PATRICK BLACKETT IN INDIA: MILITARY CONSULTANT AND SCIENTIFIC INTERVENOR, 194772.

PART TWO
Author(s): Robert S. Anderson
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 53, No. 3 (September 1999),
pp. 345-360
Published by: The Royal Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41236974 .
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NotesRee. R. Soc. Lond.53 (3), 345-359 (1999)

1999The RoyalSociety

PATRICKBLACKETT IN INDIA: MILITARY CONSULTANT

AND SCIENTIFIC INTERVENOR,1947-72.PARTTWO

by
RobertS. Anderson
SimonFraserUniversity,
BritishColumbia,
Burnaby,
Canada V5A1S6 (randerso@sfu.ca)
Summary
PatrickBlackett'sroleas a military
consultant
toIndiawas describedin PartOne of
in scientific
thisarticle.ButBlackettwas andis bestknowninIndiaas an intervenor
affairs
andas an advisertotheresearchsystem.Here,PartTwo showshowhe came
thepoliticallimitsofthe
tounderstand
thepoliticaleconomyofscience,specifically
scarce
economicresources
and
the
that
influence
ofthescientific
very
community
way
mobilized
within
it.
were(orwerenot)
India such as therole Patrick
Few foreigners
have playeda role in independent
he initiateda
Blackettplayedbetween1947 and 1972. As a militaryconsultant1
and
role of scientific
researchin military
debateabouttheeffective
development
of
scientists
attached
to
defence
the
conditions
and
careers
research,
promoted
changeinIndia,withan
particularly
up to about1964.Thiswas a periodofdramatic
low-costmilitarydevelopment(particularlywhen
emphasison comparatively
with
later
compared
periods).The same periodalso markedthesteadydeclinein
howthisdeclinewould
India'sforeign
exchangereserves,and Blackettunderstood
influencestrategic
determine
the level of importsand establishthe
programmes,
An argument
for'self-reliance'
volumeofsubsidiessoughtbytheIndianGovernment.
becamemoreandmorenecessary,
was
difficult
although
paradoxically increasingly
toputintopractice,
as eachyearwentby.He arguedfor(and against)newweapons,
learnedhow thesedevelopments
or purchaseswerefinanced,and helpedin some
instancesto makeappointments
and close deals. He reinforced
an attitude
of 'selfinthe1940s,articulated
reliance'in circulation
Indian
scientists
before
by
long
any
of
real prospectof independenceforIndia,and whichtradedon themomentum
Gandhi'sideaofa self-reliant
made-at-home
industry,
goods,andindependent-minded
politics.While Gandhiwould not have imaginedthis idea applied to military
Nehruandhispoliticalallies/advisers
learnedthatitwouldbe a policy
development,
At thesame timeBlackett's
of necessity,
becausetherecould be fewalternatives.
views on nuclearweapons and the 'arms race' was a stimulantto
independent
345

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346

RobertS. Anderson

withNehru,HomiBhabhaandotherscientists.
He was a regularguestof
discussions
In thissensethere
theChiefsofStaff,
both
disarmament
and
armaments.
discussing
was an officialacceptanceof his presenceand advice. DuringthisperiodIndia
learnedhow to optimizethepotentialof great-power
rivalryto obtainfavourable
termsforcommercial
andmilitary
contracts
andagreements.
Blackett and the Council for Scientificand Industrial Research
I think,
insomegovernment
Whathasgonewrong,
research
stations
is thattheprinciple
of
scientific
freedom
hassometimes
beenmisapplied
tomission-oriented
R andD, whereitis
..
largely
inapplicable.
Blackett
(Patrick
1971)

Itis notas a mililtary

inscientific
butas an intervenor
affairs
andadviser
consultant,
to theresearchsystemthatBlackettwas and is bestknownin India.He came to
understand
thepoliticaleconomyof science,specifically
thepoliticallimitsof the
influence
of thescientific
in
and
the
which
community
way
veryscarceeconomic
resourceswere(or werenot)mobilizedwithinit.AlthoughBlackettandBhatnagar
ofthevastgovernment
research
(andNehru)discussedthedevelopment
organization,
theCouncilof Scientificand Industrial
Research(CSIR), his involvement
appears
intermittent
before1955-56. Afterthevisitin thewinterof 1955-56,Blackettis
absentfromIndiaforsevenyears(accordingtohisownrecords).The 1956
curiously
Gnatfighter
deal seemsto endthefirstphaseof thisinvolvement,
whichbeganin
1947. Until his sudden death in January1955, Bhatnagarwas in regular
communication
withBlackett,
andtheysometimes
touredCSIR laboratories
together.
Thisis theperiodduringwhichBhabha,Bhatnagar
andNehruformed
thepowerful
oftheAtomicEnergyCommission,
butwe havelittleevidenceofBlackett's
triangle
if
on
their
behalf.
Blackett's
withtheCSIR seems
activities, any,
deeperinvolvement
tooccurafter1963-64,during
whichperiodhisworkas military
consultant
decreases.
He appearstohavelikedBhatnagar
andapproved
ofthegeneraldirection
oftheCSIR's
evolution
as theState'sappliedresearchsystem,
evenifhe sawresearch
thatwas not
In
or
not
be.
him
could
the
that
he
knew
beingapplied,
eightyears
(1947-55), he
withNehruand supplied
helpedBhatnagar.
BhatnagarvaluedBlackett'sinfluence
Blackett
withthelistofpatents
heneededfora studyofdefence
production.
Bhatnagar
workedhardto findgoodappointments
forhislaboratories
andwas lookingoutside
Indiaforcandidates.Thereis no clue in thepaperswhether
Blackettadvisedforor
ofnon-Indians,
buthe certainly
assistedBhatnagar,
Kothari
againsttheappointment
and Bhabha to identify
candidatesabroad,oftenactingas a channelforIndian
in 1951Blackettinterviewed
Therefore
a Canadianmetallurgist
applicants.
working
inLondon,whowantedto 'geta job inIndiaandsettletherepermanently'.
Bhatnagar
said thenew NationalMetallurgical
Laboratorywas 'in the chargeof a brilliant
andhe welcomedthearrivalofthisCanadian,W.K.A.Congreve,
youngFrenchman',
fromLondon,withBlackett'sfavourable
opinionbasedon a metallurgist
colleague's
Hill
recommendation.2
A.V.
expert
played a similarrole at thistime,looking

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PatrickBlackettin India. Part two

rockmagnetic
1962,TataInstitute,
Figure1. Discussing
study,
Bombay:
to
Vikram
Patrick
K.R.
P.W.Sahasrabudhe.
Sarabhai,
Blackett,
Ramanathan,
(left right)
withpermission
of theTataInstitute
ofFundamental
Mumbai.
Research,
Reproduced
Theauthor
thekindassistance
ofE.R. Deutsch.
appreciates

forgood candidatesforBhatnagar,
butof courseHill alreadyhad a
internationally
inthedevelopment
in 1943.3
oftheCSIR, starting
muchlongeranddeeperinvolvement
AtthesametimeBlackettwas inspired
bya researchprojecton solarpoweratthe
NationalPhysicalLaboratory
(NPL) in Delhi,and wentto considerable
lengthsto
obtainFrenchreports
in 1951. Itis curiousBhatnagar
forBhatnagar
couldnotobtain
thesedirectly,
becausean agreement
was signedthatyearbetweenFranceandIndia
on scientific
rareearthsandnuclearpower.4
The NPL solarcooperation,
including
cooker
did
not
deliver
on
its
but
Blackett's
powered
project
promise,
papersdo not
revealevidenceofBhatnagar's
embarrassment
orNehru'sdispleasureforthewayin
whichtheCSIR as a wholeexaggerated
itspotential.
Blackett's
intheNPL
involvement
wastobecomemuchdeeperina fewyears.A seriesofproblems
arosewithin
theCSIR
withrespectto leadership
oftheNationalPhysicalLaboratory
after
the
death
(NPL)
ofK.S. Krishnanin 1961,andBlackettwas appointedbytheMinisterof Scientific
Researchand CulturalAffairs(HumayumKabir)to conductwhatthenewspapers
called a 'fullenquiryat NPL'. Moreover,one of thesenews storiessaid that'The
Director's
toProfessor
Blackett
lastyear,buthe declinedit.'5There
post. . . wasoffered
intheBlackettPapersattheRoyalSociety.
is no traceofthisoffer
This publicity
his old friendfromLondon,now livingin Orissa,the
prompted
biologistJ.B.S.Haldane,to inviteBlackettto visitfora discussionabouttheCSIR.
Withsevenyears' experienceof livingand workingin the CSIR, Haldane drew
Blackett's
attention
towhathemustlearnbeforehe formed
an opinionabouttheCSIR,
andprovidedBlackettwiththefollowing
advice:

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RobertS. Anderson

348

I don'tenvyyouyourjob. Considerable
efforts
willbe madeatthetoptoprevent
youfrom
outthetruth,
andwhenyoudo getthrough
tounofficial
sourcesyouwillhearsome
finding
liesfrom
I
anuncorrupt
reasonfordoinganything.
outrageous
peoplewhocannotimagine
adviseyoutogetholdofthecontract
offered
tojuniorscientific
workers
(suchas myself)
togo anywhere
ata month's
notice.6
agreeing

Blackett
workedfastattheNPL, andsubmitted
a report
ina month.
He recommended
of
the
whole
some
or
most
of
thosewhoworked
reorganization
Laboratory:
moving
of
largelyin basic researchto a newCentreforAdvancedPhysicsat theUniversity
Delhi;movingthoseinrainandcloudphysicsouttotheMeteorological
Department;
unitsin radio,glass and ceramicsouttojoin their
movingpotentialmanufacturing
anddefining
theworkofremaining
divisions
moreclearlywhileenhancing
industries;
communication
ofadministrative
inthe
amongthem.Blackettfounda culture
rigidity
where
most
to
define
and
the
boundaries
of
their
work.
NPL,
peoplefought
protect
He thought
thiscouldbe overcome
In effect,
he said,theNPL lacked
byreorganization.
thefact
purpose.Thiswas nothisfirstbrushwiththeNPL. He hadearliercriticized
thattheCSIR pressuredSir K.S. Krishnanto leave basic researchin a university,
doublehisprofessor's
offering
salary,to ask himto tryto builda researchtradition
Blacketthad seenthissamephenomenon
atBritain's
appliedto industrial
problems.
NationalPhysicalLaboratory
atTeddington.
BothBlackettandA.V Hillcriticized
the
in
India.
D.S.
Kothari
also
criticized
for
scientists
from
practice
Bhatnagar taking
away
theuniversities,
but his own Defence Science Organizationdid the same thing.
andKothariarguedthattherewas no othersourceofcompetent
Bhatanagar
people.
The CSIR strucka committeeto reviewBlackett'sreport,tourthe labs and
recommend
howtheExecutive
CounciloftheNPL shouldrespond
toit.InApril1963,
thiscommittee
totheExecutiveCouncilthat:
reported
TheCommittee
ingeneral
findsitself
withthespirit
oftheBlackett
Inwhat
agreement
report.
theCommittee
wouldliketorecord
itsviewsconcerning
theimplementation
ofthese
follows,
ideas.

Itsownassessment
was that:
thereshouldbe enoughflexibility
so thatwhenan individual
projectis takenup which
fromdifferent
be brought
thenit shouldbe
requiresthatscientists
disciplines
together,
Thisaspecthasbeensorelyneglected
hitherto.
possibletodo thiswithout
difficulty.

Therewas an exception
inthat:
totheirapproval,
however,
theCommittee
wasnotatallinfavour
ofonepossibility
indicated
that
Blackett,
byProfessor
of completely
theproposedCentreforAdvancedPhysicswiththeDelhi
amalgamating
University.

The reportsuggestedinsteadan Institute

in Calcuttathatwas
liketheSaha Institute
autonomous
butveryclose to,theUniversity,
withUniversity
in
from,
participation
itsGoverning
ofthiscommittee
includedM.G.K. Menonofthe
Body.Themembers
Tata Institute
of Fundamental
Research(TIFR) (who authoredthe report),R.C.
of
Delhi
A.K. Saha and B.D. Nag Chaudhuriof Calcutta's
Majumdar
University,

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Patrick
Blackett
inIndia.Parttwo

349

rocksamples
Blackett
downa 250 metre
whilecollecting
Figure2. Patrick
peering
precipice
in 1962.Reproduced
nearKhandalaintheDeccanTrapsin
withpermission
oftheTataInstitute
ofFundamental
thekindassistance
ofE.R. Deutsch.
Mumbai.Theauthor
Research,
appreciates

- thelatter
Saha Institute
ofNuclearPhysics
threewerestudents
ofMeghnadSahaThisreportproposedchangesthat
plusJ.C.Kapur,W.M.VaidyaandL.C. Verman.7
did notalwayssatisfyBlackett,and on his copy,besidetheissue of theCentrefor
Much
AdvancedPhysics,
henoted'Allthisdoesnotagreewithmyrecommendations'.
in
was
be
of
era
these
individuals
the
NPL.
Blackett
learned
from
a
this
and
may
study
wellawareofthecomplicated
historic
relations
betweenuniversities
andgovernment
ofgood
thelouddebatewas abouthowuniversities
werebeingdeprived
laboratories;
researchers
andtherefore
couldnotdemonstrate
howgoodresearchwas also a form
oftraining.
On theotherhandtherewas criticism
thatuniversities
wereinhospitable
togoodresearchers
andthatgovernment
laboratories
actuallywerethesourceofmost
inIndia.Fora historical
ofthistension,
see therecentessay
goodresearch
explanation
Raina
and
Jain.8
by
The saga of theNPL reachedBlackettagain late in December1964,whenthe
DirectorGeneraloftheCSIR, HusainZaheer,wroteto him:
I amafraid
matters
havenotimproved
thepastyear.TheDirector,
whom
verymuchduring
weappointed
lastOctober,
hadeventually
tobe removed
from
was
service.Themaindefect
thathe couldnotgeton wellwithhisyounger
Now
we
are
on
the
lookout
for
colleagues.
a Director.
appointing

Thiswas theDirectorbrought
into implement
thechanges.9
Blacketthadjust been in Chinaand discussedwithZaheerhis opinionthatthe
Chinesewerefaradvancedinelectronic
instruments.
(Thiswas notthefirsttimethis
hadbeensoundedbya British
Indiacarried
warning
physicist:
newspapers
throughout

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350

RobertS. Anderson

the Statement
of BlacketsfriendJ.D.Bernalin December1954 that'China has
insciencethanIndia'.SpeakinginMadras,Bernalsaidthis
mademorerapidprogress
in the contextof his supportfor the 'Five Nehru-Chou Principles' and his
condemnation
of thearmsrace. Nehru,who had,like Bernal,just returned
from
conflict
China,waskeentomeetBernalinDelhitohearhisviews.)The 1962military
withChina caused a rapidand agonizedreappraisalof India's development
and
Homi
Bhabha
was
Chairman
of
an
Electronics
military
requirements.
appointed
in 1963,charged
Committee
toplanthemobilization
ofIndianresources
forincreased
and productionin electronics.ZaheeracceptedBlackets
research,development
about
the
Chinese
andelectronics,
andquicklyoutlinedthestepstwoCSIR
warning
laboratories
weretaking one in electronicengineering
in Palaniand theotherin
- butdidnotadmit(in his 1964letter)thatthe
scientific
instruments
at Chandigarh
of thesefunctions
was retarding
India. The real issue was not
underdevelopment
electronic
instruments
for
or
electronic
forproduction
researchers,
simply
engineering
andmilitary
butalso consumer
as wellas thesupplyanddelivery
electronics,
systems,
ofelectricity
itself.Blacketsfriend
HomiBhabhahadjustnegotiated
contracts
with
CanadaandtheUSA fornuclearreactors
thatwereintended
tosolvethisproblem
once
and forall,butBlackettknewitwouldbe manyyearsuntiltheydelivered
powerto
thegrid.
Blackettwas,atthisstage,newlyappointed
Adviserto theMinister
ofSciencein
thenew LabourGovernment.
His relationship
withtheCSIR certainly
continued,
soonBlackettbecamePresident
oftheRoyalSocietyandwas evenbusier.
although
Buthe didn'tlose interest.
Forexample,he receiveda copyoftheconfidential
report
written
CG.
of
GeneraloftheCSIR about
by
Wynne ImperialCollegefortheDirector
At thesame time,Wynnealso wroteBlacketta longpersonal
opticaldesigning.10
accountofhisvisitstoNationalAeronautics
and
Ltd,theGlassandCeramicsInstitute
commercial
the
amount
of
in
wasted
assistance
to
India
and
firms,
lamenting
money
thefrustration
oftalentin researchcentresliketheGlass and CeramicsInstitute
in
Calcutta.He said everyone
in Indiarecognized
thestrategic
ofdeveloping
necessity
a high-precision
and
India
was
too
opticalglassindustry everyone
thought
proceeding
towards
that
but
blamed
someone
else.
This
conformed
with
the
slowly
goal, everyone
viewsof a wide rangeof Indianand foreignopinionon manymatters
of strategic
andthisnegative
Committee
tothe
necessity,
opinionreachedtheScientific
Advisory
Cabinetin about 1966-67, thusinitiating
a reviewof success and failurein the
scientific
andindustrial
community.
In a waytheWynnereportaboutopticsgaveBlacketthis subjectfortheNehru
MemorialLecturea yearlater.Attended
IndiraGandhi,and
bythePrimeMinister,
reviewedin all newspapers,
hislecturecalledfornewthinking
about'theinnovation
chain'fromresearch
toproduction,
albeitina somewhat
linearwayofthinking
about
innovation.
He wantedindustry
inIndiainvolvedintheprocessofinnovation
fromits
inception.He criticizedthe 'sanctity'of basic research.The NehruLecturewas
receivedinsomegovernment
andindustry
becauseitshookthings
gleefully
quarters,
a
bit.
Further
research
should
be
on
done
the
debate
Blacketslecture.
about
up
public
Someresearchers,
whoselivesdependedonthe'sanctity'
ofbasicresearch,
felthehad

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PatrickBlackettin India. Part two

attackedthem,and some researchersfelt
betrayedbecause Blacketslectureseemed
to underminethem,evenin thelaboratories
founded by Homi Bhabha and so often
visited by Blackett himself. This was a
widespread reactionamong researchersI
knew in India, both in Bombay and
Calcutta. He probably never heard this
view and would not understand that
researchers 'in the ranks' thought the
supportforbasic researchwas fragile.He
was now communicatingat a level veryfar
removedfromresearchers'in the ranks',
and to himitappeared,even afterBhabha's
death in 1966, that support for basic
research was sufficientlystrong.A few
days afterthe lecture he wrote to Atma
Ram, DirectorGeneral of the CSIR: '...it
has been quite clear in recentmonthsthat
our ways of thinkingare verysimilar... I
do realise the difficultyyou will have in
guidingIndianpolicyin a new direction'.11
Blacketthad not so publiclyattackedwhat
he viewed as the irrelevance of much
researchin India,includingbasic research,
up to thisdate. This was an extraordinary

35 1

lava
Blackett
observing
Figure3. Patrick
flows(orbirds)nearKhandala,in 1962.
oftheTata
withpermission
Reproduced
ofFundamental
Institute
Research,
thekind
Mumbai.Theauthor
appreciates
ofE.R. Deutsch.
assistance

aroundthe1967electionandtherupee
periodinIndiabecausetherewas uncertainty
had just been devalued.The briefthrillof the 1965 war withPakistanhad been
andfamineinBiharandeastern
forgotten,
replacedbyconcernabouta severedrought
withtheAmericanPresidentand thedeathof Prime
UttarPradesh,confrontation
MinisterShastriin 1966.Foreignexchangereserveshad fallento theirlowestlevel
oftherupeein
The secretly
sinceindependence.
plannedandmanageddevaluation
June1966 fromRs 4.76 to Rs 7.50 to theUS dollar(Rs 13.33to Rs 21 to theUK
andscientific
ofindustrial
ofimportation
supplies
pound)causedmassivecurtailment
even
It
also
other
essential
andequipment
pressures
brought stronger
items).
(among
BlacketsNehruLectureeightmonths
substitution.
andimport
forself-reliance
later,
aboutinnovation,
withits call formorerealisticthinking
playedon thehistorical
amongelitesthatwas causedbytheseotherevents.
sensitivity
at thistime;forexample,
extendedrightintothelaboratories
Blacketsinfluence
about
manVarma,talkinglightly
excellent
'theotherwise
toAtmaRam,he criticized
atNPL. Itseemsthatall youandI havebeen
todesignan electron
microscope
starting
where
influence
alsoreachedDelhiUniversity,
in
His
not
taken
at
all'.12
has
been
saying
of a small(obsolete?)accelerator
Blacketthadbeeninvolvedin planninga transfer
it
at Cambridgeto Delhi; at firstBlackettthought
fromtheCavendishLaboratories

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352

RobertS. Anderson

would be a good machinefortrainingpurposes,buthe examinedtheprojectcarefully

whenhe visitedIndia onlyto realize:
thatthemachine
whowantedsome
was askedfornotbyphysicists
at all butbyengineers
of
with
I
think
todo this,
around
do
not
should
be
allowed
way playing
highvoltages.
they
inanyother
as thetechniques
havealmostnorelevance
ofengineering.
branch
Thefactthat
theunderlying
drivetowards
theyshouldwantto do thisshows,I think,
prestige
subjects,
whichis quitea dangerinIndiaas wellas here.13

Was thisremarkaboutdisdainforengineers?
Aboutpreference
fortraining
versus
it
around'?
About
the
for
is
difficult
'playing
conquering impulse prestige?
Although
tosay,I think
itis aboutBlackett
tohelpAtmaRamfight
'chaos'
trying
entrepreneurial
and bringorderand controlin 'his' laboratories,
as muchas it is aboutavoiding
Ram was entering
a periodof confrontation
unnecessary
importation.
(including
threats
ofresignation)
witha numberofhisdirectors
oflaboratories.
thisbusyperiodBlackettkeptup withcorrespondence
andvisits,
Rightthrough
untilhisfinalvisitin 1971at age 73. The lastvisitwas a nine-week
tourthrough
the
heatofIndiainMarch-May1971. Whilethere,
inMarch,he observedthere-election
ofhis old friend
IndiraGandhias PrimeMinister.
Priorto Blackett's
Atma
journey,
Ram's intention
to resignas DirectorGeneralof theCSIR had been signalledto
andtheopportunity
arosetoappointsomeoneyounger.
Witha reduction
of
Blackett,
hismilitary
Blackett
toured
his
familiar
scientific
sites
such
as
TIFR
all
and
contacts,
theNPL,plusnewonesliketheSpaceResearchCentreandBharatHeavyElectronics,
and a dozen CSIR institutes.
He metthemostpowerful
personin Indianscience,
VikramSarabhai;also M.G.K. Menon,Y. Nayudamma(whosoonsucceededAtma
Ram at theCSIR) and PitambarPantof thePlanningCommission.He touredthe
S.
TrombayAtomicResearchCentre(renamedafterBhabha)withtheastronomer
Chandrasekhar
from
theUniversity
ofChicago,someonehehadknownsincetheearly
1930s.Although
theCSIR paidtheexpensesofBlackett
andhiswifeCostanzaonthis
lastjourney,he was also invitedto advisetheIndianStatisticalInstitute
(by P.C.
Mahalanobis) and the UniversityGrantsCommission(by D.S. Kothari).His
conversations
withIndiraGandhiwouldhaveshownBlackett
thatthoughsheretained
herfather's
for
science
and
she
had
also
learned
a lotfrom
thedebate
scientists,
respect
thatgraduallylinked'science' morestrongly
to 'technology'.IndiraGandhiwas
insciencedetermined
toseemorepractical
from
results
thestate'smassiveinvestment
basedindustries.
Thiswas therequestsheevidently
madeto Blackettto helpher,as
is shownbelow.Whereasherfather
hadalignedsciencewith'education'and'culture',
IndiraGandhialigned'science'with'technology'.
toredesign
Shewas also prepared
institutions
to achieve this,and, like her father,took a directinterestin key
Forexample,during1971,she agreedthattheadministration
of the
appointments.
AtomicEnergyand Space programmes
shouldbe dividedandthatSarabhaishould
stickto space.
Variouslaboratory
directors
wroteto himin 1971,whilein Indiaandafterwards,
to ask himtopersuadeAtmaRamto promotetheirobjectives,
improveliaisonwith
CSIR headquarters
inDelhi,andprovidemorefreedom
toinnovate.
fortheirscientists
aboutwhichBlackett
wrotetoAtmaRamlater.Without
Basicallytheywerelobbying,

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Patrick
Blackett
inIndia.Parttwo

353

is
beingopposedtotheirpleas,he saidthecentralproblemfacingCSIR laboratories
thattheyhave:
without
towardrather
basicresearch
showna tendency
alwayshavinganyverydefinite
more
suitable
foruniversity
to
me
to
be
Some
of
the
work
seems
departments
practical
goal.
setupwiththegeneral
whichwereundoubtedly
research
thanforgovernment
stations,
goal
towards
Thistendency
and agriculture.
ofproducing
resultsof use to industry
practical
intheUK].
thetendency
is bynomeansonlytobe foundinIndia[hethenmentioned
purity
Oneis thatitis oftenmucheasier
topurity.
I think
therearetwomainreasonsforthisdrift
Thesecondreason
toindustry.
ofinterest
thangoodappliedresearch
todogoodbasicresearch
of the
of theimportance
is thewidespread
(in myview)of theprinciple
misapplication
itis fullyestablished
ofscience'... Inthefieldofbasiccuriosity-driven
'freedom
research,
toplanandexecute
workers
shouldbe giventhegreatest
thatableresearch
possiblefreedom
stations
in somegovernment
research
I think,
. . Whathasgonewrong,
theirownresearch.
R
hassometimes
beenappliedtomission-oriented
freedom
ofscientific
is thattheprinciple
R andD whereitdoes
insteadofonlyto curiosity
andD, whereitis largely
inapplicable,
apply.14

In particular,
he saidthatsomelaboratories:
worktowardsa market
of directing
theimportance
do notalwaysseemto understand
whentheirworkis
are
and
so
with
and
close
collaboration
surprised
industry,
requirement
whodon'tseemtobe trying
incertain
stations
aresomeindividuals
wasted.Thenthere
very
toadvancebasicresearch.
itis moreimportant
usefulbutthink
hardtodo anything

thepowersof theGoverning
His recommendations
againpointedto strengthening
laboratories
of
its
direction
the
over
of
the
CSIR
(leavingthetactics
strategic
Body
India
should
He
said
studyhow Harwell
'firmlyin thehandsof the directors').
fundswere
andhowgovernment
AtomicResearchCentreand industry
cooperated,
available to industryscientists(notjust to government
scientists)to fundthis
cooperation.He praised the CentralLeather Research Institute(directedby
it withan
thusproviding
foureconomiststo its staff,
Nayudamma)forappointing
He did
to otherCSIR laboratories.
andclientssuperior
ofitsmarkets
understanding
of
Indian
of
much
backwardness
'the
fromcriticism,
notexemptindustry
saying
to
a
CSIR
Blackett
But
to
blame.
itself was partly
studyof 10
pointed
industry
on 23 industrial
with10millionexpenditure
pilotplants,which
years'experience
in littlefinancialreturn'.
concludedthattheplants'brought
This last touroccurredin the middleof a Review Commissionof the CSIR
JusticeSarkar,to whichBlacketthimselfmadea presentation,
conducted
byretired
1971foran early
inLondoninSeptember
andBlackett
askedtheHighCommissioner
that
atage 73 hewas
further
evidence
This
is
Commission's
of
the
Sarkar
report.
copy
in
its
influence
scientific
his
in
India
and
interested
community.
enjoyed
passionately
and shouldbe able
had reacheda certainmaturity
He feltthescientific
community
andpopulation.
thatconfronted
totacklethepractical
India,namelypoverty
problems
BlackettdiscussedthiswithPrimeMinister
Gandhi,whomhe hadnowknownfor24
years(since she was 30 yearsold). BeforeleavingIndia in 1971, he thuswrote
to
toAtmaRamtoproposea newadvisorygroupforthePrimeMinister,
personally
adviseher:

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354

RobertS. Anderson

- ina way,a 'tasklayingdown

shouldbe mostconcentrated
abouttheareasinwhichefforts
thatR & D wouldhavea relation
toeconomic
thisbodyshouldhave
growth,
body'.Inorder
an economist
onit,andtoensureimplementation
shouldincludea high
oftheassignments
Itmust
official.
. .. Thisworkshouldnotbe hampered
forscientists.
onthepleaoffreedom
be appreciated
in
thatscientists
arenotfreetodowhatever
not
the
field
wish,
they
certainly
ofappliedscience.
... Inorder
thatthisevaluation
andassignment
ofpresent
activities
offuture
tasksis doneunhampered
andexpeditiously,
no lobbying
shouldbe allowedandtheissues
shouldnotbe boggeddowninthosesuperficial
discussions
andtoandfroarguments
which
canalwaysbeproduced.
Thestakesarehigh,timeis short,
andthere
is noroomforirrelevant
Nowwhenconditions
havebeencreatedinthecountry,
thanks
tothethinking
arguments.
thisis theopportunity
to giveconcrete
generated
recently,
shapeto theR & D relatedto
economicgrowth.
Eveninallocation
ofresources,
atthemost10-20%maybe earmarked
forbasicresearch,
therestshouldbe devoted
toappliedworkbearing
oneconomic
growth.15

Thiswas theold voiceofBlackettfromthelate 1930s('thestakesarehigh,thetime

is short')drawingon his wartimeexperienceadvisingthe Cabinet- in which,
therewereoften'to and froarguments',
fewof whichwerereally
nevertheless,
'irrelevant'
evenwhenhe disagreed
withthem.Blackett's
roleinthestrategic
bombing
oftheSecondWorldWaris a perfect
controversy
example.
Blackettwas notalonein his criticism
ofthescientific
from
community.
Writing
NewYork,Mahalanobis
warnedBlackett
thathedidnotlikewhatwasgoingoninIndia:
'Indianscienceis in a stateofconfusion.
. . The immediate
future
does notlooktoo
.
.
because
we
still
remain
a
structured
hierarchical
bright.
system.'16
By nowBlackett
wouldhavebeenat ease withhierarchies,
havingbeenso longattheirtop.His naval
him
a
experiencegave
permanent'captain of the ship' outlookin each of his
institutional
remained
an optimist
aboutIndia,readyto
however,
positions.Blackett,
As anexample,
whilePresident
oftheRoyalSociety,
hepromoted
a new
trynewthings.
SchoolofGeneticsonthecampusoftheIndianStatistical
inCalcuttaduring
Institute
whereBlackett's
friend
1969-70,beforeMahalanobisdied.ThiswastheveryInstitute
J.B.S.Haldanehadfirstgonetoworkwhenhe leftBritainto liveinIndiain 1956.
Blackett and VikramSarabhai
hadformed
a friendship
withVikram
QuitefarfromthepoliticsoftheCSIR, Blackett
whowas appointed
Bhabha'ssuccessoras
Sarabhai,theCambridge-trained
physicist
totheDepartment
ofAtomicEnergyin 1966.Sarabhaistudied
atCambridge
Secretary
as a teenagerand thenreturned
afterthewar to completehis doctoratein 1947.
Becausethewarhadchangedthecomposition
ofthePhysicsDepartment
atCambridge
so greatly,
therewas no one presentto examineSarabhai's thesisin cosmicray
and Sarabhai(aged 28) was sent
physics.So Blackettwas askedto be theexaminer
to Manchester
fortheexamination.
Evidentlytheygot on well,because Sarabhai
becameknownintheBlacketthouseholdas 'myfather's
student'.
TheymetinIndia
in 1948,and 10yearslaterBlackettwenttoAhmedabadtodineattheSarabhaihouse
andseethePhysicalResearchLaboratory
thatSarabhaiwasbuilding.
PerhapsBlackett
that
Vikram
who
was
then
would
be
an
forcein
Sarabhai,
39,
recognized
important

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Patrick
Blackett
inIndia.Parttwo

355

sciencein India.He mayhaveheardthatSarabhaihadbeendiscussedfora possible

roleintheCSIR afterBhatnagar's
suddendeathin 1955.Afterdinner,
Sarabhaiwrote
in
of
the
latitudeeffect
to Blackettto discusstheirmutualinterest theexplanation
inthedivergence
fieldsfroman idealsingle
oftheactualterrestrial
anomalies
magnetic
to
roleinspace.A further
to
direct
his
India's
was
field.
Sarabhai
gaze
beginning
diple
dinnerin Londonwas proposedto talkaboutStatesupportforscientific
research,
at the
textileresearchlaboratory
becauseSarabhaiwas buildingan industry-funded
Blackett
timeandhisownphysicslaboratory.17
grewtolikeSarabhaiandsawhimwhen
he was in India or in London.He wrotea movingobituaryforSarabhaiat the
inJaipur.
thereareno otherletters
international
cosmicrayconference
Unfortunately,
betweenthetwomenintheRoyalSocietyarchives.
PatrickBlackett and HomiBhabha
Alongwiththeirloveforphysics,BlackettandBhabhashareda loveformountains.
thejoywas great.Theybothvisitedthecosmic
Whenthesepleasureswerecombined,
up intheAlps.Blackettwroteto Bhabhain 1951:
raylaboratory
are
thePicduMidianditlooksas ifthere
from
ofV tracks
wehavenearly
60photographs
mass!HerrGott
thanprotonic
twobeinggreater
neutral
atleastthree
masses,
separate
hasmadetheworld
very
complicated.18
certainly
of
overthemassofthepenetrating
was thedisagreement
component
Longforgotten
Bhabha's
that
this
is
where
know
Little
did
Blackett
at
sea
level.
cosmicrays
plane
announcedthat
wouldcrash15 yearslater.In February1955,Dag Hammerskjold
on thepeacefuluses of
of thefirstUN conference
Bhabhawouldbe thepresident
ofAtomicEnergyCanadaLtd
atomicenergyinGenevathatyear.W.Bennett-Lewis
and the discussionof Indowas on theplanningcommitteeforthe conference,
Canadiancooperationblossomedbetweenthemthere.Considerablepressurehad
KrishnaMenon(theninNew York)to ensurethat
fromNehruthrough
beenbrought
In theendBritish
wouldbe chairman.
someone(Bhabha?)froma 'neutral'country
supportforBhabhawas decisive.NehrucabledBhabhain Genevagivinghimfull
withCanada on theCanada-India
freedom
to negotiatethetermsof collaboration
atthistime,Blackett
Reactor.ThoughmoreheavilyinvolvedwiththeIndianmilitary
in
a
barrack
hut
attheTIFR in 1955,
Bhabha
set
a
laboratory
up geomagnetic
helped
inresearch
about
Blackett
was deeplyinvolved
wascompleted.
beforethenewbuilding
TIFR
for
to
the
of
E.R.
Deutsch
reversal.
College
Imperial
They
brought
geomagnetic
that
Blackett
andtrainpeoplewiththeverysensitive
a yeartocalibrate
magnetometer
visitto the
exhibitof theKrushchev-Bulganin
had developed.It was a favourite
formanymoreyears.
TIFR inNovember
thatyear,andcontinued
functioning
bothfissionand fusion
USSR
had
1955
the
USA
and
the
end
of
exploded
By
three
fission
bombs.Bhabhaand
had
and
the
UK
bombs,
exploded
(thermonuclear)
Blacketthad formedtheopinionthatthesewereunlikelyeverto be used in war.
Evidently
theyalso agreedwiththeviewthattheoriginalHiroshimaandNagasaki

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356

RobertS. Anderson

Bhabhahadgrown
toacceptBlackett's
1946view
bombshadbeenunnecessary.
Perhaps
warwithRussia,to limitthe
thatthesebombswerethefirstactin a cold diplomatic
USSR's expansioninAsia. (It shouldbe remembered
thatevenforpeoplewiththeir
connections
well),theManhattan
(e.g.bothofthemknewRobertOppenheimer
Project
evidencebeforeAugust1945 was stillsecret,and thustheirinterpretation
ofthat
situation
wouldhavebeen based on an understanding
thatsome of thefactswere
concealedfromthem.)Therefore,
whenan authoritative
Americansourcerevealed
itwasconsidered
valuable.BhabhawrotetoBlackett
something
quotingwithapproval
theviewsofAdmiral
WilliamLeahy,theChiefofStaff
whoservedunderbothPresident
RooseveltandPresident
thattheatomicbombwas nottactically
Truman,
necessary.
- meaning
thisis nowclearerthanitwas then,we shouldnotmissthepoint
Although
thatBhabhawaswell-informed
anddidnotbelievesomeofthemythology
surrounding
theuse of thebombin theendingof thewar.19
at
the
Bhabha
was
Moreover,
time,
in
a
review
of
on
declassified
evidence
the
use
and
effects
of
participating year-long
nuclearexplosions,
ofIndiawitha Foreword
published
bytheGovernment
byNehru.20
inhim,Blackett
BecauseBhabhaconfided
abreast
of
current
kept
strategic
thinking
in Delhi andin atomicenergy/nuclear
I thinkthislarger
weaponscircleselsewhere.
view was made possible,despitetheirdifferences,
by a commonbackgroundin
toaninternational
ofscientists.
Blackett's
physicsanda senseofbelonging
community
interest
in
the
role
of
in
science
and
passionate
technology developingcountries
matchedBhabha's. Blackett's
roleinstrategy
matched
Nehru'sandBhabha'sbecause
heprobably
knewthingstheydidnot,eveninthelate1950sandearly1960swhenhe
is saidtohavebeenoutoftheBritish
toNye,Blackett
realized
policyloop.According
intheearly1950sthathe underestimated
thelethaleffects
ofradioactive
falloutand
therapiddevelopment
ofmissilesable to deliversmallhydrogen
bombs.'However,
Blackettcontinued
toargueduring
the1950sand 1960sthatconventional
andnuclear
disarmament
shouldbe negotiated
in parallel.'21
1 do notknowwhatBlackettwould
ifheknewthathisfriend
havethought
HomiBhabhawasthepersonwho,hadhelived,
would have been in chargeof the decisionto testnuclearweaponsin 1974, in
consultation
withthePrimeMinister.
Itis interesting
tonotethatBlackett
triedtobring
BhabhaintothePugwashConference
in 1961.Bhabharepliedthatitwouldtakehim
too longto studytheissuesforthatparticular
meetingand insteadrecommended
VikramSarabhai.Bythistime,Bhabhawas,I think,
morecaughtinanofficial
netthan
he realizedandfeltconstrained
to speakevenamongscientists
aboutnuclearpolicy.
intheTest-BanTreatynegotiations
Indiawas takinga strongstandfordisarmament
in 1961, and whenBhabha spoke,even informally,
it reflectednationalpolicy.
Bhabhaarrangedand attended
a lecturebyBlackettin Delhi in early
Nevertheless,
1962on 'Militarypolicyanddisarmament',
andhe andBlackettdidbothattendthe
in 1963.
Pugwashmeetings
One yearlater,afterNehru'sdeath,thefirstChineseatomicbombwas exploded
in October1964. Bhabha complainedthattherewas no protection
forcountries
fromdoingso. He saidthat
capableofmakingatomicbombsbutwhichhadrefrained
a climatefavourable
to suchcountries
mustbe createdimmediately.
Bhabhaprobably
the
new
Prime
Minister's
to
a
that
got
agreement
preparedIndia foran
project

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Patrick
Blackett
inIndia.Parttwo

357

nuclearexplosion,inlate 1964.A fewmonthslaterBhabhaannounced

underground
thatIndiacouldmakea nuclearbombin 18 months,
saying"'We arestill18 months
andwe aredoing
for
or
a
device
either
a
bomb
from
peacefulpurposes,
exploding
away
wasthefigureDr Bhabhaciteda year
months
toreducethatperiod."Eighteen
nothing
since
then.'22
had
not
the
situation
and
he
said
changed
ago
oracceptedatthetimewas thatnuclear
WhatBlackettmightnothaveunderstood
a symbol
weaponswerebecomingseeninIndiaas a greatsymbolofnationalprestige,
aroundwhichpoliticalpartiesandnon-political
join together
groupswouldgradually
butthis
views.Of coursetherewereothermotivations,
differing
peopleofotherwise
's
to
Bhabha
with
Blackett
took
what
one was crucial.It is notclear
respect
position
thattheyfailedto
fornucleartestsin 1964-65,butitis highlyunlikely
preparations
Blackettbefore,in
discussthem.The questionof nationalprestigehad confronted
andhe had arguedagainstprestigetheretoo.
Britain's
nuclearweaponsprogramme,
deathin an aircrashin theSwiss Alps in
It was finallyat Bhabha's unfortunate
- thatfriends
of
forBlackettto mourn
1966 at whichtherewas littleopportunity
about
Blackettspokeontheradiomostfeelingly
Bhabhaweredrawnclosertogether.
in India,andwas certainly
widelyquoted
Bhabha;thismayhavebeenre-broadcast
in Indianpapers,becauseBhabhawas considereda nationalhero.Lettersweresent
thatBlacketthimselfhad
himforhis speech,andrecognizing
to Blackett,
thanking
like
camefrommenandwomenwholikedBhabhagreatly,
letters
losta specialfriend;
in
as
a
true
these
letters
was identified
IndiraGandhi.Blackett
thenewPrimeMinister
level.Blackettknewhe hadbeentoughon Indiaand
ofIndia,on an emotional
friend
Atthesametime,he hadcreated
withitsconditions.
hadopenlyshownhisfrustration
andeffective
and
his
a circleofaffection
there, hadfoundtalented
through friendships
peoplewhoweredoingthekindofthingshe believedin. His wife,Lady Costanza
abouthis
saidthatin thelateryearsofhis lifehe caredmorepassionately
Blackett,
workin Indiathanhe didaboutmostotherthings.23
Blackett' s legacy
ofIndiatotrytojudgewhatBlackettachievedin
andscientists
It is forhistorians
India and whatconsequenceshis workhad. We knowlittleof how Blackettwas
moved,andwe knowthat
appraisedoutsidethecharmedcircleinwhichhe normally
how
this
new
tounderstand
research
is necessary
historical
typeofdefenceconsultant
in
was viewedbyothers.If Britainmadeuse ofBlackettas a sourceofintelligence
Blackett
thisperiod,we do notyetknowhow.Theevidencehereshowsthatwhatever
witha numberofpowerful
achieved,he didso onlythrough
peopleand
cooperation
His
science
and
from
British
he
the
worldly
politics.
through prestige brought
a termhehimself
as a consultant,
used,saysa greatdealaboutthecontinuity
reputation
andpoliticalelites
oftheIndianandBritishscientific,
andinterconnection
military
at thetime.It also says muchaboutIndianawarenessof Britishpoliticsand the
suchas theRoyalSocietyand
in Britishinstitutions
Indianparticipation
continuing
suchas Cambridge.
universities

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358

RobertS. Anderson

creativeandusefulrole
an interesting,
Thisstorysuggeststhatthereis sometimes
role
backonBlackett's
in
we
look
another
50
as intermediaries.
foroutsiders
If,
years,
be
That
his
to
I
think
would
find
that
inthisformative
we
enduring.
objectives
period,
todistinguish
conditions
ofpeopledoingresearch,
theworking
is,toimprove
carefully
thatgrow
brambles
tocutawaythebureaucratic
theobjectives
ofinstitutions,
between
aboutthethingsthatcan be
to thinkcarefully
up aroundthepracticeof research,
developedlocallyinsteadof beingimportedand to balancethe State'sinsatiable
desirefortechnicalprestigewithenhancing
ordinary
peoples' abilitiesto providea
betterlifeforthemselves.
NotlongafterBhabha'sdeath,whenBlackettreceivedhisOrderofMeritin 1967,
AJ. Kidwai.His wordscapturethe
he receiveda letterfromseniorcivil servant,
as partof
viewed
in
Patrick
Blackett
was
which
bya certaingeneration
perspective
inwhich
thespirit
ofIndia.Italso captures
as friends
thelineageofpeopleconsidered
he seemstohavegoneabouthiswork.'To no otherpeopleoutsidethiscountry',
says
Andno oneafterHaroldLaski
Kidwai,'haveyougiventhesamesenseofbelonging.
has hadthesameimpacton Indianmindsas you.'24
Visitsby PatrickBlackett to India
to hisnoteintheBlackettPapers,RoyalSociety,PatrickBlackettvisited
According
Indiain 1947,1948,1950,1953,1954,1955,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967and 1971.
Institutions
visited(usuallymanytimes)
ofFundamental
Universities
(Delhi,Bombay,Calcutta,Madras,etc.);TataInstitute
of
ofNuclearPhysics,Calcutta;IndianInstitute
Research,Bombay;Saha Institute
Research
Statistical
Indian
Institute,Calcutta; Physical
Science, Bangalore;
andIndustrial
oftheCouncilofScientific
Ahmedabad;all Laboratories
Laboratory,
Roads,NationalPhysicalLaboratory,
Research,e.g.GlassandCeramics,Metallurgy,
National Chemical Laboratory,National AeronauticalLaboratory,National
andall DefenceProduction
sites.
all DefenceLaboratories
Metallurgical
Laboratory;
Acknowledgements
to quotefromtheBlackettPapersin its
I thanktheRoyal Societyforpermission
and SandraCummingand MarySampsonfortheirkindassistance.This
Archives,
is
frommy largerworkentitledNucleus and nation: scientists,
drawn
essay
networbandpowerinIndia (forthcoming,
international
1999),and forreasonsof
ofBlackett.
The
for
this
but
context
portrait
spaceI cannotsupplythenecessary larger
majorpublishedstudyof Blackettis by Sir BernardLovell,P.M.S. Blackett-a
withhim
I am grateful
toProfessor
Lovellforconversations
memorial.
biographical
of
Fundamental
Tata
Institute
wasgranted
the
onthissubject.Permission
Research,
by
I amgrateful
toE.R. Deutschforhiskind
ofphotographs.
Mumbai,forreproduction

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Patrick
Blackett
inIndia.Parttwo

359

on Blackettin 1998, one by the Royal Societyat

cooperation.Two conferences
and
the
otherbytheRoyalNavyat MagdaleneCollege,
ImperialCollege,London,
theinsights
have
me
andI gratefully
acknowledge
Cambridge, benefited enormously,
fromNicholasBlackettandGiovanna
andinformation
thatI receivedthere,
including
information
see thecollectionof essaysaboutBlackett,Patrick
Bloor.For further
whichwillbe editedbyPeterHoreandpublished
Blackett:
lieutenant,
Lord,professor,
in 2000 by the RoyalNaval Museum.This researchwas completedwhileI was
workThisessayis necessarily
FellowatCorpusChristi
College,Cambridge.
Visiting
and
letters
that
unseen
documents
there
be
other
(if known)may
in-progress:
may
change or contradictthe picturedrawnhere. I alone am responsibleforthe
I havemade.
interpretation
Notes
1
2
3
4
5
6

7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

intervenor.
and scientific
consultant
'Patrtick
Blackettin India:military
R.S. Anderson,
Partone',NotesRee.R. Soc.Lond.53,253-273(1999).
27 April
toS.S. Bhatangar
22 April1951; P.M.S.Blackett
toP.M.S.Blackett,
S.S. Bhatnagar
1951;RoyalSocietyArchive.
book
ofmyforthcoming
is oneofthethemes
HillandBhatnagar
Therelationship
between
networks
andpowerinIndia.
international
Nucleusandnation:scientists,
attheNPL, see S. Visvanathan,
ofthesolarpowerresearch
On thehistory
jor
Organising
science(Delhi,Oxford
Press,1985).
University
1963.
24 January
TheStatesman
(Calcutta),
J.B.S.Haldaneto P.M.S. Blackett,25 January
1963,RoyalSocietyArchives.On the
Thevisiblecollege:a
see G. Wersky,
Bernal
and
between
Haldane,
Blackett,
relationships
FreeAssociation
andsocialists
scientists
collective
ofthe1930s(London,
biography
ofBritish
Books,1988).See alsoB. SwanandF.Aprahamian
(eds)ID. Bernal:a lifeinscienceand
politics.(Verso,London,1999).
9 April
National
totheExecutive
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