DEFINITIONS

*Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a polymeric molecule implicated in various biological

roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. RNA and DNA are
nucleic acids, and, along with proteins and carbohydrates, constitute the three
major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is as
sembled as a chain of nucleotides, but unlike DNA it is more often found in natu
re as a single-strand folded onto itself, rather than a paired double-strand. Ce
llular organisms use messenger RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information (using t
he letters G, U, A, and C to denote the nitrogenous bases guanine, uracil, adeni
ne, and cytosine) that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many viruses enco
de their genetic information using an RNA genome.
Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological rea
ctions, controlling gene expression, or sensing and communicating responses to c
ellular signals. One of these active processes is protein synthesis, a universal
function wherein mRNA molecules direct the assembly of proteins on ribosomes. T
his process uses transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to deliver amino acids to the rib
osome, where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) then links amino acids together to form protei
ns.
*The ribosome (/'ra?b??so?m, -bo?-/[1]) is a complex molecular machine found wit
hin all living cells, that serves as the site of biological protein synthesis (t
ranslation). Ribosomes link amino acids together in the order specified by messe
nger RNA (mRNA) molecules. Ribosomes consist of two major components: the small
ribosomal subunit, which reads the RNA, and the large subunit, which joins amino
acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed of one or more ribo
somal RNA (rRNA) molecule and a variety of proteins. The ribosomes and associate
d molecules are also known as the translational apparatus.
The sequence of DNA, which encodes the sequence of the amino acids in a protein,
is copied into a messenger RNA chain. It may be copied many times into RNA chai
ns. Ribosomes can bind to a messenger RNA chain and use its sequence for determi
ning the correct sequence of amino acids. Amino acids are selected, collected, a
nd carried to the ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which enter one par
t of the ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA chain. It is during this binding
that the correct translation of nucleic acid sequence to amino acid sequence oc
curs. For each coding triplet in the messenger RNA there is a distinct transfer
RNA that matches and which carries the correct amino acid for that coding triple
t. The attached amino acids are then linked together by another part of the ribo
some. Once the protein is produced, it can then fold to produce a specific funct
ional three-dimensional structure although during synthesis some proteins start
folding into their correct form.
A ribosome is made from complexes of RNAs and proteins and is therefore a ribonu
cleoprotein. Each ribosome is divided into two subunits: 1. a smaller subunit wh
ich binds to a larger subunit and the mRNA pattern, and 2. a larger subunit whic
h binds to the tRNA, the amino acids, and the smaller subunit. When a ribosome f
inishes reading an mRNA molecule, these two subunits split apart. Ribosomes are
ribozymes, because the catalytic peptidyl transferase activity that links amino
acids together is performed by the ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes are often embedded i
n the intracellular membranes that make up the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes from bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes (the three domains of life on Ea
rth) resemble each other to a remarkable degree, evidence of a common origin. Th
ey differ in their size, sequence, structure, and the ratio of protein to RNA. T
he differences in structure allow some antibiotics to kill bacteria by inhibitin
g their ribosomes, while leaving human ribosomes unaffected. In bacteria and arc

haea, more than one ribosome may move along a single mRNA chain at one time, eac
h "reading" its sequence and producing a corresponding protein molecule.
The ribosomes in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells (mitoribosomes), are produ
ced from mitochondrial genes, and functionally resemble many features of those i
n bacteria, reflecting the likely evolutionary origin of mitochondria

*A transfer RNA (abbreviated tRNA and archaically referred to as sRNA, for solub
le RNA[1]) is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA, typically 76 to 90 nucleotide
s in length,[2] that serves as the physical link between the mRNA and the amino
acid sequence of proteins. It does this by carrying an amino acid to the protein
synthetic machinery of a cell (ribosome) as directed by a three-nucleotide sequ
ence (codon) in a messenger RNA (mRNA). As such, tRNAs are a necessary component
of translation, the biological synthesis of new proteins according to the genet
ic code.
The specific nucleotide sequence of an mRNA specifies which amino acids are inco
rporated into the protein product of the gene from which the mRNA is transcribed
, and the role of tRNA is to specify which sequence from the genetic code corres
ponds to which amino acid.[3] One end of the tRNA matches the genetic code in a
three-nucleotide sequence called the anticodon. The anticodon forms three base p
airs with a codon in mRNA during protein biosynthesis. The mRNA encodes a protei
n as a series of contiguous codons, each of which is recognized by a particular
tRNA. On the other end of the tRNA is a covalent attachment to the amino acid th
at corresponds to the anticodon sequence. Each type of tRNA molecule can be atta
ched to only one type of amino acid, so each organism has many types of tRNA (in
fact, because the genetic code contains multiple codons that specify the same a
mino acid, there are several tRNA molecules bearing different anticodons which a
lso carry the same amino acid).
The covalent attachment to the tRNA 3 end is catalyzed by enzymes called aminoacy
l tRNA synthetases. During protein synthesis, tRNAs with attached amino acids ar
e delivered to the ribosome by proteins called elongation factors (EF-Tu in bact
eria, eEF-1 in eukaryotes), which aid in decoding the mRNA codon sequence. If th
e tRNA's anticodon matches the mRNA, another tRNA already bound to the ribosome
transfers the growing polypeptide chain from its 3 end to the amino acid attached
to the 3 end of the newly delivered tRNA, a reaction catalyzed by the ribosome.
A large number of the individual nucleotides in a tRNA molecule may be chemicall
y modified, often by methylation or deamidation. These unusual bases sometimes a
ffect the tRNA's interaction with ribosomes and sometimes occur in the anticodon
to alter base-pairing properties
* A prokaryote is a single-celled organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus (
karyon), mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle.[1] The word prokar
yote comes from the Greek p?? (pro) "before" and ?a???? (karyon) "nut or kernel"
.[2][3] Prokaryotes can be divided into two domains, Archaea and Bacteria. Speci
es with nuclei and organelles are placed in the domain Eukaryota.[4]
In the prokaryotes all the intracellular water-soluble components (proteins, DNA
and metabolites) are located together in the cytoplasm enclosed by the cell mem
brane, rather than in separate cellular compartments. Bacteria, however, do poss
ess protein-based bacterial microcompartments, which are thought to act as primi
tive organelles enclosed in protein shells.[5][6] Some prokaryotes, such as cyan
obacteria may form large colonies. Others, such as myxobacteria, have multicellu
lar stages in their life cycles.[7]

Molecular studies have provided insight into the evolution and interrelationship
s of the three domains of biological species.[8] Eukaryotes are organisms, inclu
ding humans, whose cells have a well defined membrane-bound nucleus (containing
chromosomal DNA) and organelles. The division between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
reflects the existence of two very different levels of cellular organization. D
istinctive types of prokaryotes include extremophiles and methanogens; these are
common in some extreme environments.[1]

*A eukaryote (/ju?'kri.o?t/ or /ju?'kri?t/ yoo-karr-ee-oht or yoo-karr-ee-?t) is a

ny organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed within m
embranes.
Eukaryotes belong to the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining feature that s
ets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells (Bacteria and Archaea) is that
they have membrane-bound organelles, especially the nucleus, which contains the
genetic material, and is enclosed by the nuclear envelope.[2][3][4] The presenc
e of a nucleus gives eukaryotes their name, which comes from the Greek e? (eu, "
well") and ?????? (karyon, "nut" or "kernel").[5] Eukaryotic cells also contain
other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus. In
addition, plants and algae contain chloroplasts. Eukaryotic organisms may be un
icellular, or multicellular. Only eukaryotes have many kinds of tissue made up o
f different cell types.
Eukaryotes can reproduce both by asexual reproduction through mitosis and sexual
reproduction through meiosis. In mitosis, one cell divides to produce two genet
ically identical cells. In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of
cell division to produce four daughter cells each with half the number of chrom
osomes as the original parent cell (haploid cells). These act as sex cells (game
each gamete has just one complement of chromosomes, each a unique mix of the
tes
corresponding pair of parental chromosomes) resulting from genetic recombinatio
n during meiosis.
The domain Eukaryota appears to be monophyletic, and so makes up one of the thre
e domains of life. The two other domains, Bacteria and Archaea, are prokaryotes[
6] and have none of the above features. Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of
all living things;[7] even the cells in a human's body are outnumbered ten to on
e by bacteria in the gut.[8][9] However, due to their much larger size, eukaryot
es' collective worldwide biomass is estimated at about equal to that of prokaryo
tes.[7] Eukaryotes first developed approximately 1.6 2.1 billion years ago

* In cell biology, an organelle /??rg?'n?l/ is a specialized subunit within a ce

ll that has a specific function. Individual organelles are usually separately en
closed within their own lipid bilayers.
The name organelle comes from the idea that these structures are to cells what a
n organ is to the body (hence the name organelle, the suffix -elle being a dimin
utive). Organelles are identified by microscopy, and can also be purified by cel
l fractionation. There are many types of organelles, particularly in eukaryotic
cells. While prokaryotes do not possess organelles per se, some do contain prote
in-based microcompartments, which are thought to act as primitive organelles.[1]
*A cell wall is a structural layer that surrounds some types of cells, situated
outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. It pr
ovides cells with both structural support and protection, and also acts as a fil
tering mechanism. Cell walls are present in plants, fungi and prokaryotic cells,

where a major function is to act as pressure vessels, preventing over-expansion

when water enters the cells. Cell walls are absent from mycoplasmas.
The composition of cell walls varies between species and may depend on cell type
and developmental stage. The primary cell wall of land plants is composed of th
e polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. In bacteria, the cell wal
l is composed of peptidoglycan. Archaean cell walls have various compositions, a
nd may be formed of glycoprotein S-layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharid
es. Fungi possess cell walls made of the glucosamine polymer chitin, and algae t
ypically possess walls made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. Unusually, dia
toms have a cell wall composed of biogenic silica.[1] Often, other accessory mol
ecules such as lignin or cutin are found anchored to the cell wall.
*The cytoplasm comprises cytosol (the gel-like substance enclosed within the cel
l membrane) and the organelles
the cell's internal sub-structures. All of the co
ntents of the cells of prokaryote organisms (such as bacteria, which lack a cell
nucleus) are contained within the cytoplasm. Within the cells of eukaryote orga
nisms the contents of the cell nucleus are separated from the cytoplasm, and are
then called the nucleoplasm. The cytoplasm is about 80% water and usually color
less.[1]
It is within the cytoplasm that most cellular activities occur, such as many met
abolic pathways including glycolysis, and processes such as cell division. The c
oncentrated inner area is called the endoplasm and the outer layer is called the
cell cortex or the ectoplasm.
Movement of calcium ions in and out of the cytoplasm is thought to be a signalin
g activity for metabolic processes.[2]
In plants, movement of the cytoplasm around vacuoles is known as cytoplasmic str
eaming.
The term was introduced by Rudolf von Klliker in 1862.[3]
* In cell biology a centriole (centri- + -ole) is a cylindrical cell structure[
1] composed mainly of a protein called tubulin that is found in most eukaryotic
cells. An associated pair of centrioles, surrounded by a shapeless mass of dense
material, called the pericentriolar material, or PCM, makes up a compound struc
ture called a centrosome.[1]
Centrioles are present in the cells of most eukaryotes, for example those of ani
mals. However, they are absent from conifers (pinophyta), flowering plants (angi
osperms) and most fungi, and are only present in the male gametes of charophytes
, bryophytes, seedless vascular plants, cycads, and ginkgo.[2][3]
Most centrioles are made up of nine sets of microtubule triplets, arranged in a
cylinder. Deviations from this structure include crabs and Drosophila melanogast
er embryos, with nine doublets, and Caenorhabditis elegans sperm cells and early
embryos, with nine singlets.[4][5]
Cross-section of a centriole showing its microtubule triplets
Edouard van Beneden and Theodor Boveri made the first observation and identifica
tion of centrioles in 1883 and 1888 respectively,[6][7] while the pattern of cen
triole duplication was first worked out independently by Etienne de Harven and J
oseph G. Gall c. 1950 [8][9] The main function of centrioles is to produce aster
and spindle during cell division.

* Nucleus (pl: nuclei) is a Latin word for the seed inside a fruit.
In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meanin
g kernel) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes
usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types have no nuclei, and a few o
thers have many.
Cell nuclei contain most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple l
ong linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as hi
stones, to form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's n
uclear genome. The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these
genes and to control the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression the
nucleus is, therefore, the control center of the cell. The main structures maki
ng up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a double membrane that encloses the
entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the
nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear lamina), a network within the nucleus tha
t adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which supports the cell a
s a whole.
Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores ar
e required that regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope. The
pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel through which larger mo
lecules must be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free mov
ement of small molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins
and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenan
ce of chromosomes. The interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane-bou
nd sub compartments, its contents are not uniform, and a number of sub-nuclear b
odies exist, made up of unique proteins, RNA molecules, and particular parts of
the chromosomes. The best-known of these is the nucleolus, which is mainly invol
ved in the assembly of ribosomes. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosom
es are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA.
*The nucleolus (/nju?'kli??l?s/ or /?nju?kli'o?l?s/, plural nucleoli /nju?'kli??
?la?/ or /?nju?kli'o?la?/[1][2]) is the largest structure in the nucleus of euka
ryotic cells, where it primarily serves as the site of ribosome synthesis and as
sembly. Nucleoli also have other important functions like assembly of signal rec
ognition particles and playing a role in the cell's response to stress.[3] Nucle
oli are made of proteins and RNA and form around specific chromosomal regions. M
alfunction of nucleoli can be the cause of several human diseases.[citation need
ed]
* A lysosome (derived from the Greek words lysis, meaning "to loosen", and soma,
"body") is a membrane-bound cell organelle found in most animal cells. They are
spherical vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes that can break down virtual
ly all kinds of biomolecules. Simply stated, a lysosome is a type of vesicle wit
h specific composition, of both its membrane proteins, and proteins of its lumen
. The lumen's pH (4.5 - 5.0)[1] is optimal for the enzymes involved in hydrolysi
s, analogous to the activity of the stomach. Besides degradation of polymers, th
e lysosome is involved in various cell processes, including secretion, plasma me
mbrane repair, cell signalling and energy metabolism.[2]
The lysosomes also act as the waste disposal system of the cell by digesting unw
anted materials in the cytoplasm, both from outside of the cell and obsolete com
ponents inside the cell. Material from the outside of the cell is taken-up throu
gh endocytosis, while material from the inside of the cell is digested through a
utophagy. Their sizes can be very different the biggest ones can be more than 10 t
imes bigger than the smallest ones.[3] They were discovered and named by Belgian
biologist Christian de Duve, who eventually received the Nobel Prize in Physiol
ogy or Medicine in 1974.

Lysosomes are known to contain more than 50 different enzymes. Enzymes of the ly
sosomes are synthesised in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The enzymes are impo
rted from the Golgi apparatus in small vesicles, which fuse with larger acidic v
esicles. Enzymes destined for a lysosome are specifically tagged with the molecu
le mannose 6-phosphate, so that they are properly sorted into acidified vesicles
.[citation needed]
Synthesis of lysosomal enzymes is controlled by nuclear genes. Mutations in the
genes for these enzymes are responsible for more than 30 different human genetic
diseases, which are collectively known as lysosomal storage diseases. These dis
eases result from an accumulation of specific substrates, due to the inability t
o break them down. These genetic defects are related to several neurodegenerativ
e disorders, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and ageing-related diseases.[4][5]
* A vacuole (/'vkju?o?l/) is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in all p
lant and fungal cells and some protist, animal[1] and bacterial cells.[2] Vacuol
es are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing
inorganic and organic molecules including enzymes in solution, though in certain
cases they may contain solids which have been engulfed. Vacuoles are formed by
the fusion of multiple membrane vesicles and are effectively just larger forms o
f these.[3] The organelle has no basic shape or size; its structure varies accor
ding to the needs of the cell.
The function and significance of vacuoles varies greatly according to the type o
f cell in which they are present, having much greater prominence in the cells of
plants, fungi and certain protists than those of animals and bacteria. In gener
al, the functions of the vacuole include:
Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell
Containing waste products
Containing water in plant cells
Maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure or turgor within the cell
Maintaining an acidic internal pH
Containing small molecules
Exporting unwanted substances from the cell
Allows plants to support structures such as leaves and flowers due to the pressu
re of the central vacuole
In seeds, stored proteins needed for germination are kept in 'protein bodies', w
hich are modified vacuoles.[4]
Vacuoles also play a major role in autophagy, maintaining a balance between biog
enesis (production) and degradation (or turnover), of many substances and cell s
tructures in certain organisms. They also aid in the lysis and recycling of misf
olded proteins that have begun to build up within the cell. Thomas Boller [5] an
d others proposed that the vacuole participates in the destruction of invading b
acteria and Robert B Mellor proposed organ-specific forms have a role in 'housin
g' symbiotic bacteria. In protists, vacuoles have the additional function of sto
ring food which has been absorbed by the organism and assisting in the digestive
and waste management process for the cell.[6]
The vacuole probably evolved several times independently, even within the Viridi
plantae.[7]

* The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double membrane-bound organelle f

ound in most eukaryotic cells.[1] The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek ?t?
?, mitos, i.e. "thread", and ???d???? , chondrion, i.e. "granule"[2] or "grain-lik
e".

Mitochondria are commonly between 0.75 and 3m in diameter[3] but vary considerabl
y in size and structure. Unless specifically stained, they are not visible. Mito
chondria have been described as "the powerhouse of the cell" because they genera
te most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source o
f chemical energy.[4] In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are
involved in other tasks, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, and cell
death, as well as maintaining control of the cell cycle and cell growth.[5] Mito
chondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial
disorders,[6] cardiac dysfunction,[7] and heart failure. In 2014, a study inclu
ding ten children diagnosed with severe autism suggests that autism may be corre
lated with mitochondrial defects.[8]
The number of mitochondria in a cell can vary widely by organism, tissue, and ce
ll type. For instance, red blood cells have no mitochondria, whereas liver cells
can have more than 2000.[9][10] The organelle is composed of compartments that
carry out specialized functions. These compartments or regions include the outer
membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matr
ix. Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissue and the species. In huma
ns, 615 distinct types of protein have been identified from cardiac mitochondria
,[11] whereas in rats, 940 proteins have been reported.[12] The mitochondrial pr
oteome is thought to be dynamically regulated.[13] Although most of a cell's DNA
is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own independent gen
ome that shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes.[
* Chloroplasts /'kl??r??plsts, pl??sts/[1][2] are organelles, specialized subunit
s, in plant and algal cells. Their discovery inside plant cells is usually credi
ted to Julius von Sachs (1832 1897), an influential botanist and author of standar
d botanical textbooks
sometimes called "The Father of Plant Physiology".
Chloroplasts' main role is to conduct photosynthesis, where the photosynthetic p
igment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight and converts it and stores
it in the energy-storage molecules ATP and NADPH while freeing oxygen from water
. They then use the ATP and NADPH to make organic molecules from carbon dioxide
in a process known as the Calvin cycle. Chloroplasts carry out a number of other
functions, including fatty acid synthesis, much amino acid synthesis, and the i
mmune response in plants. The number of chloroplasts per cell varies from 1 in a
lgae up to 100 in plants like Arabidopsis and wheat.[3]
A chloroplast is one of three types of plastids, characterized by its high conce
ntration of chlorophyll, the other two types, the leucoplast and the chromoplast
, contain little chlorophyll and do not carry out photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts are highly dynamic they circulate and are moved around within plant c
ells, and occasionally pinch in two to reproduce. Their behavior is strongly inf
luenced by environmental factors like light color and intensity. Chloroplasts, l
ike mitochondria, contain their own DNA, which is thought to be inherited from t
heir ancestor a photosynthetic cyanobacterium that was engulfed by an early eukary
otic cell. Chloroplasts cannot be made by the plant cell and must be inherited b
y each daughter cell during cell division.
With one exception (the amoeboid Paulinella chromatophora), all chloroplasts can
probably be traced back to a single endosymbiotic event, when a cyanobacterium
was engulfed by the eukaryote. Despite this, chloroplasts can be found in an ext
remely wide set of organisms, some not even directly related to each other a conse
quence of many secondary and even tertiary endosymbiotic events.
The word chloroplast (Greek: ?????p??st??) is derived from the Greek words chlor
os (??????), which means green, and plastes (p??st??), which means "the one who

forms".[4]