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Deformation and
Vibration
by Finite Element Analysis
Copyright 2006
by GB Publishing and Gunnar Backstrom
Malmo, Sweden
Preface
Acknowlegements
I am deeply indebted to my late friend Dr. Russell Ross, formerly of
the University of East Anglia, UK, for reading and criticizing the
typescript, as well as for working through the examples. His intelligence and vigilance made him the ideal pilot user.
Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the support of Mr. Robert
Nelson, PDE Solutions, Inc., the demon programmer behind
FlexPDE. His prompt attention to my innumerable queries about the
operation of his software was essential to the success of this work.
Gunnar Backstrom
Contents
1 Introduction
Page References
How to use this Book
1
2
3
Preliminaries
2
Graphical Facilities
5
6
7
8
9
15
17
17
19
24
Fields of Gravitation
26
26
28
33
35
35
37
38
39
40
41
Elastic Deformation
6
43
Plane Stress
Boundary Conditions
Steel Plate Under Compressive Strain
Strained Plate, No Sliding
Plate Subjected to Pressure at One End
Plate with Tension Applied at both Ends
Plate Subjected to Shear Forces
44
46
48
52
54
55
56
Straight Beams
59
59
61
62
67
68
70
71
75
76
80
Semi-Circular Beam
Compound Semi-Circular Beam
Tube with Internal and External Pressure
Comparison with Exact Solution
Tube with Tangential Load
Tube Strained between Two Edges
80
82
84
87
88
90
96
98
101
103
10 Torsion
Twisted Circular Steel Shaft
Twisted Square Bar
General PDE for Torsion
Compound Bar
Hollow Bar
PDE for Warping
Warping of an Elliptical Shaft
11 Thermo-Elasticity
Uniformly Heated Semi-Circular Rod
Thermo-Elasticity in (x,y) Space
Steel Block, Strained by a Temperature Gradient
Bi-Metallic Block
Simultaneous PDEs for Stress and Temperature
PDEs for Axially Symmetric Problems
Axially Symmetric heating of a Cylinder
12 Deformation in Three Dimensions
Two Point Charges of Different Signs
Non-Linear Set of Point Charges
Laplace Equation in 3D
Elasticity in Three Dimensions
Include-File for 3D Elasticity
Capturing Descriptor Errors
Plate under Pressure from Top
Bending of a Beam under Gravity
Beam under Asymmetric Load
Tube under Asymmetric Load
Torsion and Warping of a Hollow Bar
108
109
111
113
114
115
116
119
122
123
125
126
128
131
133
135
139
139
142
143
146
147
148
148
150
152
154
156
Elastic Vibration
13 Waves Along a Beam
Complex Solution
Forced Shear Vibration
Animated Shear Vibration
Driving Force
Wavelength
Longitudinal Vibration
Bending Vibration
14 Eigenstates in Two Dimensions
Frequency Scan
Finding Eigenstates
Plate with Free Boundaries
Animation of a Vibrating Plate
15 Eigenstates of a Membrane
Circular Membrane
Triangular Drumhead
Fancy Drumhead
16 Eigenstates in Three Dimensions
Vibration of a Rectangular Block
Vibration of a Tube
Vibrating Circular Plate
Vibrating Plate with Free Boundaries
Vibrating Sledgehammer
17 Waves in Fluids
Complex Solution
Plane Acoustic Wave
Resonance
Constricted Cavity
Cylindrical Resonator
160
161
163
165
167
167
168
170
173
173
176
178
180
183
184
186
188
190
191
193
195
197
199
203
204
206
208
209
211
Appendix
Principles of Finite Element Analysis
Interpolation and Differentiation in 2D
Interpolating to Obtain a Solution in 2D
Solving for Node Values in 2D
Natural Boundary Conditions
215
215
217
219
221
Conclusion
223
References
224
Vocabulary of FlexPDE
225
1 Introduction
Page References
As a reader, I have found that books generally contain much unnecessary numbering, which is not only redundant but makes the text
tiresome to read. This made me choose a minimalist system for
internal references. Strictly speaking, the page number is the only
coordinate necessary. Hence, I have refrained from numbering figures
and equations. Most often, there is only one figure on a page, and in
2
2 Graphical Facilities
TITLE
{ mex022.pde }
'x^2+ 2*y^2'
SELECT
spectral_colors
{ Values from red to violet }
DEFINITIONS
Lx=1.0 Ly=1.0 f=x^2+ 2*y^2
grad_f=vector( dx(f), dy(f)) laplace_f=dxx(f)+ dyy(f)
BOUNDARIES
region 'domain'
{ Closed by return to start }
start (-Lx,-Ly) line to (Lx,-Ly) to (Lx,Ly) to (-Lx,Ly) close
PLOTS
grid( x, y)
{ Triangular mesh }
surface( f)
{ Surface in 3 dimensions }
elevation( f) from (-Lx,-Ly) to (Lx,Ly) { Height of f(x,y) above line }
contour( f)
{ Contour plot of function }
contour( f) painted
{ Color coded in plane }
vector( grad_f) as 'Gradient'
{ Arrow plot with a title }
vector( grad_f) norm
{ Normalized vector }
contour( laplace_f)
{ Test if f(x) is harmonic }
END
When we run this file, the program presents all the plots as a set of
miniatures on the screen. A double-click anywhere inside a selected
figure will enlarge it. Another double-click restores the mosaic of
miniatures.
10
All points on the surface having values between 2.00 and 2.10, say,
are in the same color. This means that the borderline between two
11
12
grad( f ) { f { i
wf
wf
j
wx
wy
where i and j are vectors of unit length along the x and y axes. We
express this vector simply in terms of its components dx(f) and dy(f).
This permits us to represent the gradient field by arrows.
14
FG i w j w IJ FG i w j w IJ f
H w x w yK H w x w yK
w2f w2f
w x2 w y2
We notice that there are now two tabs on top of the editor,
corresponding to the two scripts. Clicking on tabs, it becomes easy to
return to earlier scripts and plots from the same session.
15
Exercises
Explore the following functions, perhaps with modified values of Lx
and Ly.
f x2 y
f
f
16
x2 y2
sin(5 x 2 5 y 2 )
w ur
Zx Z y Zz
x
R| Z z Z y U|
S| Z x Z z V|
TZ y Z x W
y
In this case, Z will be the same over the entire domain. The following
descriptor is what we need to explore the various features of this
motion. In order to define a circular domain we need the new
command arc, which permits us to draw a sequence of quarter-circles.
In the definitions segment we have included the special differentials
div(v) and u v z , the latter being the z-component of curl(v). The
definitions of these operations in ( x, y) coordinates are
v { div(v)
w vx w vy
wx wy
17
and
u v { curl( v )
w
w
w
wx wy wz
i
vx
vy
vz
R|w v w v U|
|| ww vy wwvz ||
S| w z w x V|
||w v w v ||
Twx w yW
z
18
The above figure shows the normalized vector plot of the velocity.
The divergence div_v turns out to be constant, with the value zero.
The contour plot of curl_z is also trivial, since the function has the
almost constant value 2.000. Of course, we could easily calculate
these functions exactly by hand in this simple case, but we shall find
similar plots convenient with other, more complicated velocity fields.
Non-Constant Z
{ mex032a.pde }
way as it did before. The value of the divergence div_v, however, still
vanishes.
What kinds of rotary motion yield non-zero values of curl_z? In
textbooks on vector analysis we find the definition
curl( v ) z { u v
1
v dl
z
z
S C
where the line integral is taken over a closed curve C of area S in the
( x , y ) plane. The situation is depicted in the next figure, where we
have drawn an area element (gray) that will eventually shrink to
negligible size. This element is limited by two radial and two circular
segments. The velocity v is directed along the circular paths; hence
the radial parts contribute nothing to the integral. The contribution
from a circular segment is just the speed vm multiplied by the length
of the arc, and since these two terms are of opposite sign they might
accidentally cancel.
{ Slim
o0
In mex031 the outer path was longer and, in addition, the speed
was larger there. Each of these enhancing factors was proportional to
the radius and the result was a nonzero value of curl_z.
In the case of the liquid with Z 1 / R 2 , the smaller velocity on the
outer path compensates exactly for the increase of the path length,
21
which makes curl_z equal to zero. Generally, one might say that a
vanishing curl is a rare accident.
In the following file, which is based on mex031, we first make an
elevation plot on the curve 'inner', which is a circle and may be
eccentric (due to r0). We define it by a feature, a curve that may be
closed but does not form a region (which requires close). Here, we use
the convenient command angle to draw the second circle.
TITLE
{ mex031a.pde }
'Liquid Rotating as a Disk, Curl'
SELECT
spectral_colors
DEFINITIONS
r1=1.0 r2=0.3 r0=0.2
omega=1.0
{ Angular velocity }
vx=-omega*y vy=omega*x
{ Velocity components }
v=vector( vx, vy)
{ Velocity vector }
vm=sqrt(vx^2+vy^2)
{ Magnitude of v }
div_v=dx(vx)+ dy(vy) curl_z=dx(vy)- dy(vx)
BOUNDARIES
region 'domain'
start(r1,0) arc to (0,r1) to (-r1,0) to (0,-r1) close
feature
start 'inner' (r0+r2, 0) arc( center=r0,0) angle=360
PLOTS
elevation( tangential( v)/(pi*r2^2) ) on 'inner'
{ Curl_z }
contour( vm/(pi*r1^2))
{ Average }
END
22
zz
23
{ mex033.pde }
24
Exercises
25
4 Fields of Gravitation
Massive objects create a force field, acting on any other mass. This
force may be expressed in terms of a potential function U. For a point
mass at ( x0 , y0 ) , the potential may be written
U
G
m
R
G
( x x 0 ) 2 ( y y0 ) 2
26
The point where the magnitude of the field vanishes is also evident
from the vector plot below, where the field direction at that point
seems to be undetermined.
27
28
gv_angle=sign(gy)*arccos( gx/gm)/pi*180
BOUNDARIES
region 'domain'
start(-L,-L) line to (L,-L) to (L,L) to (-L,L) close
start(r1,0) arc( center=0,0) angle=360
PLOTS
grid(x,y)
contour( gm) as 'Magnitude' contour( gm) log
surface( gm) log
vector( gv) norm contour( gv_angle)
END
{ Exclude Earth }
29
From the next plot we find that the maximum magnitude of the
field strength occurs on the surface of the Earth and has the value
9.83.
In the vector plot below, you will notice that some arrows seem to
penetrate into the region reserved for the Earth. This occurs because
an arrow presents the field existing at its base, not at the tip.
30
region 'domain'
start(-L,d-L) line to (L,d-L) to (L,d+L) to (-L,d+L) close
start(r2,d) arc( center=0,d) angle=360
{ Exclude Moon }
PLOTS
The angle plot below shows that the field now is strongly
asymmetric, because of the influence of the Earths gravitation.
31
Next, we explore the field in a region between the Earth and the
Moon. The following amendments to mex042 are required.
TITLE
{ mex042b.pde }
'Earth-Moon Gravitation, Intermediate Region'
SELECT
spectral_colors
DEFINITIONS
d=3.84e8 r2=1.74e6 L=15*r2
region 'domain'
start(-L,d-2*L) line to (L,d-2*L) to (L,d) to (-L,d) close
start(-r2,d) arc( center=0,d) angle=180 line to (-r2,d)
{ Moon }
PLOTS
32
Divergence of g
Before leaving the gravitational field we should investigate whether
the divergence, g { 2U , is equal to zero. For this purpose we
add the following definition before boundaries to a copy of mex041
and make the corresponding contour plot.
TITLE
{ mex041a.pde }
'Earth-Moon Gravitation, Divergence'
Exercises
Modify mex041 by adding a contour plot of curl(g)z.
Change mex042 by making an elevation plot of gm along the line
y=0.
Convert the contour plots in mex042b to painted. Also try a
logarithmic elevation plot along the line of symmetry.
34
w 2U w 2U
w x2 w y2
36
{ mex052.pde }
37
The FlexPDE notation for w U / w n is natural(U), for obscure traditional reasons. Running this descriptor we again find excellent
agreement with the exact solution.
{ mex052a.pde }
{ Laplace PDE }
38
{ mex053.pde }
{ Outward derivatives }
{ mex053a.pde }
39
{ mex054.pde }
{ Exact solution }
Running this new descriptor you obtain the plot below for U. The
last plot (not shown here) indicates that the actual error in U is larger
than that estimated (RMS Error, MAX Error) at a number of spots close
to the curved boundary. The error is largest inside the cells having a
curved side, but it remains smaller than errlim over the rest of the
domain.
40
Here, the value boundary condition takes the same form for all four
sides of the square. In such a case, the program permits us to type the
expression for the value only once, making it automatically valid for
the following segments of the boundary.
The next figure shows a surface plot of the solution. The last figure
(not shown here) indicates that the solution is inside the error limit
requested, except at one point.
41
Exercises
In mex051, try using the function U_ex=x^2+y^2 (which is not an
analytic solution to the PDE). Do you still obtain a numeric solution?
Solve mex051 over a rectangular region of the same size using
value boundary conditions from U_ex=x/(x^2+y^2) (which is the real
part of 1/z). Locate your domain so that it does not include the
singular point at the origin.
Solve the Laplace equation in mex054 over the first quadrant, but
specify normal derivatives on the two straight boundaries and values
on the arc.
Modify mex055 with respect to the boundary conditions. Let the
values be known on the horizontal boundaries, and introduce
derivative boundary conditions on the vertical lines. Remember to use
the outward derivative.
Modify mex055 again, specifying derivative boundary conditions
on all boundaries and adding a point value at one of the corners.
Change the boundary values in mex055 to U_ex=sin(x)+y^2 and
modify the Poisson equation accordingly.
42
wu
,
wx
Hx
wv
,
wy
Hy
Hz
ww
,
wz
J xy
wv wu
wx wy
R|H
||
S|H
||H
T
1
V x P V y Vz
E
1
V y P Vz V x
E
1
Vz P V x V y
E
d
a
d
i
f
i
W xy
G J xy ,
W xz
G J xz ,
W yz
G J yz
E
2(1 P )
Plane Stress
In the 2D version of FlexPDE we may solve a PDE over a region in
( x , y ) but we cannot handle the variation with respect to z. Hence, we
must make a simplifying assumption about the behavior in the third
direction. We may choose between two simple courses of action.
44
Hz
P V x V y / E
R|H
|S
||H
T
wu
wx
wv
wy
1
V x PV y
E
1
V y PV x
E
R|V
S|
|TV
E
H x PH y
1 P2
E
PH x H y
1 P2
d
d
i
i
W xy
GJ xy
E
J xy
2(1 P )
R|wV wW F
|S w x w y
||wW wV F
T wx wy
x
xy
( x - components, W yx = W xy )
( y - components)
yx
45
Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions to apply are rather obvious in cases where
the displacements of external surfaces are given. In the problem
descriptor we only need to enter the function u0 specifying the
displacement in the x directions by value(u)=u0, and so on. This usage
will become clear from the first practical example below.
When dealing with the Laplace equation (p.38) we saw that the
normal derivative U n { w U /w n could be denoted natural(U) in the
boundary conditions. In the case of elastic deformation there are two
dependent variables, u and v, and we shall see that natural needs to be
interpreted somewhat differently.
The situation where external surface forces are specified is a little
subtle, but we shall see that the practical use remains simple. In the
figure below we consider the equilibrium of a volume element,
exposed to the stress component V x at the left end, and an external
stress X at the right end. The cross-sectional area of the volume
element is denoted Ax . For this case we find the condition V x X .
46
V x Ax
XAx
load(v)= Y
load(v)= X
contour type, but you could also try surface plots to explore if they
are easier to read.
TITLE
{ mex061.pde }
'Plate Under Compressive Strain'
SELECT
errlim=1e-6 spectral_colors
VARIABLES
u
v
{ Displacements in the x and y directions }
DEFINITIONS
{ SI units throughout : m, kg, s, K, N, Pa, J}
Lx=40e-3 Ly=30e-3
mu=0.3 E=200e9
{ Steel }
C=E/(1-mu^2) G=E/[2*(1+mu)]
uv=vector( u, v) uvm=magnitude( uv) { Vector displacement }
ex=dx(u) ey=dy(v) exy= dx(v)+ dy(u) { Strain components }
sx=C*(ex+ mu*ey) sy=C*(mu*ex+ ey)
{ Stress components }
sxy=G*exy ez=-mu*(sx+ sy)/E
EQUATIONS
{ No volume forces }
u: dx( sx)+ dy( sxy)=0
{ Forces in u-direction }
v: dx( sxy)+ dy( sy)=0
{ Forces in v-direction }
BOUNDARIES
region 'steel'
start 'outer' (0,0) load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (Lx,0)
value(u)=-1e-3*Lx load(v)=0 line to (Lx,Ly) { Compression }
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (0,Ly)
value(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (0,Ly/2) point value(v)=0
value(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to close
PLOTS
grid( x+200*u, y+200*v)
contour(u) contour(v) vector(uv) norm
contour(ex) contour(ey) contour(exy) contour(ez)
contour(sx) contour(sy) contour(sxy)
elevation(u,v) on 'outer'
END
The grid plot below shows the new shape of the plate. On the
maximized screen version you may easily read off the deviation with
respect to the original size, as given by Lx and Ly. Taking the
enhancement factor 200 into account, you will find that the length is
in fact smaller by 0.1%, as required. Also, the height is increased to
the extent expected from Hookes law.
49
The values of v in the above plot are negative in the lower half of
the plate and positive in the upper half, all in perfect agreement with
Hookes law. The contours are also straight lines, as expected.
The next plot of the displacement vector (u, v ) illustrates how the
material moves as the plate is compressed. The added command norm
means that we ask the program to divide the vector components by
50
the magnitude, and the result is a standard length for the arrows. The
magnitude of the vectors is roughly indicated by the color code. The
displacement is evidently largest at the right end.
51
large curvature at the corners, and these regions require denser grids
for the calculations.
The next plot shows that the constrained sides produce shear strain,
especially near the corners. The contour for zero shear strain is
forked, and the variation is small in the region of those curves, as
indicated by the distance to the next contour. This is one of the
reasons why these contours appear somewhat irregular. The other
reason is, of course, that they are based on derivatives of the solution
for the displacements.
53
54
55
At the left and right ends we apply loads according to the relation
p.47z1. The force per unit area ( X ) is 3.0e8 on the right face of the
plate, and it takes the opposite sign on the left face.
The following elevation plot shows the expected relation between
extension in the x direction and contraction in the y direction.
The bottom is fixed and the force per unit area is the same on the
remaining faces, except for signs. The descriptor is again based on
mex061.
TITLE
{ mex065.pde }
'Plate Subjected to Shear Forces'
SELECT
errlim=1e-4 spectral_colors
...
shear_f=2e8
{ Shear force per unit area }
EQUATIONS
...
region 'steel'
{ Shear load on all sides }
start 'outer' (0,0)
value(u)=0 value(v)=0 line to (Lx,0)
load(u)=0 load(v)=shear_f line to (Lx,Ly)
load(u)=shear_f load(v)=0 line to (0,Ly)
load(u)=0 load(v)=-shear_f line to close
...
The shear strain comes out as 2.60e-3, whereas the normal strains
in the x and y directions are of the order of 1e-16. Theory leads us to
expect that the latter two vanish. In short, the numerical results are in
satisfactory agreement with elementary theory.
57
The above figure shows the shape of the plate after the tangential
forces have been applied, the deformation being exaggerated by the
factor 200 for clarity.
Exercises
Assume the plate in mex062 still to be welded to the anvils, but
reverse the sign of the displacement at the right face. Study the
deformation and compare.
Save mex061 under a new name and add a tangential load of 1e8 to
the right side.
Save mex065 under a different name and remove the shear load on
the left side, then on both left and right sides.
Shear the rectangular plate (mex065) again, using value statements
only. Fix the bottom face as before and constrain the upper face to
move by a prescribed distance to the right, keeping the height
constant. Impose x-deformations proportional to y on the vertical
faces, in such a way that the boundary remains continuous.
58
7 Straight Beams
{ mex071.pde }
{ Lz=1 }
{ Steel }
sxy=G*exy
59
EQUATIONS
u: dx( sx)+ dy( sxy)=0
v: dx( sxy)+ dy( sy)=0
BOUNDARIES
region 'steel'
start 'outer' (0,-h/2)
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (L,-h/2)
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (L,h/2)
load(u)=0 load(v)=-pressure line to (0,h/2)
value(u)=0 value(v)=0 line to close
PLOTS
grid( x+200*u, y+200*v)
contour( u) contour( v) vector( uv) norm
contour( sx) contour( sy) contour( sxy)
contour( ez) elevation( u, v) on 'outer'
elevation( sx) on 'outer'
elevation( sy) on 'outer'
elevation( ez) on 'outer'
END
60
Evidently, the upper half of the beam is in tension, the lower half
in compression. It is instructive to compare all the plots with each
other and with your intuitive notions. For example, looking at the two
plots of ez we notice that the beam thickens in its lower part.
p0 x 2
x 2 6 L2 4 Lx
24 EI zz
61
R|V
||
S|W
||V
T
Vx Vy
x'
x' y'
Vx Vy
y'
Vx Vy
2
Vx Vy
2
Vx Vy
2
cos 2T W xy sin 2T
sin 2T W xy cos 2T
cos 2T W xy sin 2T
0.5 arctan
2W xy
V x V y
63
64
The next plot of syp shows that the stress along the perpendicular
axis (y') is even more negative, hence algebraically smaller.
65
66
region 'steel'
start 'outer' (0,-h/2)
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (L,-h/2)
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (L,h/2) load(u)=0 load(v)=0
line to (L/2,h/2) point load(v)=-5e5
{ Force per meter on line }
line to (0,h/2) value(u)=0 value(v)=0 line to close
PLOTS
grid( x+200*u, y+200*v) contour( mises) painted
END
From the grid plot (below) we find that the curvature is confined to
the left half of the beam. We also notice that there are relatively few
nodes in the right half.
The next plot of the Mises stress reveals a sharp maximum where
we applied the load. In principle, the stress per unit length of the line
is infinite, but the numerical values remain finite.
67
Gravity Bending
Let us now consider a cantilever beam loaded by its own weight and
welded to a vertical support at one end. Gravity acts on each volume
element, so that we have to introduce the term Fy in the second PDE
(p.45z4). Using mex072 as a template we eliminate all loads on the
boundaries and specify zero values for u and v on the left face.
TITLE 'Gravity Bending'
SELECT errlim=1e-5 spectral_colors
VARIABLES u v
DEFINITIONS
L=1.0 h= 0.2 Izz=h^3/12
mu=0.3 E=200e9
#include 'defuv.pde'
Fy=-7.8e3*9.8 w0=Fy*h
v_apx= w0*x^2/(24*E*Izz)*(x^2+ 6*L^2- 4*L*x)
EQUATIONS
u: dx( sx)+ dy( sxy)=0
v: dx( sxy)+ dy( sy)+ Fy=0
BOUNDARIES
region 'steel'
start 'outer' (0,-h/2)
68
{ mex073.pde }
{ Steel }
{ Gravity }
{ Analytic approx. }
{ Volume force }
The grid plot looks very much like what we obtained with uniform
load on the top surface (p.60), as we could expect. If we compare the
elevation plot of sy on the boundary, however, we find a clear
difference with respect to the plot obtained by mex071.
We may again compare to the approximate expression for the
vertical displacement2p531 that we used for pressure load (p.62). The
force of gravity acts on the volume, rather than on the upper surface,
but if we express this in terms of force per unit length the following
plot yields fair agreement.
69
The plot of Mises stress shows that the maximum risk of failure
still occurs at the left corners.
70
{ Force }
71
Hence, let us apply bending moments at the ends of the beam, both
of magnitude Mb but having opposite signs.
We may express the y displacement, v_ex, in terms of Mb using
first-order geometry of deflection2p514. We define the displacement v
to be zero at the ends.
TITLE 'Beam with Bending Moments at Ends'
{ mex074.pde }
SELECT errlim=1e-5 spectral_colors
VARIABLES u v
DEFINITIONS
L=1.0 h=0.2
mu=0.3 E=200e9
{ Steel }
#include 'defuv.pde'
Mb=5e5 Izz=h^3/12 v_ex=Mb/(E*Izz)*[x^2-(L/2)^2]/2
EQUATIONS
u: dx( sx)+ dy( sxy)=0
v: dx( sxy)+ dy( sy)=0
BOUNDARIES
region 'steel'
start 'outer' (-L/2,h/2)
{ Left end }
load(u)=Mb/Izz*y load(v)=0 line to (-L/2,-h/2) point value(v)=0
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (0,-h/2)
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (L/2,-h/2) point value(v)=0
load(u)=-Mb/Izz*y load(v)=0 line to (L/2,h/2)
{ Right end }
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to close
PLOTS
grid( x+200*u, y+200*v)
elevation( y*sx) from (0,-h/2) to (0,h/2) report( Mb)
contour( v) elevation( v-v_ex, 1e-8*v) from (-L/2,-h/2) to (L/2,-h/2)
contour( sx) contour( sy) contour( sxy) contour( ez) painted
vector( cos(p_angl)*sxp, sin(p_angl)*sxp) norm notips as ' "tension" '
contour( sxp) painted contour( syp) painted
contour( mises) painted
END
The geometry is evident from the figure below. Since the above
descriptor contains no boundary value of v, we specify a point value
v=0 at the lower corners, which both are at y=-h/2.
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73
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The above plot shows the principal directions over the beam. In the
lower half, the direction of tension is along the x-axis. In the upper
half, however, compression is dominant and hence tension (if any)
must be along the y-axis.
Elastic Energy
We already introduced an expression for the elastic energy per unit
volume into the include file, defuv.pde. To obtain the total energy
stored in a strained object (per unit depth in the z direction) we only
need to integrate that expression over the domain in ( x , y ) space. Let
us now apply this calculation to a cantilever beam, fixed at the left
end and exposed to a downward force on the right face. Using
mex072 as a template, we change the boundaries segment by
removing the pressure on the top and specifying vertical load (p.47)
over the right end.
TITLE 'Beam, Shear-Loaded at End'
{ mex075.pde }
...
region 'steel'
start 'outer' (0,-h/2)
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (L,-h/2)
load(u)=0 load(v)=-1e6 line to (L,h/2)
load(u)=0 load(v)=0 line to (0,h/2)
value(u)=0 value(v)=0 line to close
...
contour( mises) painted elevation( sxy) from (0,-h/2) to (0,h/2)
contour( energy_d) painted
END
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Since all relations are linear, we may guess that the force will be
proportional to the deflection, as the beam is deformed. The work
carried out in this process may be written W
f dv , and assuming
the force to vary linearly with v from zero to the maximum, we obtain
the simple expression W f max vmax /2 . The work thus becomes
W=2e5*5.14e-4/2=51.4. The agreement with our value for the stored
energy is thus excellent.
Plane Strain
So far we have assumed plane stress, which means that a volume
element may expand or contract freely in the z direction (V z 0) .
This is expected to apply reasonably well at least in cases of thin
plates, and since analytic solutions are readily available we have used
this mode extensively for comparison.
Plane strain (H z 0) , on the other hand, would apply in situations
where an elastic object is constrained between fixed, rigid and
friction-less walls.
We shall now explore the consequences of plane strain, and find
out how a solution differs from that for plane stress. As before, we
start from Hookes law for uniform temperature (p.43z2).
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R|H
||
S|H
||H
T
1
V x P V y PV z
E
1
V y P V z PV x
E
1
V z P V x PV y
E
Vz
PV x PV y
R|H
S|
|TH
1
V x (1 P 2 ) V y P (1 P )
E
1
V x P (1 P ) V y (1 P 2 )
E
RSV
TV
C (H x PH x PH y )
C (H y PH y PH x )
x
y
where
C
E
(1 P )(1 2 P )
Since the shear stress will take the same form as before, we only need
to change the expressions for V x and V y in a descriptor for plane
stress to make it valid for plane strain. The PDEs of equilibrium
remain the same.
We shall now prepare to repeat problems using plane strain. Since
the changes are within the included file defuv we modify that under
the new name defuve.
{ Block of commands for plane strain }
...
C=E/[(1+mu)*(1-2*mu)] G =E/[2*(1+mu)]
...
{ defuve.pde }
77
This single example shows that the difference between the two
modes of deformation may be clearly noticeable. It is easy to make
78
similar comparisons between plane stress and plane strain for the
other cases in this and the next chapter.
For thick objects, and in particular when stresses vary steeply in
space, we would expect a volume element to be constrained to some
extent by the surrounding material. Hence, the situation would be
intermediate between the two extremes, and we really need 3D
descriptors to generate accurate solutions.
Exercises
Replace the load in mex072 by sticking the corresponding weights
to the lower face. In which plots do you notice a difference?
Replace the distributed forces at the end of the beam with two
opposite u displacements at the left and right corners, choosing the
values resulting from mex074.
Modify mex072 by removing the load and specifying a downward
displacement of h/100 at the upper right corner. Calculate the force
(per meter extension in z) required to achieve this displacement by
integrating sxy from (L/2,-h/2) to (L/2,h/2). Also, compare the work
with the elastic energy.
Repeat mex072, adding 10% horizontal pull to the load on the top.
Find the deformation and stress distribution of a beam loaded by
its own weight and simply supported at 1/4 and 3/4 of its length.
Define u to be zero at 1/2 of the length.
Create a rectangular frame of
length 2.0, height 2.0, and width
0.3 as shown to the right. Let the
lower face be fixed, and load the
upper one by a uniformly distributed weight. Verify by integration
that the total force is transmitted
through horizontal cuts, one at midheight and another at the fixed
bottom.
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