there is a signicant opportunity for organizational theorists
to recongure institutional analyses of religion in the context of religious
and secular organizations, as well as to extend organizational institutionalism
by exploring institutional ideas in a novel context. For example, the rise of
new religious movements offers fertile ground to examine the role of
agency in the creation and legitimation of new forms of organization with
the capacity to exert a remarkably powerful inuence over their members.
Conversely, the deep-rooted taken-for-grantedness of some religious
organizations raises interesting issues from an institutional perspective
(Demerath & Schmitt, 1998) and poses a distinct set of challenges for organizations, as has been shown in the case of the Catholic Church (Seidler &
Meyer, 1989).
Perhaps the most exciting opportunity to extend institutional analysis
involves a focus on the logic of religion, one of six meta-institutions at the
core of new institutional theory (Thornton, 2004), which to the best of my
knowledge has not been systematically examined within organizational institutionalism. In this respect, institutional theorys growing interest in institutional
complexitysituations where organizations experience a multiplexity of
different pressures from a plurality of institutional logics (Greenwood,
Raynard, Kodeih, Micelotta, & Lounsbury, 2011, p. 357)offers particular
promise. A recent review of the institutional complexity literature by Greenwood et al. (2011) highlights that the existing scholarship is characterized by
two key shortcomings: (1) a preoccupation with a limited range of institutional
logics, and (2) an assumption that where organizations are affected by two or
more logics, these logics are inevitably incompatible.
A focus on the logic of religion would expand the range of logics examined
in institutional theory, and might also undermine the notion of incompatibility
between logics. Certainly, it would be very interesting to examine how different
organizational forms engage with the logic of religion. For example, faith-based
businesses have a long history of combining the logic of the market with the
logic of religion. Much of the British confectionary industry (including
Cadbury, Frys, and Rowntrees) was established by Quakers who explicitly
drew on their religious principles in the organization of their ventures, and
more recently an increasing number of corporations in the US appear to be
characterizing themselves as faith-based,14 with some rms beginning
119
120
121
Entrepreneurship
In my review, I found only three papers directly concerned with entrepreneurship (Drakopoulou Dodd & Spearman 1998; Essers & Benschop, 2009; Pearce
et al., 2010). However, I believe there to be signicant potential to connect
scholarship on entrepreneurship with religion. Most obviously, it has
become apparent that a signicant proportion of social entrepreneurial activity
is initiated by religious organizations, or by individuals acting because of their
religious faith (Spear, 2007). For example, Mondragon in Spain has been
labeled the most successful social enterprise in the world and employs more
than 80,000 people. It was founded by Father Jose Maria Arizmendiarreta, a
young Catholic priest who established the rst Mondragon co-operative in
1959, and who wanted to promote community development in ways consistent
with Catholic social teaching. Similarly, one of the most high-prole social
enterprises in the UK, the Bromley By Bow Centre, was founded by Andrew
Mawson, a Church of England Minister who sought to use the church to
help regenerate the local community and revitalize the church itself. In
doing so, he stripped the pews out of the church so that the building could
be used for a variety of community purposes and thus better serve local
needs. Despite the prominent roles of certain religious individuals and organizations in the global social enterprise movement, the relationship between
religious beliefs and social entrepreneurship has seldom been explored, and
this represents an untapped opportunity.
A second possibility for connecting entrepreneurship and religion is to use
ideas from entrepreneurship in the context of religious start-ups. For
example, the concepts of opportunity recognition (Ardichvili, Cardozo, &
Ray, 2003), bricolage (Baker & Nelson, 2005), and entrepreneurial capabilities
(Alvarez & Busenitz, 2001) could all be used to help understand the factors
underpinning the successful creation of new religious organizations and movements. At the same time, exploring these concepts in the context of religion
offers the possibility of augmenting the theories themselves and broadening
their applicability and scope. A nal possibility is to draw on work from the
corporate entrepreneurship literature to better understand the performance
of religious organizations. This offers an alternative but complementary perspective to the RBV and dynamic capabilities, discussed above. As noted,
Pearce et al. (2010) combine RCT from the sociology of religion with the
122
Organizational Control
A fth area of potential for management scholars with an interest in religion
concerns the concept of organizational control. The notion of control is fundamental to organization, and features prominently in early management theory
from Taylors scientic management, to the human relations paradigm, to the
Carnegie school (Dunbar & Statler, 2010). In recent years, however, the notion
of control has become somewhat marginal in the management literature. Religious organizations face particular challenges with respect to control because
they rely on belief systems the veracity of which cannot be proved. This
implies that the forms of managerial and strategic control that have been the
traditional concern of organization theorists (e.g. Dornbusch & Scott, 1975)
may not be relevant in this context. Instead, it suggests that peer control
(organizational members monitoring one anothers behavior) and identitybased control (reliance on collective identity to affect member behavior) may
play a particularly important role. These perspectives have been identied as
being important, but poorly understood, mechanisms for control in corporations (e.g. Loughry, 2010; Van Maanen, 2010). Because of the distinctive
control problems facing religious organizations, exploring peer and identitybased control in these contexts might highlight the processes underpinning
such mechanisms especially clearly.
The study of control also brings into sharp focus the dark side of religion; it
is apparent that religious organizations may, intentionally or unintentionally,
promote discrimination by emphasizing the welfare of adherents over
members of other faiths. Moreover, while religious organizations may be a
force for good, they may also be places that promote hatred, and twist religious
teaching to suit self-serving ends. For example, some preachers, most notably
in Nigeria and other African counties, continue to exploit vulnerable people by
promising them salvation and deliverance from evil in return for signicant
nancial rewards.17 And at the time of writing, ultra-Orthodox Jews in the
city of Beit Shemesh are seeking to enforce gender segregation by, inter alia,
pressuring men and women to sit apart on public transportation and harassing
women who are deemed to be dressing inappropriately.18 Understanding the
dynamics that underpin these kinds of behavior may complement and help
to extend research on control, exploitation, and corruption in other types of
organization, including corporations, which has been a particular focus of
attention for critical management scholars (Delbridge, 2010).
I see two additional areas of study to which management researchers interested in these issues might be especially well-placed to contribute. One is the
123
124
and commitment (p. 354). He also gives a compelling account of the process
of conversion to the Amway way of life, and describes the key role of the charismatic leadership that features so prominently in many religious organizations. The reader is left with a clear sense of how the symbolism and use of
language in the company draws implicitly and explicitly on
organized religion.19
As noted above, the relationship between the sacred and the secular has
received some attention in the management literature. In addition to the
papers previously discussed, Ashforth and Vaidyanath (2002) examine
work organizations as secular religions (p. 359), and Harrison, Ashforth,
and Corley (2009) build a theoretical model of sacrilization that explores
how actors at multiple levels are motivated to construct a sense of the inviolable (p. 225). These are important contributions, but in general, we still have a
relatively rudimentary understanding of the role of the sacred and the
dynamics of sacrilization in secular organizational forms, and their relationship to systems of meaning inside and outside of organizations. In this
regard, there is clearly an opportunity for management researchers to
connect with the recent wave of culture research in organization theory in
which the role of rituals and ceremonies features prominently.
Conclusion
Few management scholars are likely to dispute the profound role of religion
in most economies and societies. Yet, somewhat curiously, religion has been
largely excluded from systematic analysis in the main scholarly journals in
the discipline. It is notable that with the partial exception of Administrative
Science Quarterly, religion hardly features at all in the major journals that
count for tenure at the leading business schools. The picture is also true
for the other main management journals included in my review; only
Human Relations has a substantive number of papers on the topic. In
addition, it is notable that there is an overwhelming focus on Western
Christianity, with relatively little having been written on other religions
and only limited focus on countries outside North America and Europe.
In this article, I have outlined the key debates in the sociology of religion
and religious organizations, which may offer theoretical insights or points
of departure for management scholars with an interest in religion. I have
also reviewed the literature in the mainstream management journals in
order to highlight the existing debates and to show the state of the art.
Finally, I have suggested some directions for future research. These directions are inevitably based, in part, on my own interests and interpretation
of the literature, but will hopefully help to generate ideas for, and responses
from, management scholars seeking to contribute to this crucial but neglected area of inquiry.
125
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Ian Glover and Royston Greenwood for extended comments
on an earlier draft. This work was supported by the Economic and Social
Research Council (grant number 60354).
Endnotes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Dening religious organizations is far from straightforward. Indeed, one is hardpressed to think of a characteristic of religious organizations which is nowadays
not also shared by non-religious organizations (Beckford, 1985, p. 126). While
reluctant to offer a clear-cut denition, I nd myself most convinced by Chaves
(1993, p. 149) who asserts that a religious authority structurea social structure
that attempts to enforce its order and reach its ends by controlling the access of
individuals to some desired good, where the legitimation of that control includes
some supernatural component, however weakconstitutes the dening feature
of religious organizations. In addition to undeniably religious organizations
(Torry, 2005, p. 16) such as mosques, Christian congregations, synagogues, and
Sikh and Hindu temples, other organizations that are inuenced by religious
authority include faith-based charities, NGOs, schools, and universities.
McKinnon (2010, p. 33) points out that this has not stopped Stark seeking to
make Adam Smith a classic sociologist of religion!
See also Marx and Engels (1846/1970).
See McKinnon (2010) for a more comprehensive overview of Marxs work on
religion.
See Collins (2007) for a more comprehensive review on Webers ideas on religion.
See Ramp (2010) for a more comprehensive review of Durkheims work on
religion.
See Dawson (2011) for a comprehensive critique of church-sect theory.
This initial typology has been extensively elaborated upon. For example, Wiese
and Becker (1932) produced a fourfold classication of different kinds of
church (the ecclesia, the sect, the denomination, and the cult), while Yinger
(1957) developed a sixfold classication (the universal church, the ecclesia, the
domination, the established sect, the sect, and the cult). For parsimony, I limit
my discussion to the church-sect distinction.
While journals such as Long Range Planning and Organization may be less prominent in a North American context, they constitute important outlets for European management researchers.
This insight is consistent with church-sect theory as discussed above.
Hinings and Bryman note that, in the context of the Church of England, this
places signicant pressure on the clergy (see also Lauer, 1973).
See Brechon (2007) for a comprehensive review of the research and the empirical
challenges of comparative study with respect to individual religiosity.
See also DiMaggio (1998) for an interesting discussion of how organization theory
could strengthen the social scientic analysis of religion.
14.
Retrieved
from
http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Business/story?id=1503742
(accessed 29 December 2011).
See, for example, Nimon, Philibert, and Allens (2008) study of corporate chaplaincy programs.
Retrieved from http://newepistles.com/2009/08/13/the-evangelical-church-inthe-uk-is-on-the-rise/ (accessed 30 December 2011).
Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindiano
cean/nigeria/3407882/Child-witches-of-Nigeria-seek-refuge.html (accessed 28
December 2011).
Retrieved from http://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2011/12/26/ultra-orthodox-dema
nds-spark-debate-in-israel/ (accessed 28 December 2011).
See also Pratt (2000).
15.
16.
17.
126
18.
19.
References
Ackers, P., & Preston, D. (1997). Born again? The ethics and efcacy of the conversion
experience in contemporary management development. Journal of Management
Studies, 34(5), 677 701.
Alvarez, S.A., & Busenitz, L. (2001). The entrepreneurship of resource-based theory.
Journal of Management, 27, 755 775.
Angus, L.B. (1993). Masculinity and women teachers at Christian Brothers College.
Organization Studies, 14(2), 235 260.
Ardichvili, A., Cardozo, R., & Ray, S. (2003). A theory of entrepreneurial opportunity
identication and development. Journal of Business Venturing, 18, 105 123.
Ashforth, B.E., & Pratt, M.G. (2003). Institutionalized spirituality: An oxymoron? In
R.A. Giacalone & C.L. Jurkiewicz (Eds.), The handbook of workplace spirituality
and organizational performance (pp. 93 107). Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.
Ashforth, B.E., & Vaidyanath, D. (2002). Work organizations as secular religions.
Journal of Management Inquiry, 11(4), 359 370.
Baker, T., & Nelson, R.E. (2005). Creating something from nothing: Resource construction through entrepreneurial bricolage. Administrative Science Quarterly, 50,
329 366.
Barley, S.R. (2008). Coalface institutionalism. In R. Greenwood, C. Oliver, K. Sahlin, &
R. Suddaby (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of organizational institutionalism
(pp. 491 518). London: Sage.
Barney, J.B. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of
Management, 17, 99 120.
Bartunek, J.M. (1984). Changing interpretive schemes and organizational restructuring:
The example of a religious order. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29(3),
355 372.
Bartunek, J.M. (2006). The Christmas gift: A story of dialectics. Organization Studies,
27(12), 1875 1894.
Bartunek, J.M., & Franzak, F. (1988). The effects of organizational restructuring on
terms of reference and cooperation. Journal of Management, 14(4), 579 592.
Bartunek, J.M., Hinsdale, M.A., & Keenan, J.F. (Eds.). (2006). Church ethics and its
organizational context: Learning from the sex abuse scandal in the Catholic
Church. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littleeld.
127
Bartunek, J.M., & Ringuest, J.L. (1989). Enacting new perspectives through work activities during organizational reform. Journal of Management Studies, 26(6), 541 560.
Beckford, J.A. (1985). Religious organizations. In P.E. Hammond (Ed.), The sacred in a
secular age (pp. 125 138). The Hague, The Netherlands: Mouton.
Bell, E., & Taylor, S. (2004). From outward bound to inward bound: The prophetic
voices and discursive practices of spiritual management development. Human
Relations, 57(4), 439 466.
Bell, E., Taylor, S., & Driscoll, C. (forthcoming). Varieties of organizational soul: The
ethics of belief in organizations. Organization.
Berger, J. (2003). Religious non-governmental organizations: An exploratory analysis.
Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprot Organizations, 14,
15 39.
Berger, P.L. (2001). Reections on the sociology of religion today. Sociology of Religion,
62(4), 425 429.
Boling, T.E. (1978). The management ethics crisis: An organizational perspective.
Academy of Management Review, 3(2), 360 365.
Breault, K.D. (1989). New evidence on religious pluralism, urbanism, and religious participation. American Sociological Review, 54, 1048 1053.
Brechon, P. (2007). Cross-national comparisons of individual religiosity. In J.A.
Beckford & N.J. Demerath, III (Eds.), The Sage handbook of the sociology of religion (pp. 463 489). London: Sage.
Bromley, D.G. (1998). Transformative movements and quasi-religious corporations:
The case of Amway. In N.J. Demerath, III P.D. Hall, T. Schmitt, & R.H.
Williams (Eds.), Sacred companies: Organizational aspects of religion and religious aspects of organizations (pp. 349 363). New York: Oxford University
Press.
Bromley, D.G. (2011). New religions as a specialist eld of study. In P.B. Clarke (Ed.),
The Oxford handbook of the sociology of religion (pp. 724 741). Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press.
Brown, T.J., Dacin, P.A., Pratt, M.G., & Whetten, D.A. (2006). Identity, intended
image, construed image, and reputation: An interdisciplinary framework and
suggested terminology. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34(2),
99 106.
Bryant, J. (2000). Cost-benet accounting and the piety business: Is homo religiosus, at
bottom, a homo economicus? Method and Theory in the Study of Religion, 12,
520 548.
Cairns, E., & Mercer, G.W. (1984). Social Identity in Northern Ireland. Human
Relations, 37(12), 10951102.
Cash, K., & Gray, G. (2000). A framework for accommodating religion and spirituality
in the workplace. Academy of Management Executive, 14(3), 124 133.
Chaves, M. (1993). Denominations as dual structures: An organizational analysis.
Sociology of Religion, 54(2), 147 169.
Chaves, M. (1996). Ordaining women: The diffusion of an organizational innovation.
The American Journal of Sociology, 101, 840 873.
Chaves, M., & Gorski, P.S. (2001). Religious pluralism and religious participation.
Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 261 268.
Chusmir, L.H., & Koberg, C.S. (1988). Religion and attitudes towards work: A new look
at an old question. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 9(3), 251 262.
128
Clarke, N., Barnett, C., Cloke, P., & Malpass, A. (2007). The political rationalities of
fair-trade consumption in the United Kingdom. Politics and Society, 35(4),
583 607.
Collins, R. (2007). The classical tradition in sociology of religion. In J.A. Beckford & N.J.
Demerath, III (Eds.), The Sage handbook of the sociology of religion (pp. 19 38).
London: Sage.
Cooper, R. (2007). Organs of process: Rethinking human organization. Organization
Studies, 28(10), 1547 1573.
Cormode, D.S. (1998). Does institutional isomorphism imply secularization? Churches
and secular voluntary associations in the turn-of-the-century city. In N.J.
Demerath, III P.D. Hall, T. Schmitt, & R.H. Williams (Eds.), Sacred companies:
Organizational aspects of religion and religious aspects of organizations
(pp. 116 131). New York: Oxford University Press.
Creed, W.E.D., DeJordy, R., & Lok, J. (2010). Being the change: Resolving institutional
contradiction through identity work. Academy of Management Journal, 53(6),
1336 1364.
Dacin, M.T., & Weber, K. (2007). Special issue on the cultural construction of organizational life. Organization Science, 18(4), 742 743.
Davie, G. (2006). Sociology of religion. In R.A. Segal (Ed.), The Blackwell companion to
the study of religion (pp. 171 191). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Dawson, L.L. (2011). Church-sect-cult: Constructing typologies of religious groups. In
P.B. Clarke (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of the sociology of religion (pp. 525 544).
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Delbridge, R. (2010). Critical perspectives on organizational control: Reections and
prospects. In S.B. Sitkin, L.B. Cardinal, & K.M. Bijlsma-Frankema (Eds.),
Organizational control (pp. 80108). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Demerath, N.J., III, Hall, P.D., Schmitt, T., & Williams, R.H. (1998). Preface. In N.J.
Demerath, III P.D. Hall, T. Schmitt, & R.H. Williams (Eds.), Sacred companies:
Organizational aspects of religion and religious aspects of organizations
(pp. v xiii). New York: Oxford University Press.
Demerath, N.J., III, & Schmitt, T. (1998). Transcending sacred and secular: Mutual
benets in analyzing religious and nonreligious organizations. In N.J.
Demerath, III P.D. Hall, T. Schmitt, & R.H. Williams (Eds.), Sacred companies:
Organizational aspects of religion and religious aspects of organizations
(pp. 381 400). New York: Oxford University Press.
Dietrich, D. (1981). Holocaust as public policy: The Third Reich. Human Relations,
34(6), 445 462.
DiMaggio, P. (1998). The relevance of organization theory to the study of religion. In
N.J. Demerath, III P.D. Hall, T. Schmitt, & R.H. Williams (Eds.), Sacred companies: Organizational aspects of religion and religious aspects of organizations
(pp. 7 23). New York: Oxford University Press.
Dornbusch, S.M., & Scott, W.R. (1975). Evaluation and the exercise of authority.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Drakopoulou Dodd, S., & Spearman, P.T. (1998). Religion and enterprise: An introductory explanation. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 23, 71 86.
Dunbar, R.L.M., & Statler, M. (2010). A historical perspective on organizational control.
In S.B. Sitkin, L.B. Cardinal, & K.M. Bijlsma-Frankema (Eds.), Organizational
control (pp. 16 48). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
129
Durkheim, E. (1912/1995). Elementary forms of religious life. New York: Free Press.
Essers, C., & Benschop, Y. (2009). Muslim businesswomen doing boundary work: The
negotiation of Islam, gender and ethnicity in entrepreneurial contexts. Human
Relations, 62(3), 403 423.
Finch-Lees, T., Mabey, C., & Liefooghe, A. (2005). In the name of capability: A critical
discursive evaluation of competency-based management development. Human
Relations, 58(9), 11851222.
Finke, R., & Iannaccone, L.R. (1993). Supply-side explanations for religious change.
Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, 527(1), 27 39.
Finke, R., & Stark, R. (1988). Religious economies and sacred canopies: Religious mobilization in American cities, 1906. American Sociological Review, 53(1), 41 9.
Friedlander, F. (1975). Emerging and contemporary lifestyles: An inter-generational
issue. Human Relations, 28(4), 329 347.
Fry, L., & Kriger, M. (2009). Towards a theory of being-centred leadership: Multiple levels
of being as context for effective leadership. Human Relations, 62(11), 1167 1696.
Furnham, A. (1997). The half full or half empty glass: The views of the economic optimist vs. pessimist. Human Relations, 50(2), 197 209.
Gabriel, Y. (1997). Meeting God: When organizational members come face to face with
the supreme leader. Human Relations, 50(4), 315 342.
Ghumman, S., & Jackson, L. (2010). The downside of religious attire: the Muslim headscarf and expectations of obtaining employment. Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 31(1), 4 23.
Gilbert, A.D. (1980). The making of post-Christian Britain: A history of the secularization of modern society. London & New York: Longman.
Gioia, D.A., Price, K.N., Hamilton, A.L., & Thomas, J.B. (2010). Forging an identity: An
insider outsider study of processes involved in the formation of organizational
identity. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55(1), 1 46.
Greenwood, R., Diaz, A.M., Li, S.X., & Lorente, J.C. (2010). The multiplicity of institutional logics and the heterogeneity of organizational responses. Organization
Science, 21(2), 521 539.
Greenwood, R., Raynard, M., Kodeih, F., Micelotta, E.R., & Lounsbury, M. (2011).
Institutional complexity and organizational responses. Academy of
Management Annals, 5(1), 317 371.
Greil, A.L., & Davidman, L. (2007). Religion and identity. In J.A. Beckford & N.J.
Demerath, III (Eds.), The Sage handbook of the sociology of religion
(pp. 549 565). London: Sage.
Greve, H.R., Palmer, D., & Pozner, J. (2010). Organizations gone wild: The causes,
process, and consequences or organizational misconduct. Academy of
Management Annals, 4(1), 53 107.
Gutierrez, B., Howard-Grenville, J., & Scully, M. (2010). The faithful rise up: Split identication and an unlikely change effort. Academy of Management Journal, 53(4),
673 699.
Hall, D.T., & Chandler, D.E. (2005). Psychological success: When the career is a calling.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(2), 155 176.
Hamilton, M. (2011). Rational choice theory: A critique. In P.B. Clarke (Ed.), The
Oxford handbook of the sociology of religion (pp. 116 133). Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press.
130
Hammond, P.E., & Machacek, D.W. (2011). Religion and the state. In P.B. Clarke (Ed.),
The Oxford handbook of the sociology of religion (pp. 391 405). Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press.
Hannigan, J.A. (1991). Social movement theory and the sociology of religion: Toward a
new synthesis. Sociological Analysis, 52(4), 311 331.
Harrison, S.H., Ashforth, B.E., & Corley, K.G. (2009). Organizational sacralization and
sacrilege. In B.M. Staw & A.P. Brief (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior
(pp. 225 254). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier.
Hiatt, S.R., Sine, W.D., & Tolbert, P.S. (2009). From Pabst to Pepsi: The deinstituionalization of social practices and the creation of entrepreneurial opportunities.
Administrative Science Quarterly, 54(4), 635 667.
Hinings, C.R., & Bryman, A. (1974). Size and the administrative component in
churches. Human Relations, 27(5), 457 475.
Hofman, J. (1982). Social identity and the readiness for social relations between Jews
and Arabs in Israel. Human Relations, 35(9), 727 741.
Hofstede, G.H. (1980). Cultures consequences: International differences in work-related
values. London: Sage.
Iannaccone, L.R. (1988). A formal model of church and sect. American Journal of
Sociology, 94, S241 S268.
Khan, I. (2000, October 2). The Mullahs vs. the NGOs. Newsweek, 44, p.
King, M.D., & Haveman, H.A. (2008). Antislavery in America: The press, the pulpit, and
the rise of antislavery societies. Administrative Science Quarterly, 53(3), 492 528.
Kleiner, R.J., Tuckman, J., & Lavell, M. (1959). Mental disorder and status based on religious afliation. Human Relations, 12(3), 273 276.
Kostova, T. (1999). Transnational transfer of strategic organizational practices: A contextual perspective. Academy of Management Review, 24, 308 324.
Kunde, J. (2000). Corporate religion. London: Financial Times Prentice Hall.
Lauer, R.H. (1973). Organizational punishment: Punitive relations in a voluntary associationa minister in a Protestant church. Human Relations, 26(2), 189 202.
Laumann, E.O., & Rapoport, R.N. (1968). The institutional effect on career achievements of technologists: A multiple classication analysis. Human Relations,
21(3), 227 239.
Lawrence, T.B., & Suddaby, R. (2006). Institutional work. In S. Clegg, C. Hardy, T.
Lawrence, & W. Nord (Eds.), Handbook of organization studies (2nd ed.,
pp. 215 254). London: Sage.
Liu, C.H., & Robertson, P.J. (2011). Spirituality in the workplace: Theory and measurement. Journal of Management Inquiry, 20, 35 50.
Loand, J., & Stark, R. (1965). Becoming a world saver: A theory of conversion to a
deviant perspective. American Sociological Review, 30, 863 874.
Loughry, M.L. (2010). Peer control on organizations. In S.B. Sitkin, L.B. Cardinal, &
K.M. Bijlsma-Frankema (Eds.), Organizational control (pp. 324362).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lucas, P.C. (1995). The odyssey of a new religion: The Holy Order of MANS from new age
to orthodoxy. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Lumpkin, G.T., & Dess, G.G. (2001). Linking two dimensions of entrepreneurial orientation to rm performance: The moderating role of environment and industry life
cycle. Journal of Business Venturing, 16(5), 429 451.
131
LynnM.L., Naughton, M.J., & VanderVeen, S. (2011). Connecting religion and work:
Patterns and inuences of work-faith integration. Human Relations, 64(5), 675701.
Maguire, S., Hardy, C., & Lawrence, T.B. (2004). Institutional entrepreneurship in emerging elds: HIV/AIDS treatment advocacy in Canada. Academy of Management
Journal, 47, 657 679.
Maoz, I., Bar-On, D., Bekermann, Z., & Jaber-Massarwa, S. (2004). Learning about
good enough through bad enough: A story of a planned dialogue between
Israeli Jews and Palestinians. Human Relations, 57(9), 1075 1101.
Maoz, I., Steinberg, S., Bar-On, D., & Fakhereldeen, M. (2002). The dialogue between
the Self and the Other: A process analysis of Palestinian-Jewish encounters
in Israel. Human Relations, 55(8), 931 962.
Marx, K. (1843/1972). Contribution to the critique of Hegels philosophy of the right:
Introduction. In C. Tucker (Ed.), The Marx-Engels reader (pp. 11 23).
New York: W.W. Norton.
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1846/1970). The German ideology. New York: International
Publishers.
McGrath, P. (2005). Thinking differently about knowledge-intensive rms: Insights
from early mediaeval Irish monasticism. Organization, 12(4), 549 566.
McKinnon, A. (2010). The sociology of religion: The foundations. In B.S. Turner (Ed.),
The new Blackwell companion to the sociology of religion (pp. 33 51). Oxford, UK:
Blackwell.
McVeigh, R., & Sikkink, D. (2001). God, politics, and protest: Religious beliefs and the
legitimation of contentious tactics. Social Forces, 79(4), 1425 58.
Miller, K.D. (2002). Competitive strategies of religious organizations. Strategic
Management Journal, 23(5), 435 456.
Mintzberg, H., & Westley, F. (1992). Cycles of organizational change. Strategic
Management Journal, 13(S2), 39 59.
Nelson, R.E. (1989). Organization-environment isomorphism, rejection, and substitution in Brazilian Protestantism. Organization Studies, 10(2), 207 224.
Nelson, R.E. (1993). Authority, organization, and societal context in multinational
churches. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38(4), 653682.
Nielsen, E., & Edwards, J. (1982). Perceived feminine role orientation and self-concept.
Human Relations, 35(7), 547 558.
Niles, F.S. (1999). Towards a cross-cultural understanding of work-related beliefs.
Human Relations, 52(7), 855 867.
Nimon, K., Philibert, N., & Allen, J. (2008). Corporate chaplaincy programs: An
exploratory study relates corporate chaplain activities to employee assistance programs. Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion, 5(3), 231 263.
Olson, D.V.A. (1998). Comment: religious pluralism in contemporary U.S counties. .
American Sociological Review, 63, 759 761.
Parboteeah, K.P., Hoegl, M., & Cullen, J. (2009). Religious dimensions and work
obligation: A country institutional prole model. Human Relations, 62(1),
119 148.
Pearce, J.A., II, Fritz, D.A., & Davis, P.S. (2010). Entrepreneurial orientation and the
performance of religious congregations as predicted by rational choice theory.
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 34(1), 219 248.
Peters, T.J., & Waterman, R.H. (1982). In search of excellence: Lessons from Americas
best run companies. New York: HarperCollins.
132
Plowman, D.A., Baker, L.T., Beck, T.E., Kulkarni, M., Solansky, S.T., & Travis, D.V.
(2007). Radical change accidentally: The emergence and amplication of small
change. Academy of Management Journal, 50(3), 515 543.
Pratt, M. (2000). The good, the bad, and the ambivalent: Managing identication among
Amway distributors. Administrative Science Quarterly, 45, 456493.
Proftt, W.T., & Spicer, A. (2006). Shaping the shareholder activism agenda:
Institutional investors and global social issues. Strategic Organization, 4(2),
165 190.
Ramp, W. (2010). Durkheim and after: Religion, culture and politics. In B.S. Turner
(Ed.), The new Blackwell companion to the sociology of religion (pp. 52 75).
Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Rashid, M.D., & Ibrahim, S. (2008). The effect of culture and religiosity on business
ethics: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of Business Ethics, 82(4),
907 917.
Ravasi, D., & Schultz, M. (2006). Responding to organizational identity threats:
Exploring the role of organizational culture. Academy of Management Journal,
49(3), 433 458.
Robbins, T., & Lucas, P.C. (2007). From cults to new religious movements: Coherence,
denition and conceptual framing in the study of new religious movements. In
J.A. Beckford & N.J. Demerath, III (Eds.), The Sage handbook of the sociology
of religion (pp. 227 247). London: Sage.
Robertson, R. (1970). The sociological interpretation of religion. New York, NY:
Schocken.
Sagie, A., & Elizur, D. (1996). The structure of personal values: A conical representation
of multiple life ideas. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17(S1), 573 586.
Sahlin, K., & Wedlin, L. (2008). Circulating ideas: Imitation, translation and editing. In
R. Greenwood, C. Oliver, K. Sahlin, & R. Suddaby (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of
organizational institutionalism (pp. 218 242). London: Sage.
Saroglou, V. (2011). Believing, bonding, behaving, and belonging: The big four religious
dimensions and cultural variation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 42(8),
1320 1340.
Satow, R.L. (1975). Value-rational authority and professional organizations: Webers
missing type. Administrative Science Quarterly, 20(4), 526 531.
Scheitle, C.P., & Hahn, B.B. (2011). From the pews to policy: Specifying evangelical
Protestantisms inuence on states sexual orientation policies. Social Forces,
89(3), 913 933.
Schiffman, L.G., Dillon, W.R., & Ngumah, F.E. (1981). The inuence of subcultural and
personality factors on consumer acculturation. Journal of International Business
Studies, 12(2), 137 143.
Seidler, J., & Meyer, K. (1989). Conict and change in the Catholic Church. New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Senger, J. (1970). The religious manager. Academy of Management Journal, 13(2),
179 196.
Shenkar, O. (1996). The rm as a total institution: Reections on the Chinese state
enterprise. Organization Studies, 17(6), 885 907.
Smith, C. (2008). Future directions in the sociology of religion. Social Forces, 86(4),
1561 1589.
133
Snow, D., & Machalek, R. (1984). The sociology of conversion. Annual Review of
Sociology, 10, 167 190.
Sorensen, B.M. (2010). St. Pauls conversion: The aesthetic organization of labour.
Organization Studies, 31(3), 307 326.
Spear, R. (2007, June). Religion and value-based social entrepreneurship. Paper presented
at the 3rd International Social Entrepreneurship Research Conference (ISERC),
Copenhagen Business School, Copenhagen.
Stark, R. (2004). SSSR Presidential Address, 2004: Putting an end to ancestor worship.
Journal for the Scientic Study of Religion, 43(4), 465 475.
Stark, R., & Bainbridge, W.S. (1985). The future of religion. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press.
Stark, R., & Bainbridge, W.S. (1987). A theory of religion. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
Stark, R., & Finke, R. (2000). Acts of faith. Explaining the human side of religion.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Stark, R., & Glock, C.Y. (1968). American piety. Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press.
Stout, H.S., & Cormode, D.S. (1998). Institutions and the story of American religion: A
sketch of a synthesis. In N.J. Demerath, III P.D. Hall, T. Schmitt, & R.H.
Williams (Eds.), Sacred companies: Organizational aspects of religion and religious aspects of organizations (pp. 62 78). New York, NY: Oxford University
Press.
Tang, L., & Koveos, P.E. (2008). A framework to update Hofstedes cultural value
indices: economic dynamics and institutional stability. Journal of International
Business Studies, 39, 1045 1063.
Teece, D., Pisano, G., & Shuen, A. (1997). Dynamic capabilities and strategic management. Strategic Management Journal, 18(7), 509 533.
Thornton, P.H. (2004). Markets from culture: Institutional logics and organizational
decisions in higher education publishing. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Torry, M. (2005). Managing Gods business: Religious and faith-based organizations and
their management. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing.
Troeltsch, E. (1911/1976). The social teaching of the Christian Churches. Chicago, IL:
University of Chicago Press.
Tushman, M., & Romanelli, E (1985). Organizational evolution: A metamorphosis
model of convergence and reorientation. In L.L. Cummings & B.M. Staw
(Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 171222). Greenwich, CT: JAI
Press.
Van Maanen, J. (2010). Identity work and control in occupational communities. In S.B.
Sitkin, L.B. Cardinal, & K.M. Bijlsma-Frankema (Eds.), Organizational control
(pp. 111 166). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Voas, D., Olson, D., & Crockett, A. (2002). Religious pluralism and participation: Why
previous research is wrong. American Sociological Review, 67(2), 212 230.
Wang, L., & Murnighan, J.K. (2011). On greed. Academy of Management Annals, 5(1),
279 316.
Watson, J. (1950). Some social and psychological situations related to change in attitude.
Human Relations, 3(1), 15 56.
Weaver, G.R., & Agle, B.R. (2002). Religiosity and ethical behavior in organizations: A
symbolic interactionist perspective. The Academy of Management Review, 27(1),
77 97.
134
Weber, M. (1904 5/1965). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. London:
Allen & Unwin.
Weick, K.E., & Quinn, R.E. (1999). Organizational change and development. Annual
Review of Psychology, 50, 361 386.
Wernerfelt, B. (1984). A resource-based view of the rm. Strategic Management Journal,
5, 171 180.
Wiese, L., & Becker, H. (1932). Systematic sociology. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Wilde, M.J., Geraty, K., Nelson, S., & Bowman, E. (2010). Religious economy or organizational eld? Predicting bishops votes at the Second Vatican Council. American
Sociological Review, 75(4), 586 606.
Wilken, P.H. (1971). Size of organizations and member participation in church congregations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16(2), 173 179.
Wilson, F. (1992). Language, technology, gender, and power. Human Relations, 45(9),
883 904.
Yinger, J.M. (1957). Religion, society, and the individual. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Ysseldyk, R., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2010). Religiosity as identity: Toward an
understanding of religion from a social identity perspective. Personality and
Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 60 71.
Zald, M.N., & McCarthy, J.D. (1998). Religious groups as crucibles of social movements.
In N.J. Demerath, III P.D. Hall, T. Schmitt, & R.H. Williams (Eds.), Sacred companies: Organizational aspects of religion and religious aspects of organizations
(pp. 24 49). New York: Oxford University Press.