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By
Parisa Pourhosseini
Introduction 1
1 Zurvanism: Concepts and Development
Introduction
The Problematic of the Research
Based on the same philosophical dualism inherent in all Iranian religions,
Zurvanist doctrine was the intellectual interpretation of the Zoroastrian
religion spread over ancient Iran, yet aimed to present a materialistic and
naturalistic explanation of the universe.
Zurvanist philosophy believe that Infinite Time is the first Principle of this world
and of all the various changes and groupings to which its members and organs
are subject as well as of the mutual opposition that exists between them and
of their fusion with one another. There is no punishment for sin; therefore
heaven and hell do not exist. There is no spiritual existence. Metaphysics is not
a specific subject of the doctrine of Zurvanism.
Unlike Zoroastrianism, it is generally accepted that the Zurvan heresy or sect
originated from the west Iranian plateau1. Its basic ideas rest in all likelihood
upon the influence of Babylonian astrology, the use of which continued after
the Persian conquest of the Babylonian empire (539 BCE). Zurvanism, as an
attempt to make sense the universe based on materialistic principles and
naturalist concepts, took celestial bodies and the firmament to have
considerable effect over the universe.
Zurvanism constitutes beliefs of a sect of Persians who considered
space-time as the beginning of the world. The sectarians held Zurvan as a
father of the reported Zurvanite rivals Ohromasdes of light and Ahrimanius of
darkness.
The Zurvanite philosophical system of thought affirms the Infinity of
Time, according to which all the creatures come into existence through Time
and Zurvan or Zamn (Time) in the perpetual being inside which the universe
comes into birth. Zurvan is not a creator but sets out a passage for emergence
and creation. Ohrmazd and Ahriman, responsible for the creation, are even
created through Time regardless of Zurvans intention and deliberation. Zurvan
is only capable of requesting the creation and being eager for it. Based on the
capability it prays for the Ohrmazd responsible for the creation of the universe
to come into birth, and within its prevenient Iranian mythology, it unwillingly
paves way for the creation of Ahriman.
This point indicates fatalism as a basic and fundamental element of
Zurvanism, one conquering the intentions and decisions made by deities. The
concept Time or Zurvan is closely associated with destiny. Such insights are
hardly unfamiliar with any moderns; as Jean-Paul Sartre (1353:132) affirms:
Time besides Space is of the two determinants of the existence.
Needless to say, the circulation of night, day, year, and month alongside
their natural manifestations, i.e., the sun, moon, stars, and celestial bodies,
had led ancient Mesopotamian and Persians to perceive a relation between
Time and the heavens and to convictions about the influence the latter exerted
over the universe. Zurvanists pile in on this thread, but also the instability of
human affairs, evil and cruelty, and the ephemeral quality of life are other
concerns of theirs. Moreover, Zurvanism condemns greed and insists on
harmony, moderation, contentment, and encourages its followers to honour
their vows. It reminds followers that there will be an annihilation of the world;
the universe finally dissolves back into the eternity of Zurvan.
Zurvanism has had a profound and continuing influence on the Iranian
sphere of thought. Fatalism though modified with the coming of Islam through
the concept resignation or trust in God, never entirely vanished among
Persians even up to present era, and keeps on reappearing as a long-lasting
effect on beliefs and ideas of the people. Such a durable impression can
obviously be traced from Iranian poets and thinkers of the earlier centuries of
Persian literature, especially with the Khorasani Style. The naturalistic spirit
and ethics of this group of poets derives from an historical intimacy with preIslamic Iran, confirming the persistence of Zurvanian influences.
It is of great importance to explore religious influences in literature. Our
study in this respect is highly relevant to the contemporary situation. Human
beings now live in a dividedly multicultural, technological, and globalized
world. In these days, exploring cultural developments and human relationships
with religion provides insights into the mystery of other cultures, which in itself
opens an inquiry into the philosophical questions concerning life and death,
love and hate, time, space, history, subject and object. The study of the
influences of Zurvanism on post-Islamic Persian literature can be a clue for
unveiling how religion as a cultural and historical phenomenon mobilizes itself
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through time and space and becomes a defining element in a nations art and
literature philosopher and a critic who argued that literature can represent
ideology.
This thesis examines the endurance of Zurvani ideas in Persian culture
through considering the works of predominant Khorasani poet and more than
that, it examines the views of Hakim Abdul-Qasim Firdausi or Ferdowsi. In the
extensive amount of Iranian intellectual works, mostly written following the
emergence of Islam, literature plays an important role, this author assumes
that Khorasani school of Persian literature may be the most suitable mean to
recognize the influence of the pre-Islamic mind-set, especially Zurvanism.
Goals and Methodology of the Research
The General Research Questions asked below apply to more poets than I can
discuss in the compass of a Masters Thesis, but my research is part of and a
contribution toward a broader questioning. Above all, I address:
Major questions of the research:
What kind of ideas and maxims of what the poets were influenced or
were originated from Zurvanism other than the ideas having roots in
fatalism?
Fatalism is not the only influence Zurvanism has had over these
poets, but also views about the instability of life, the Epicurean way
of living, contentment, harmony, and life lived independently of
thoughts about the afterlife must be included.
The poets have not been equally influenced by Zurvanism and the
effect varies depending on their mental and social context.
Literature Review
Very few writings specifically deal with the above research agenda which is a
project only fully opened up by this thesis itself. Prior publications most
pertinent for my research, however, include:
H. Dolatbdi, Persian Title in Italics (The Footprint of Zurvan, God of
Fortune and Destiny) (1372)
The author examines the influence of Zurvanism across different periods of
Iranian history. The book explores Zurvanism in Shahnameh to some
degree.
R.C. Zaehner, Zurvn: a Zoroastrian Dilemma (1972).
In his precious book Zaehner examines Zurvanism very deeply. His focus on
the story of Zl, of great relevance to this thesis, shows how Shahnameh
had been under the influence of Zurvanism. The Magi in this story ask Zl
some questions and his relevant answers all relate to Time, including
Zurvanite ideas. Citing this interaction, Zaehner concludes Firdausi and his
Shahnameh as a true representation of Zurvanism. It will be explained in
what follows, however, that Zurvanism had not been the only source of
inspiration for Firdausi but traces of Zoroastrianism and sometimes
Ash'arite Kalm can be found in the epic.
Chapter One
Zurvanism: Concepts and Development
The human mind has always been fascinated by the natural phenomena
particularly the sky, i.e., the moon, the sun, and stars, which have been
worshipped since ancient times. Relying on this background, including the
belief in solar deity in Afanasevo culture widespread across upper Yenisei
catchment, the Aryans fused their own beliefs and mythologies with those of
developed cultures of the Iranian plateau, including Babylonian astrology. The
result was the belief in the influence of celestial bodies and of astronomical
forces over human life. In addition, concern over 'good' and 'evil' and of
divisive forces (good gods and bad ones) was another consequence that
emerged from familiarity with Mesopotamian civilizations.
The Mesopotamian Legacy of Zurvanism
In his helpful work Asian Religions, Mehrdd Bahr has surveyed certain
mythological similarities seen between vernacular west Asian cultures and
Aryan or Indo-Iranian cultures. He has isolated at least three significant motifs,
to do with defeating chaos, cosmic duality, and the mediation of the wind
deity.
Primal Rebellion and Chaos
It can be seen that some sort of primordial chaos was posited in the
mythologies of all west Asian cultures, from as we trace them back to the
oldest epochs on to more recent pre-Christian era. The powers of disorder
have to be dispensed with before the cosmos (as order) can be achieved. Ea,
the great god of wisdom in Sumerian civilization, kills Apsu, ancestor of gods
and demons and one of the two perpetual god-demons. Tiamat, perpetual
goddess-demon, wife of Apsu and mother of the other gods and demons, is
killed by Marduk. Moreover, Ba'al in Canaanite mythology seizes power after
killing Yam (Sea). The same belief is found in Greek, Iranian, and Indian
mythologies. Zeus, in Greek mythology, kills Cronus. Ripping open Zurvan's
womb, Ahriman, in Persian mythology, comes into existence. In the Rigveda,
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as the father of the two. However, there is no distinct source to find out his
name. He is the very God-Father whose manifestations are infinite Time and
Space.
Zurvan in Zoroastrianism is in no sense a god of light, but Ohrmazd
(Ahura Mazda) seems to be the father of light. In the Manichaean system,
mixing Zoroastrianism and Christian Gnosticism, Ohrmazd (as Ohrmazd Bay) is
not a supreme god but the god-man who could create greatness to be sent to
fight evil. In any case, the figure of Zurvan in Zurvanism is very different from
the principal subject of Zoroastrian thought.
In his representations in Zoroastrian texts we find signals of two different
opinions. Zurvan has been mentioned in Yat, Vandidad 19-20, and Khorda
Avesta. In Aban Yat, sections 129 and 30, the term Zurvan indicates unknown
Time, signifying that Zurvan was under the command of God. In contrast, in the
hymns of Farvardin and Zamyad Yats, holding a position highly unusual for the
Avesta, Zurvan is absolute time, and in Yasna Zurvan he is depicted as infinite
time that must be praised. One needs to do some historical investigation to
explain the puzzle of this divergence.
The Historical Background of Zurvanism
The Achaemenids
The religion of Achaemenid rulers (550-330 BCE), although surveyed across by
many researchers, still remains vague. The Achaemenid epigraphs do not
clearly confirm their belief in the Zoroastrian religion. It has always been
doubtful, too, to regard them as Zurvanites. The latter view is generally based
on speculations and interpretations derived from Greek texts. Most
researchers, however, have come to some sort of consensus over the influence
and popularity of Zurvanism throughout the Achaemenian era.
One of the fundamental questions about Zurvanism is the origin of its
philosophy. It is accepted by specialists that Zurvan is an ancient Iranian God.
Some believe the Zurvanite cult to be older than Zoroastrianism, which has
been partly adopted into, and partly obliterated by the orthodox Mazdaism.
Some believe that Zurvanism, with the emphasis on time, could be the
synthesis of Zoroastrian and the Babylonian ideas. Others believe that the
origin of the doctrine came from the second half of the Achaemenid period.
According to Daryaees Sassanian Iran: portrait of a late Antique Empire, the
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Therefore the world is less real, less good, and as a result, more evil; evil was
recognized as the lack of vitality and health.
It seems that the idea of lack of perfection as the cause of evil was
adopted by Zurvanite theology to comprehend the problem of thinking about
evil cosmologically. Hellenistic philosophy and theology influenced thinking
about evil in many religions and cults as much as mythology continued to do.
Theology, with cosmology, the deliberate effort to explain the origins of the
world and good and evil, became widespread in the Hellenistic period. Most of
the Greek philosophers did not establish a clear referable principle of good and
evil, which itself caused much confusion. But the religious aspects of Hellenistic
philosophy later influenced Jewish and Christian thought, as well as the
Zurvanite doctrine, and important developments concerning clearer moral
choices resulted. The problem of evil principle had to be solved among
philosophers of that time. Philo, eventually, drew heavily upon the Greek
philosophers, especially Plato, and succeeded in synthesizing Greek and Jewish
doctrines in a mode that was later imitated by the Christian Apologists. The
Hebrew deity Yahweh was introduced by Philo in Greek as the Lord of
goodness and one who imposes forms upon matter. Matter is unruly, to the
extent that it resists the Gods agency and can be considered evil. Philo
assumes that the material world is the source of evil.
When Hellenistic philosophers (ca. 400BCE- 100CE) made their effort to
explain the mystery of evil, they brought with them negative views of matter.
As a result, through philosophical and literally endeavours, Hellenistic
philosophy obtained a generalized and ethical view of good and evil. Whether
speaking of a high god, the philosophers impersonal deity, or even Philos
supreme being from the Jewish tradition, God wishes to create a good and
orderly cosmos, but he is restricted by the existence of matter. It is usually
understood that Greek philosophies with this orientation had a great influence
on forming a principle of evil in Zurvanism.
If the initial popularity of Zurvanism, as Christensen believes, traces
back to Achaemenid era, Walter Bruno Henning, Scholar of Middle Iranian
Languages, believes that its rise happened in the second half of Achaemenid
era. And according to Zaehner, a group of magi, who due to illegalization of
Satanism (Daeva-yasna) under Xerxes, had immigrated to Asia Minor and
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of Zurvanite myths. This idea comes into mind because if Mithraic myths had
been influenced by the Mazdean religion, Jupiter (Ahura Mazda) would have
found an upper hand over the gods rather than Ion-Chronos (Zurvan). Another
noteworthy point is that Time in Mithraic epigraphs has been characterized
by the epithet 'Devourer', indicating its affiliation with death, which is a
Zurvanite belief.
The Sassanids
Historical evidence confirms different religious tendencies throughout the
Sassanid Empire. Christianity in the western realm of the Empire had extended
to Shm (Levant, Syria) and Mesopotamia. There were some inclinations
towards Indian religions such as Buddhism, but they were viewed as threats to
the religion traditionally supported by the Sassanids. Moreover, there were
many religious divisions and cults inside Iranian society at the time.
Armenian Christian Eznik of Kolb categorized the major religions of the
Sassanid Empire into three categories:
Some believe in two principles: good and bad, some believe in three
principles: good, bad, and the just, and there is another group that
believes in seven principles
Though it may be very difficult to guess the identity of the group believing in
seven principles, it is clear that follower of two principles were traditional
Mazdaists, and followers of three principles believed in a good god, Ahura
Mazda, an evil one; Ahriman, and a medium god, Zurvan or Mehr, these
obviously being Zurvanite. The Denkard, a key book of Zoroastrian principles
and practices of Sasanian times, has depicted three religious tendencies: first,
Yatukih or witchcraft, a cult that regards the Creator as completely powerless.
Second, a pseudo-religion that regards the creator as both kind and ineffective
at the same time. The third is Mazdyasn or the religion of Mazda-worshippers
who regard the Creator as omnipotent, Gracious, and completely free of evil.
The place of Zurvanism in this category is not clear, although perhaps it could
be said that Zuirvanism is caricatured in the second case.
In his Zurvanite Doctrine, Moghadam studies the rise and fall of
Zurvanite ideas under the Sassanids and examines six theories concerning the
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changing situations, the first theory is from Zaehner, who detects cyclical
impulses of Zurvanism under the Sassanids. This religion, Zaehner states, had
experienced rises and falls. During some periods it reaches a peak gaining
popularity, and in some periods it is pushed aside by the traditional Mazdean
religion under which Zurvanism is forced to remain under. The cycle was as
follows: Mazdean religion under Ardashir I was renewed through cooperation
with Tansar. In a period of his life, when Zurvanism was a dominant religion,
Ardashir I tended to Manichaeism. Mazdaism under Bahrm I responded and
seized power. Under the guidance of Kartir, principal Mazdean criteria were
ratified, hence making it also the dominant religious order of its time.
Thereafter, all other religions were proscribed and their followers were
prosecuted. Shapur II adopted the same policy and established a council to
solve religious disputes. The council approved traditional dualist Mazdaism and
re-confirmed it as the official religion of the Empire. Zurvanites under
Yazdegerd I staged a comeback through his vizier Mihr-Narseh, said to be a
Zurvanite. Under Khosrow I, the traditional religion re-gained popularity,
though he later sought reconciliation and somewhat mitigated the hardships
that Zurvanism had to endure. After Khosrow I, the general social situation
experienced a period of chaos because the main religious tendency of the
Empire was in fact not clear to anyone.
A second theory that of Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin, holds that the
Sassanid kings were adherent to traditional Mazdean religion while Zurvanite
religion was popular among lower classes. A Third group of researchers,
including Anquetil du Perron, Henrik Nyberg, and Christensen, besides Richard
Frye and Boyce, refer to Greek texts that consider Zurvanism as the dominant
tendency under the Sassanids.
Ardashir I declared Zoroastrianism as his religion and commanded all
those scattered teachings to be brought to the court. Further, Shapur I, son of
Ardashir, collected those writings scattered throughout India, the Byzantine
Empire, and other lands, including the scripts on medicine, astronomy,
movement, time, space, substance, creation, becoming, death, and other
processes and phenomena. He ordered those teachings to be added to Avesta.
This way, he aligned all systems with the Mazdean religion. It seems Shapur I
desired to broaden his religion by developing religious ceremonies through the
introduction of foreign materials from Greek and India, including works on
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astronomy, time, space, the process of becoming, decline, and alteration which
were reminiscent firstly of Aristotle and secondly of Zurvanism. All this huge
additional body of materials was branded as Zoroastrianism in the Greek
speaking world, but in fact it was made up mostly of Zurvanite literature. The
terms Time and Space indicate that Shapur himself had probably inclined to
Zurvanism. He sought to give scriptural authority to the new alien religion. The
similarities between Zurvanism and Manichaeism have been noticed, but it
may be true that most of the elements in Zurvanism come from Western
Christian heretical and Gnostic sources.
Another theory discussed by both Zaehner and Boyce concerns the
probability of geographical development of religions. Referring to original
Manichean works and examining the names of the gods in this religion that
differ geographically, Zaehner defines north Parthian religion as traditional
Mazdaism and describes Zurvanism as the dominant Persian religion of
southwest.
Another theory and one not without favour from aforementioned
Duchesne-Guillemin, regards the Sassanid kings as Mazdean. Jes Peter
Asmussen has also accepted the same theory. Per contra, Henning believes
that Zurvanism had flourished in second half of Parthian era and was then
suppressed by the Sassanids, eventually to be succeeded by Mazdean dualism.
Yet another theory takes Zurvanism merely as a philosophical attitude. In a
view partly shared by Asmussen, Frye treats Zurvanism as an intellectual
orientation among some clergy engaged in theoretical discussions on evil and
does not consider it a sect. Zurvanism, but rather, he believes, nothing else
but a set of thoughts and reflections about Time. As a philosophical and
natural explanation of creation of the world, we find that, in the pre-existing
tranquillity before the Creation, Zurvan or the Infinite Time creates Ohrmazd
and Ahriman through mixing the two elements, water and fire, and then they
launch out the Creation. There are, however, many more mystical and
symbolic aspects covered by mythological explanation of Creation in
Zurvanism.
Quotations from Zurvan Myth
There are two different narratives of the Zurvan(ite) myth, first of which has
been quoted from Eznik of Kolb, an Armenian Christian priest who promoted
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benevolent wish. Ohrmazd created the sky and the Earth and whatever
beauteous and right. On the other hand, Ahriman created the devils and
anything bad and untrue. Ohrmazd created wealth (blessing) while
Ahriman created poverty (adversity)
Shahrastanis account of the Zurvanite myth is slightly different but
comparable:
Some have come to an idea that the Light created everything from light,
all spiritual, bright and deistical; however the greater existent whose
name was Zurvan hesitated over one thing amongst creatures, so
Ahriman came into birth due to his doubt. Some others believe that
Zurvan had been murmuring for 9999 years to conceive a son but he did
not. Therefore, he wondered whether his knowledge was not efficient
and proper. A [single] grief was brought about by his thought, so Ahriman
came into existence due to this grief while Ohrmazd was created from his
knowledge, while both were conceived in the same womb. Ohrmazd was
more likely to be born first but Ahriman played a trick to rip his mother's
womb. So he emerged prior to Ohrmazd and conquered the world
According to Shahrastani, Zurvan is the greatest singularity of light or simply
the creator God. Zurvan sacrificed for a thousand years to have a son whose
name was Ohrmazd and should create heaven and the Earth. He wondered
whether all his troubles were in vain, and due to his doubt, soon after Ahriman
came into birth. Zurvans doubt is purely mythological. Zurvan desires the
pleasure of love, kindness and bounty to be revealed. However, Ahriman is
symbolized by his doubt. This is a result of an imperfection and uncertainty of
self in the very deep heart of God.
Zurvan promised the kingdom to whichever of the two spirits, Ohrmazd
or Ahriman who came out first. When Ahriman was born, he did indeed give
him the kingdom, but he made Ohrmazd lord above him. Ohrmazds lordship is
justified in this respect as the justice of the God of Law, but of course God is
the god of law and of justice by definition.
The term doubt and reflecting conceals the essential imperfection
of Zurvan, which did not allow the best and basic of nature of divinity come to
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23
a good creative deity from the forcible course of fate which stands beyond him
and evil.
It is recognized that Zurvanism survived among Iranians through the late
Achaemenid period until the Sassanid era. Therefore, in six hundred years, this
local religion persisted in the consolidation of its philosophy. It should be
considered that the dualism in Sassanid thought was the main factor leading to
the formation of Zurvanism. Based on this Persian dualism, Ohrmazd is
described in passages of the Avesta and Pahlavi books. He is regarded as the
creator of good things and all the good creations are attached to him. The term
Ahriman is exclusively discussed in Zoroastrian dualism and is one of the
entanglements in Zoroastrian doctrine. Ohrmazd resembles light more than
anything else and Ahriman is the symbolism of a negative entity.
According to traditions of the Magi, there are few subjects in the history
of the study of Zoroastrianism that have been changed as dramatically as
Zurvanism. In fact, Zurvanism was recognized as the most important tendency
within Zoroastrianism, and as one of the main contributing factors in formation
of Gnosticism in general and for Manichaeism in particular.
However, the Pahlavi books have frequently referred to Zurvanism as
heretical, especially in (Pahlavi-translated) in which, Avesta makes compromise
with the Denkard and Ulema-i Islam. All references to Zurvanism refer to the
name of Zurvan as unlimited time and space, and Fate over all creations. It is
clearly emphasized that Zurvan has his basis in dichotomies such as good and
evil, male and female, light and darkness, bliss and misery, order and chaos. In
fact, Ohrmazd and Ahriman (Evil) are the two different halves of Zurvan that
were separated by the act of generation.
Despite a naturalistic explanation of the Creation narrated by Denkard
and Ulema-i Islam, Eznik and Shahrastani as the two most famous heresyhunters, have chosen subjective and metaphysical aspects, especially
Shahrastani who focused on the conscientiousness of Zurvan, or perhaps more
specifically the unconsciousness of Zurvan and the respective influence these
states may have over the creation of Ohrmazd and Ahriman. Both these
interpreters, in any case, want to focus on the most important topic regarding
divinity in monotheist schools of thought, the nature of God and Gods own
omniscience. This issue we will discuss through following sections.
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26
But here Time merely helps the two Spirits, and is not their creator. But even in
Zurvanite theology itself, time is limited by the very act of Infinite Zurvan
determining the limited time for Ahrimanic domination and contending with
him at first. Zurvan in Zurvanite doctrine takes a determinant character which
is the very limited *beside+ celestial time. To help and put this in perspective,
the maxim of time infinity and its secondary finitude has been mentioned in
the Denkard: Time is originally infinite, then it is confined *The+ Time
formula is a transition from primal infinity which implies movement and
transportation.
The very determination and mobility from infinity to finitude causes an
inherent imperfection inside Zurvan, hence the second step by which Ahriman,
due to Zurvan's unawareness, comes into existence and makes this fault
clearer. The Infinite and undetermined Zurvan wanted to make the Creation
possible. In doing so he had to waive some parts of himself, which meant in a
sense imperfection. The birth of Ahriman and Ohrmazd was a result of this
transaction in which each of them undertook his own deistical responsibility.
On the other hand, the determined Time or Zurvan i derang-xvatdy, which is
the terrestrial body of Infinite Time and similar to the Universe (Spihr),
therefore had to be treated as a material context inside which Ahriman and
Ohrmazd perform their acts.
However, for Zurvanists it is more important to concentrate on Infinite
Zurvan (Zurvan Akarana) as primary, then the Finite one and the ZurvanUniverse relationship. Infinite Zurvan, in R.C. Zaehner's word can be described
as:
Zurvan, as Time and Space, is infinite; and nothing is infinite but him. He
is at the same time un-circumscribed in space and boundless in essence:
and there is no other place or abode that is devoid of him. He is that
without which nothing from the first is. Nothing can exist without him
or separate from him. But so far as he is infinite he cannot be
understood. He cannot be comprehended by any intellect; likewise, he
cannot be comprehended by the intellect of God. Being infinite, his
essence is incomprehensible even to himself; he cannot know himself
since it is meaningless to say that he knows his own infinite essence by
an infinite intellect... He is undying, without pain, un-corrupting and un27
decaying, safe from assault, and for ever and ever no one can violate
him nor deprive him of his sovereignty in his proper sphere
Finite Time, however, is the terrestrial manifestation of Infinite Time and the
mean and cause of all existence;
Zurvan himself made finite is primarily the material Cosmos, the socalled endless form, animated, it is true, by the Spirit of the Power of
the Word which proceeds from Ohrmazd and essentially appears as the
material macrocosm and manifesting himself through the operation of
fate. He is embodied in the Cosmos, but is also the law by which the
Cosmos works. This law manifests itself in the treaty which Zurvan
makes between Ohrmazd and Ahriman. He gives each of the
protagonists his appropriate arm and settles the rules for the combat.
His law favours neither good nor evil. The law of Time is simply to
proceed from original infinity through limitation involving action, motion
and passage, and finally to return to ultimate infinity
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Spihr is the seat of the stars and therefore controls the fate of man ... after
the limitation, Spihr is strictly the starry firmament and Vy the space within it.
Matter moves in Vy but is controlled by Spihr. Space and Place are the
embodied representation of Time wherein the stars and terrestrial life
function. This is what is called Spihr or the Sky which is in fact the material
body of Zurvan i derang-xvatdy.
Most scholars have come to a consensus that Zurvan, Vyu, and the Sky
are the same. Benevenist confirms the unity between Sky and Zurvan.
Widengren regards Vyu and Zurvan as aspects of a unique god as well.
Vy and Thwsha, according to Nyberg, are existential aspects of Zurvan
or synecdochically some of his epithets
Zurvan and Destiny
The relationship between Zurvan and destiny has been confirmed in both
Pahlavi and non-Pahlavi texts. When nothing at all existed, Eznik states,
neither the heavens nor the earth, there was one, Zurvan by name, which,
being interpreted is fate (Baxt) or fortune (Park). As has been mentioned, an
epigraph related to Antiochus of Commagene runs To all the generations
whom the Infinite Time has determined to rule this kingdom had been ordered
to save it. The Zurvanite destiny over 30-year-old life of Keyumars (the first
man being created) had also been mentioned by the Zurvanite Pahlavi text ZatSpram:
Ahriman sent Astovihat, demon proper of death, with a thousand
manifest maladies to kill him. They failed due to his destiny according to
which Zurvan had determined brave heart Keyumars to see 30 winters
Zurvan in the Zurvanite text Menog-i Xrad is God of Destiny and the cause for
emanation;
You must know that destiny, fortune, and pre-destined fate manage and
direct everything in the world and Zurvan himself is the absolute leader
and derang-xvatdy
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of the gods rather than by humans. The gods of Mesopotamia brought about
peoples faiths. Therefore, imtu can well be used as a metaphor for events
beyond mens control. Representing the deities, the kings of ancient Babylon
and Mesopotamia conveyed the will of the gods to the people, and with the
king being a substitute for the divine in royal ritual he presented a strong
impression of being both the influence and concrete expression of imtu.
It is clearly understood that the existence and control of faith was
rooted in the divine realm. Everything in human existence was under the
control of the godshealth, happiness, life span, including the ultimate imtu,
which was named Death. The god of faith in Mesopotamian doctrine, however,
is nonetheless a subordinate to the gods who administer the faith of humanity.
As it was mentioned, apart from enduring Mesopotamian effects, during the
Sassanid period the empire remained open to foreign influences; Indian
influence from the east and Greek from the west were the important elements
which formed new heresies like Zurvanism.
Zurvanite fatalism apparently has influenced by Aristotles theology of
chance and fortune. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), student of
Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great, wrote a major work in the history of
philosophy about metaphysics, and he could be said to found the discrete
subject of metaphysics, but not the term itself. He emphasized that luck plays
an important role in the good life. He argued that self-sufficiency brings the
good life, but recognized that spontaneity and chance are causes of some
things as distinct from others. His general theory of luck and fortune are
thought to prepare grounds for Zurvanite fatalist ideas. In Aristotles
theoretical discussion of luck, good fortune is a subspecies of luck. Aristotle
clearly expressed that it is necessary for luck to exist and to be a cause, for to
him many morally relevant cases of good fortune are due to luck. Luck in
Aristotelian philosophy is an accidental cause, indefinite and unbounded, yet
accountable enough by reason. An accidental cause means that luck is relative
to a particular description of events. In addition, it is indefinite and unbounded
because there may be many appropriate descriptions of a lucky events.
Typically descriptions of luck are too close or too far away to relate easily to
cause and effect. Aristotle's theological account of luck is tied to his
metaphysical theories. He argued that fortunate persons do not succeed by
their practical wisdom. He rejected the idea that humans can be fortunate
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through love of God. He noted that the fortunate are so by nature, although he
expressed that nature is a cause of what occurs either always or for the most
part as it does, but luck is just the opposite. In this account, Aristotle reiterates
the point that luck is not something that works with a high degree of
regularity, but it is contrary to ordinary principles of reason. He argued also on
the substantial point of luck as a reason of ones natural constitution rather
than good things happening to a person because of his or her natural
constitution.
Aristotle believed that not only that practical wisdom and virtue bring
happiness, but also the fortunate people fare well. He emphasized the
importance of luck for happiness, insisting that those persons are fortunate
who succeed for the most part without any reason. This is why he concluded
that persons could be fortunate by nature. Furthermore, he admits good
fortune could be a case of luck for the most part holding, but not forever or
always. Aristotle's theological account of luck distinguishes two forms of good
fortune in conclusion. The one kind is divine. He argued that such a person is
one who is likely to be successful in accordance with his impulses. The other
kind of person to whom the non-divine fortune applies, is successful through
being contrary to his impulses. He believed that all events of human life are in
any case determined, by an eternal pre-ordained destiny.
Such philosophical idea of luck and fortune was in different terms
expressed in Zurvanite fatalism. It should be noted, however, that the
philosophical contemplations of Aristotle, in contrast to his teacher Plato,
defined and explored the implications of worldly fortune, not the work of a
divine being or the role of ideal forms, because, as we know, he dismissed
another perfect and ideal world. Zurvanism is different from Aristotelian
fortune theory for being dividedly theological.
Many researchers believed that Zurvanism historically arose from
despair and hopelessness. In Zurvanite mythology, Zurvan promised to give the
kingdom of the world to whom born earlier. Ohrmazd with his absolute
knowledge and wisdom discovered this issue and made his brother Ahriman
aware. Therefore, Ahriman tore the womb of his father sooner and the
kingdom of the world was given to him for nine thousands years. The triumph
of Ahriman means that humankind lives in the world rendered imperfect by
evil. This view has prevailed in Iranian culture. It should be taken seriously,
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The sage asked the spirit of wisdom thus: is it possible to contend with
destiny through wisdom and knowledge, or not? The spirit of wisdom
answered in this way: Even with the might and powerfulness of wisdom
and knowledge, even then it is not possible to contend with destiny.
Because, when predestination as to virtue, or as to the reverse, comes
forth, the wise becomes wanting in duty and the astute in evil becomes
intelligent; the faint-hearted becomes braver, and the braver becomes
faint-hearted, the diligent becomes lazy, and the lazy acts diligently. Just
as is predestined as to the matter, the cause enters into it and thrusts
out everything else
And it is mentioned in another passage:
The sage asked the spirit of wisdom thus: wherefore is it when there
are instances when a lazy, ignorant, and bad man attains to eminence
and great welfare, and there are instances when a worthy, wise, and
good man attains to grievous misery, perplexity, and indigence?
The spirit of wisdom answered thus: As to him who is a lazy,
ignorant, and bad man, when his destiny becomes a helper, that laziness
of his then becomes like unto diligence, that ignorance unto knowledge,
and that vileness unto goodness. And as to him who is a wise, worthy,
and good man, when his destiny is an opponent, that wisdom of his then
turns to stupidity and foolishness, and that worthiness to ignorance and
his knowledge, skill, and worthiness become manifestly secluded
An echo of this motif is heard after centuries where Hafez, on behalf of Spirit
of Wisdom, answered to the sage:
The reason, ask not why the cherisher of the mean became the sphere,
Whose design of giving, pretence without reason is
This radical and excessive fatalism is not confirmed by the Mazdeans, who
regard the universe as a battlefield inside which good and evil, Ohrmazd and
Ahriman, fight and where human who owns a free will and deliberation is
capable of choosing to stand on either side. Destiny controls merely material
life, wealth, marriage and children, and has no way to spiritualties;
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The golden mean between faith and purposeful action must be found;
for the man who puts his trust exclusively in faith makes himself
contemptible, and he who continually exerts himself and makes efforts
and denies faith and destiny, is a fool and puffed up with pride ... faith
and effort are like two bales of a traveller's baggage on the back of a
mule. If one of them is heavier than the other, the load falls to the
ground, and the back of the mule breaks, and the traveller suffers
embarrassment and does not reach his destination
Spihr and Destiny
Spihr is the material body of Zurvan, the equivalent to Zurvan i derang-xvatdy.
The world works out inside Spihr and Spihr through the twelve signs of the
Zodiac which regulate this circulation and determine it. Spihr (Place) and
Zurvan (Time) are therefore two interwoven concepts which together
constitute the backbone of Zurvanite thought.
It is mentioned in Menog-i Xrad that the stars and the planets are
responsible for the way the universe works. The twelve zodiacal signs together
are a beneficial medium through which goodness descends, yet Seven Planets
prevent goodness, thus contaminating the world.
Every good and the reverse which happen to mankind, and also the
other creatures, happen through the seven planets and the twelve
constellations. And those twelve constellations are such as in revelations
are the twelve chieftains who are on the side of Auharmazd, and those
seven planets are called the seven chieftains who are on the side of
Aharman. Those seven planets pervert every creature and creation, and
deliver them up to death and every evil. And, as it were, those twelve
constellations and seven planets are organizing and managing the
world
Spihr, in the Bundahishn, is the material body of Zurvan i derang-xvatdy and
deistical destiny. Spihr is neutral, like Zurvan, in terms of good and evil. It
provides simultaneously for Ohrmazds agency (through twelve zodiacal signs)
and Ahrimans realm of action (through seven planets).
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Spihr is the one who bestows good and deserves kingdom ... the one
who donates more is called benefactor, and the one who donates less is
called bad Spihr. The very bestowment is determined by Time
Each of the twelve zodiacal signs stands for a thousand-year-period of finite
time. Hence, the entire twelve-thousand-year period of creation and cosmic
antagonism following it, is organized by Spihr. The responsibility which is
undertaken by the planets is to mislead the destiny as pre-arranged by the
Zodiac and to bring down the evil.
Answering to the sage asking why the universal division had come out so
wrongly, the spirit of wisdom says:
The treasure of the worldly existence was allotted as truly, in the original
creation, as that of the spiritual existence. And the Creator, Ohrmazd,
provided happiness of every kind invested in creatures and creation, for
the use of the sun and moon and those twelve constellations which are
called the twelve chieftains by revelation; and they, too, accepted it in
order to allot it truly and deservedly. And, afterwards, Aharman
produced those seven planets, such as are called the seven chieftains of
Aharman, for dissipating and carrying off that happiness from the
creatures of Auharmazd, in opposition to the sun and moon and those
twelve constellations. And as to every happiness which those
constellations bestow on the creatures of Ohrmazd, those planets take
away as much as possible for them (the constellations) to give and give it
up to the power of the demons and their friends and the bad
The virtually equal position of Spihr to Zurvan and its neutrality in determining
good or evil has been interpreted in Persian literature and popular opinion, as
perplexity, suspense, unawareness, and often, blind forces at work in Spihrs
sphere.
This is not, however, all to be said about Spihr. Like its origin, Zurvan,
Spihr is a combination of consciousness and unawareness, sensible and
animate, and not fully conscious. Mankind is, too, a mixture of awareness and
the unconscious, good and evil making so many impossible actions to be
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Thievish (Duggun) Muspar provided with tails, unto the Sun and the
Moon and stars
The apparent similarity between human and the Sky might be explained by a
determination which Zurvan exercises over existence at different levels. Zurvan
in definite form not only acts as the source of creation from which the Sky and
the celestial bodies come into birth, but is also the origin for human creation. A
statement from the Muslim historian, Shahrastani's Kitb alMilal wa al-Nihal
confirms the idea that the first human is Kyumars, who is said to be the great
Zurvan. Another document that takes humans originality back to Zurvan is a
phrase by a Christian priest which seems to be a belief among Zoroastrians
that Zurvan is the founder of their race.
Such an immediate connection between human creation and Zurvan, and
a belief in similarity of humans and the Spihr or Zurvan i derang-xvatdy not
unexpectedly lead to teaching of moral indifference, according to which there
would really be no difference between good and the evil. Or comparably,
Spihrs whose activities entirely are determined by planets and the position of
the twelve celestial bodies, then human existence is a combination of two nonhomogeneous forces of good and evil. In this light, Ohrmazd and Ahriman
represent a portion in each human existence, and Zat-Spram refers to the
mixture of two good and evil spirits in human being:
The two spirits (Ohrmazd and Ahriman) were mixed together in a whole
body who is the first human- Keyumars. One of them, named Ohrmazd,
gives vigour and life, and the other, named Ahriman, stimulates
destruction and deterioration. This would be the destiny of life true for
every human
Moreover, Spihr, as determined and definite aspect of Zurvan which is the
battlefield inside which Ohrmazd and Ahriman challenge one another, is
actually only an immediate emanation from Zurvan, as a sphere for a good-evil
war which is predestined like whole of definite existence to fade away
eventually into indefinite Zurvan. Hence, if the act of the Spihr is determined
by a predestined circulation of heavens satisfying good and evil spirits which all
occur on a determined earth, so the acts of humans could be seen as a
manifestation of a predestined battle between good and evil forces inside
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every person. From a Zurvanite perspective, leaning to any of the two spirits is
not a deliberate moral act but is predestined and originates from human
nature.
The Human and Destiny
The determinist nature of the Zurvanite thought has been explained to this
point; the major axioms of this school revolve around the concept of destiny.
Thus we have tried to clarify all the cosmic conditions of destiny in the
Zurvanite worldview: Indefinite Zurvan as the god of Time whose destined
move toward consciousness and his desire for creation provides for all that
exists; definite Zurvan or Zurvan i derang-xvatdy whose limited sphere sets a
battlefield where the incessant war between good and evil occurs and ends;
Spihr or Thwsha which is the body of Zurvan i derang-xvatdy who follows his
own rules and manages the world through the celestial bodies he owns; and
the human who is an amalgamation of good and evil affected by the power
each of the forces poses that would take his or her towards either of the
competing sides.
On surface appearances, we may say, in the texts that have introduced
Zurvan as omnipotent, human liberty perishes, and destiny rules all. But is it as
simple as that?
In one of the Zurvanite perspectives that emerges from the interaction
with Mazdean religion, there are claims of mans self-determination and
freedom of while; although, the more strict ideas are also considered. We
learn from Mainog-i Khirad that every phenomenon depends on Time and
destiny and there remains no escape from the will of Time. But, a more
moderate idea can be found in the that text that claims destiny is divided into
destiny and divine providence providing for human action and effort.
The sage asked the spirit of wisdom thus: On account of the begging of
favors, and the practice and worthiness of good works, do the sacred
beings also grant anything to men otherwise or not? The spirit of
wisdom answered thus: they grant, for there are such as they call thus:
Destiny and divine providence. Destiny is that which is ordained from
the beginning, and divine providence is that which they also grant
otherwise
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Faith or fortune is the eternal destiny controlled by the heavens from which
there is no escape. Zurvan accounts to an irreversible law which shall happen
in its accurate time and without a doubt, and a human has got no way out but
to accept it. This might be the reason Hafez links faith with the heavens and
calls it irreversible:
As for me, out of my head, love for those dark eyed will not go
This is the sky decree; and other way, it will not be
Divine providence although, is a form of destiny controlled by the gods,
enables human beings to accomplish their tasks through prayer, good deeds,
and the rejection of evil.
Zurvanism and Morality
Every major religious and ideological system possess a group of speculations
associated with the origin of things and human existence and tries to find a
practical way of living whereby happiness can be attained in the end. We could
look at Zurvanism as a theoretical foundation for life that promotes
contentment, tolerance, piety, and abstinence because our world has come
into existence through the desire and failure of an indefinite god while thinking
about his existence, a god who directs the world according to his pre-arranged
rules and before whose omniscience all creation is like a moment which must
pass in times contingency so that god perceives his own infinity. In such an
unworthy world, destined to operate as such, what would most endanger the
internal tranquillity that resulted from submission to such destiny? The biggest
problem, in the Zurvanists view would be greed, and as a contrary to it, we
find in Zurvaniite teaching the potential for the human to defend himself from
greed by moderation.
Greed
It is useful to scrutinize and compare the concept of greed in Mazdaism,
Zurvanism, and Manichaeism, for a common trait in all three worldviews is the
crucial conditioning role of mythological foundations and the outworking of
creation.
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Zurvanite greed
Greed, in a report narrated by Zat-Sparam, concerning the role it plays in
creation, is a weapon granted by Zurvan to Ahriman so that in the last moment
of the world it will devour Ahriman himself and all his creatures.
And observantly of the end, he brought forward to Aharman a means
out of himself, the property of darkness, with which the extreme limits
(Vlrunako) of Time were connected by him, an envelope (Posto) of the
black-pated and ashen kind. And in bringing it forward he spoke thus:
Through their weapons the co-operation of the serpent dies away, and
this which is thine, indeed thy own daughter, dies through religion; and
if at the end of nine thousand years, as it is said and written, is a time of
upheaval (madam kar^fano), she is upheaved, not ended
The weapon Zurvan has granted Ahriman is made substantially of greed
causing pain in all the creatures. Greed manifests itself in three instincts; lust,
gluttony, and a will for ownership. Human tendencies to every of the three
demands are instances of greed. Sexual desire itself is under the control of
another demon Verna who makes what is inside of the human erected by
just looking outside and stimulating its desires.
The Zurvanite suggestion of austerity here runs contrary to many
Mazdean maxims, advising the adherents to enjoy the donations of nature and
to satisfy the body. But in some of the speeches of Zat-Sparam, we can find
important reflections on greed and how it can go to extremes; greed, for the
author as for Zurvanites general view, stands in opposition to moderation, a
key concept in their doctrine, which acts as a deterrent against illegitimate and
unrighteous activities that would disturb the body and destroy reason.
Mazdean greed
Greed in the Avesta has not been subjected to much scrutiny. While in
Zurvanism it is the greatest adherent of Ahriman and in Manichaeism is
introduced as the king of evil forces, the Avesta only refers to the act of
devouring fire by greed and notes it as a product of demonic rule. Yet one can
discover trace in Mazdean texts of the dominance of greed. Furthermore,
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other Mazdean texts such as the Bundahishn and the Denkard treat greed
simply as the misusing of legitimate and normal activities.
The Denkard derives greed from deprivation of bodily satisfactions
which must be handled with a more pragmatic concern:
Greed is the brother of will. It is a limitation barring will and till the
demand for wealth and sovereignty is not quenched, greed gets more
powerful and the reason fails to protect itself. Man comes into a
reasonable moderation when he secures his kingdom and wealth.
The very eminency is functional for the people. However, while
the will stand higher than moderation and reason, greed gets more
powerful and reason would diminish. This is how wisdom becomes
instable and would devour man and his glory. Property, wealth, and
sovereignty shall definitely endanger him
As long as the boundaries of will are not violated, earthly satisfaction of the
body not only brings stability and balance for human substance, but also
protects reason. Greed in its material aspect fights with the natural
manifestations and flows of the body while spiritually being the enemy of
reason. If the health of the body is not achieved through moderation, the spirit
will become unhealthy as well.
The very idea is fundamentally in line with that of Zakariya Razi (854-925
CE), The Persian philosopher who recognized pleasure as lack of pain. This is
especially interesting that Razi had been attentive to Iranian pre-Islamic
wisdom: He is the only scholar who has confirmed the Old Iranian concept of
five eternals, including Ohrmazd (the creator), Time, Space, and Matter. Razi
significantly is a prescriber of true moderation.
Manichaean greed
Greed in Manichaeism is represented as lust, avidity, and neglecting ones
metaphysical destiny, the main focus, however, being on lust. Greed, the evil
master above all Ahriman's demons, creates a terrestrial body through lust,
filth, and abomination of male and female demons, thus imprisoning the spirit
as scattered light in the body:
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Greed, Ahrimanic mother of all demons, was furious and made a scary
scream; then out of a mixture of male demons impurity and the ugliness
of feminine demons she created this body into which she entered. Using
Ohrmazd's weapon, she then created good spirit and imprisoned it
inside the body, making it so insane and unaware that it would not
recognize its genealogy. She built that body and the very prison within
which she imprisoned unconscious spirits. She then tied the spirit inside
the very vicious body
Greed in Manichaeism signifies every phenomenon associated, in any case,
with matter. The tendency towards carnal desires in any form indicates greed.
The body itself is a product of greed and a matrix for it; hence, every act aiming
to reach pleasure helps evil and imprisons Ahuric light in materiality. Sexual
desire and productivity is ahead of a process through which spirit would
submit to matter, this being the basis for any form of evil. Hence, marriage is
rejected so that spirit may escape the very vicious prison of the body.
Manichaeism upholds mortification and austerity which stands in
contrast to Zoroastrianism that is a religion for life. Zurvanism, however,
encourages everyone to seek pleasure rather than pain in life and at the same
time points to the instability of life and instructs for moderation, because our
life might be just a moment of God's sleep, a god who seeks his own eternity.
Convention (Moderation and Judgment)
Like greed, convention owns a mythological history in Zurvanism, going back
to the contract tied between Zurvan and both Ohrmazd and Ahriman. Zurvan,
watching the vicious consequence of his doubt and unawareness, embedded in
the birth of Ahriman, determined a nine-thousand-year kingdom for the
prematurely appearing Ahriman, but also made sure that Ohrmazd will be
positioned over Ahriman in the end, taking the kingdom after nine thousand
years as he who is omnipotent to do everything based on his good taste. Now
convention signifies the state of division in the temporal kingdom of this world
between the two grand beings. It pertains to the very limited time for the
battle that is Zurvan i derang-xvatdy. Every convention refers to a limitation
and specifies all borders and limitations. Furthermore, the limitations
determined by Zurvan are the action criteria which both Ohrmazd and
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And when the nine thousand years have become completed, Aharman is
quite impotent and Srosh, the righteous, will smite Aeshmm and Mitro
and unlimited time and the spirit of justice, who deceives no one in
anything, and destiny and divine providence will smite the creatures and
creation of Aharman of every kind, and, in the end, even Azo, the demon
and every creature and creation of Auharman becomes again as
undisturbed as they were created by him in the beginning
The disappearance of Ahriman implies the ultimate disappearance of Ohrmazd
as well. This comes from the fact that Ohrmazd only makes sense in his
contrast with Ahriman, as good has no meaning in absence of evil. On the
other hand, the whole global trend is toward an Amalgamation back into
infinity, with a degree of returns to the primary silence that existed prior to the
creation.
A finite god whose influence works merely inside a realm of Zurvan i
derang-xvatdy would eventually lose the vital sphere of his action and
existence. Thus Ohrmazd would no longer live after destruction of Ahriman,
except for a short time that cannot last too long; The same God who has
organized the setting wants to relax. Relaxation time is not so very long but
lasts as long as an ordinary nap for a drowsy human. For Ohrmazd however,
this might be an endless sleep that is connected to eternity; but he must
definitely submit to the infinity of Zurvan, a trend with no perspective return.
The cosmological return in Iranian mythological viewpoint, unlike Indian
and Greek cosmologies, is a unique one, with no return manifesting in a U-turn
for the human destiny back to the eternal or to the primal origin whence we
came. Therefore, resurrection and final everlasting domination over the
creatures is a transitive and unstable scenario that occurs for a short period of
time prior to eternal silence, when nothing would remain but the
imperceptible eternity of time. The very unstable world would satisfy neither
human nor gods. The ending episode of human life is clear as far as it links to
Zurvanite eternity, although it is apparently not imaginable for humans to
know what it would be like because the concept eternity is too difficult to be
conceptualized by limited human mind.
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Chapter Two
The Zurvanis -related Epistemological Basis of Poems by Firdausi
Zurvanism had a long-term implication for the history of Persian thought and
culture. It is our goal to show this in connection with the great cultural
monument and masterpiece of Persian literature, that is, the Shahnameh. It is
increasingly important to study religion in literature. Men live in a diverse,
multicultural, technological, and globalized world. Nowadays, an intellectual
study of culture and its relationship with religion provides access to the
mystery of other cultures which may provide answers and to philosophical
questions of life and death, and love and hate that characterize the human
conditions. A study of the influences of Zurvanism in Shahnameh is a key to
know how religion acts as a part of culture in the course of history and become
as part of the art, folklore and cultural heritage.
Epics, myths, history, and religions transfer from one generation to the
next at the heart of cultural practices. This study will give comprehensive and
balanced analyses of the Zurvanism religion within the famous Persian epic
poem. The Shahnameh, or the Book of Kings, was created by the great Persian
poet Firdausi around AD 1000. Firdausi started developing the idea of
Shahnameh under Samanid dynasty in Iran in 977 and completed the book
around 1010 during the Ghaznavid era. The book is in pure Persian that
contains 60,000 verses. Shahnmeh is the epic poem that describes Iranian
mythical and historical figures from the creation of the world till the Islamic
conquest of Iran in the seventh century by the Arabs. This masterwork of
Iranian literature not only describes national myths, history, and cultural
values, but also reflects ancient religions and their social status.
This book precisely narrates last days of Persian Zoroastrianism and also
strong belief system of Zurvanism and its elements. In the Shahnameh Firdausi
describes the Zurvanisms view of human behaviour and its followers beliefs in
faith and destiny.
In the belief system of Zurvanism, Zurvan created Ohrmazd to keep a
promise which is a great contractual relation among humans. Firdausi
deliberates on the final days of judgment and the conflict to show the eventual
victory of light over darkness. As a great epic Shahnameh contains lots of
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religious beliefs, spiritual and philosophical elements, and myths, and this
study is designed to explore the relationship between them.
The absence of broad studies in this area is a problem, especially
because an intellectual study of the religion of Persian Zurvanism in the
Shahnameh generates many questions that could help fostering self-reflection
and positive human interactions. This thesis first intended to explore and focus
on Zurvani elements and beliefs in great works of Persian literature in a
broader aspect, but as it proceeded, the author decided to settle on Firdausi in
this chapter as a case study. It illustrates that religion and literature have been
closely interrelated.
The epic of Shahnameh draws a line between human fundamental desires
and aspirations and explores the inner sides of men. This is the highly
significant poem that adopts a brilliant approach to study the root of ancient
religion. This study will be a journey, a trail, and can help revealing the
continuingly influential role of the religion in Persian history.
Shahnameh
Shahnameh discusses the history of Iran, beginning with the creation of the
world and the introduction of the human civilization (with the discovery of fire,
cooking, metallurgy, and law) and ends with the Arab conquest of Iran. The
epic is not exactly chronological, yet it has its own timeline. Some of the
heroes live for long time, like some of the characters in the Bible and Quran,
though most have normal life span. Many kings are introduced who come and
go, as well as heroes and villains that appear and disappear in their turn. There
are of course many great heroes in Shahnameh, however, the most important
one is Rustam, a hero who fights in the service of many impotent Shahs, and
yet he never envies their power. He is a reluctant hero who performs his duty
his job.
Besides being an epic, Shahnameh contains many doctrines that are
hardly in compliance with mainstream ideologies of its time. Although it is
written during the flourish of Islamic era, it seldom glorifies the principles of its
time as it mourns the time before time. For example, when it comes to wine,
we find no recourse to Sharia, or when it comes to the origin of evil, Firdausi
does not hesitate linking evil to the Almighty. Yet with all its heresy, even to
this day we find Shahnameh popular in the Islamic Iran, and in a brief review of
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the history of Iranian culture we find its stories re-enacted in coffeehouses and
public places along with the re-enactment of the epic of Imam Hussein and
battle of Karbala.
To Iranians, Shahnameh is one of the very few windows to their ancient
past; the way they lived, thought, and perceived the world before the
introduction of Islam. Zurvanism is definitely a part of the Iranian cultural
heritage reflected in that wonderful epic story. The following is a brief
description which is the main object of the thesis; that is, to uncover Zurvanist
lineaments in Shahnameh. The procedure involves laying the mere through by
quoting from relevant passages, sometimes simply listing to the quotations
extensively to make sure the job is done effectively, because nobody has ever
considered as discussing these points systematic. Considering how dense and
complex Shahnameh is and as it is so difficult to unravel for the average
reader, one hopes that this exercise could be of use for students of religion
and culture. In what follows, key concepts and themes that have been found in
reconstructing Zurvanism are re-discussed in an arranged way as could be
traced in Shahnameh, which is definitely a text with its key epistemological
basis that chose Zurvanite and thus it is text that tries to keep Zurvani lines of
philosophical outlook alive.
Dualism in Divinity
Zurvan, as mentioned above, is the ultimate deity from whom Ohrmazd and
Ahriman emanated. Firdausis Shahnameh also contains instances of such
concept, the noble characters from whom both good and evil emerge.
Fardn is an example of such character; he fathers three sons; raj the
virtuous, and Salm and Tr who are evil. A careful study of this story reveals
that in this story the forces of evil (Salm and Tr) clearly have a far larger
domain than that of the good (raj). The force of evil is constituted of two
figures while the good is unaccompanied and outnumbered, suggesting the
prevalence of evil, and it is in fact Fardn himself who divides the kingdom
amongst his sons and thus brings doom to the universe. He is the good who
creates evil.
The same conclusion can be drawn from the story of Zl who fathers
both the heroic Rustam and the Ahrimanic Shaghd, and also Rustam himself
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who fathers Suhrb, who is also divided between good and evil, therefore, it
makes balance:
Throughout Shahnameh the success of evil and its triumph over good is
repeated over and over. raj is murdered by Salm and Tr, Siywush is
murdered by Afrsiyb, Rustam is murdered by Shaghd, and even when Kai
Khusrau defeats Afrsiyb in a way he feels defeated within and so he resigns,
good disappears, Iranians begin to divide, and evil returns anew with Luhrsp
and Gushtsp.
Just like Fardn, Kai Khusrau dichotomizes the singularity into opposing
poles; the Zl dynasty and the Luhrsp clan. It can be conceived that Kai
Khusrau stands as equivalent to Zurvan, who eliminates the antagonism
between Ohrmazd (Iranians) and Ahriman (Trn) but as time is not right for
peace, rivalry again is the case. If Sohrab is killed it is because he took it upon
himself to unite Iran and Trn, which means to abolish evil, and that cannot
be. Siywush also makes the same attempt by marrying the daughter of
Afrsiyb and he also fails as the prolonged reign of evil does not permit unity.
This primacy of evil resembles the temporary priority of Ahriman to Ohrmazd
upon their emergences.
But why is it that evil prevails in every turn as Firdausi narrates? If we
consider Firdausi to be influenced by Zurvanism, the answer could be found in
Zurvani ideas about the lifespan of the cosmos which is considered to be
twelve thousand years divided into quadrants, three of which equal to nine
thousand years pledged to evil and the last remaining three thousand years
dedicated to the eventual prevalence of good.
Fatalism in Shahnameh
Another noticeable characteristic of Shahnameh is some form of fatalism, and
a way of attributing affairs to destiny, faith, and fortune:
Next came the horoscope of glorious TrThe Sun ascendant in the Lion's House A presage brave; but when the Shah observed
The horoscope of blest raj he found
The Moon in Cancer; thus the stars revealed
A destiny of strife and woe
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These lines are cited from the story characters in Shahnameh; nevertheless the
following lines from the preface are Firdausis own words, revealing his
personal despair:
The hail this year like death on me hath come
Though death itself were better than the hail,
And heaven's lofty far extending dome
Hath caused my fuel sheep and wheat to fail
Firdausis terminology; e.g., faith, fortune, destiny, etc. in this regard,
whether spoken through his characters or in his own words, suggests a
familiarity with Zurvanite doctrine which unlike Zoroastrian doctrine, attributes
phenomena and events to Zurvan, undermining human authority.
In the Parhlavi/Farsi language, the word for time is Zamn, which
unmistakable resembles Zurvan. Just like modern humans, the ancient people
were well aware of the significance of time, and could observe that time
moves in its continuum constantly, uncontrollably and overpoweringly,
affecting all, and posing threats to existence. Such a sense of fatalism,
nonetheless, might have been adopted from Babylonian culture, which puts
human in the hands of deities in a total surrender of authority, and also there
is definitely no shortage of fatalistic ideas in earlier Pahlavi literature, with
which Firdausi was certainly acquainted.
Pessimism in Shahnameh
One of the subjects that Firdausi points to so often is the unfaithfulness and
instability of the universe. He rarely misses an opportunity to draw the
grimmest image of the world; whether it is a fallen hero, a troubled king
passing the throne to his son just so he can leave and fade away, or even the
notion of his own youth slipping away from him:
The rein, my cheeks grew moon-like pale, my beard
Lost its black hue and camphor-like appeared,
Mine upright stature bent as age came on
And all the lustre of mine eyes was gone
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his Deevs how they might turn the heart of Kai Kavous from the right
path.
And one among them saidSuffer that I go before the Shah, and I will do thy behest.
And Ahriman suffered it. Then the Deev took upon him the form of a
youth,
and in his hand he held a cluster of roses, and he presented them unto
the
Shah, and he kissed the ground before his feet. And when Kai Kaous had
given him leave to speak he opened his mouth and saidO Shah, live for ever! though such is thy might and majesty that the
vault
of heaven alone should be thy throne. All the world is submissive before
thee, and I can bethink me but of one thing that is lacking unto thy
glory.
Then Kai Kaous questioned him of this one thing, and the Deev said
It is that thou knowest not the nature of the sun and moon, nor
wherefore
the planets roll, neither the secret causes that set them in motion. Thou
art master of all the earth, therefore shouldst thou not make the
heavens
also obedient to thy will?...
The Battle of Keyumars and Ahriman
There are some differences between Firdausis narration of Persian myths and
what we find in Pahlavi texts, one of which is the absence of Mashi and
Mashyane in the Shahnameh and presenting Keyumars as the first man
instead of them. In Pahlavi myths, the first human couple is Mashi (Mahli) and
Mashiyane (Mahliyane) whom are created from Keyumarss semen after his
death.
When Keyumars passed away, he had some offspring. They were reared
by the sunlight. The spirit called Narivsang took one of them and Sepandarmaz
took the other (Keymars). They dweled on earth for 40 years and after that,
Mahli and Mahliyane grew from the ground. They were so joined together as if
they were one. On the other hand, Keyumars is not completely a human; it
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seems from the stories that he was a prototype and material. His appearance
was somehow equilateral, with equal length and width: On the sixth, he made
Keyumars; he was shining like the sun. His length and width were equal.
Therefore, it is mistakenly possible to consider Keyumars as a first man.
Firdausi, even, mentions Keyumars to be the first king not the first
human:
What saith the rustic bard? Who first designed
To gain the crown of power among mankind?
Who placed the diadem upon his brow?
The record of those days hath perished now
Unless one, having borne in memory
Tales told by sire to son, declare to thee
Who was the first to use the royal style
And stood the head of all the mighty file.
He who compiled the ancient legendary,
And tales of paladins, saith Gaiumart,
Invented crown and throne, and was a Shah...
In the story of Khosrow Parviz, Keyumars has been mentioned as the first living
thing that God created, and not necessarily the first human. However,
Keyumarss position in the beginning of Shahnameh as the first member of the
human generation, and who has a son called Siamak, leads to the
misconception that Firdausi thinks of him not only as the first king, but also as
the first human. There is a similar conception in Altaio-Central-Asian Sami
myth, which speaks of Adam not only as the first human, but also as the first
prophet. We should not forget that just as Sami people believed in prophets
and the importance of obeying God by obeying his prophets, Iranian people
believed that they must obey the king who was blessed by the divine
splendour. Therefore, as we see in Sami legends that the first human is the first
prophet, here we see that the first human is the first king.
Another difference between Shahnameh and earlier Pahlavi stories is
introducing Siamak as the son of Keyumars. In the Bundahishn, Siamak is not
the son of Keyumars: he and Woshag are one of the six couples who were born
from Mashi and Mashiyane. Mashi and Mashyane had six couples of offspring.
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Of these couples, one was Siamak (male) and one was Woshag (female). In
the Avesta there is no sign indicating a father-child relationship between
Keyumars and Siamak: Siamak's lineage is not clear and Avesta does not speak
of him as the son Keyumars.
Another noteworthy difference in this regard, is that in Pahlavi stories it
is Keyumars who goes on to fight Ahriman, kills his son Arzur and consequently
is killed in return. Keyumars fought the sixth battle. The spirit of wisdom
thought that Keyumars's battle was with Ahriman, and killing his son Arzur was
one of his advantages. Keyumars had such advantages: firstly, killing Arzur
and surrendering himself to Ahriman with good intension... In his book, The
Remaining Signs of Past Centuries, Ab Rayhn al-Brn states that death of
Keyumars was the result of him killing Ahrimans son Khazureh (Arzur):
he (Kharzureh) attacked Keyumars but Keyumars killed him. Ahriman
protested to Ohrmazd and asked him to keep his promise and take
Arzurs revenge. Ahriman first showed Keyumars the end of the world
and resurrection, making Keymars eager to die and, he (Ahriman) then
killed Keymars
We see that what is mentioned in Pahlavi stories about Keyumars and his
battle with Ahriman and his son, is changed to Siamak in Shahnameh. The
question remains, where the difference originate? We can assume that
perhaps myths change in time.
Myths do change through their evolutionary path. In so far as human
emotional and intellectual needs change in time:
sometimes it happens that certain rituals and tradition would become
abolished. Then the vindicator myth that sometimes used to justify the
same rituals and tradition would lose its role and will alter and relocate
There are so many examples of such alterations and relocations in Iranian
myths, including the Shahnameh itself, as a mythology work. Thus: Zahhk
(Azi-Dahk) who is a dragon with three heads and six eyes in Avesta, turns into
a foreign king in Shahnameh. We can also talk about Siywush in the Western
Asian myths who was a vegetal and martyr god who takes on a human
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order to become active in him. That is the reason why Quran says that the
only duty of a prophet is to remind people: My prophet, remind the people.
That is your only task and you do not have sovereignty over them.
Islam accepts a kind of self-consciousness in people who are aware of
good and evil. It is in their nature. The only task of a prophet is to awaken the
humans consciousness and remind him of his awareness. Qur. ch. Aaraf, 172
mentions a promise between God and Man, in which Man attests in the
presence of the God:
and remember when God asked men, am I not your God? They all
replied yes, we all attest that you are our Lord. So, in the final judgment
day they will be unable to deny it
What happens in human life is linked to what has happened in eternity and
had influences on human mind and soul. Awareness or ignorance to such
eternal knowledge is what determines the humans interest in good or evil;
matter and materiality are merely contexts for the soul. Therefore, Satans
malfeasance is just in temptation and the task of prophet has a relation to the
souls and spirits of people that is all about reminding.
Duality of good and evil performs on the contrary a pivotal role in
IranianZurvanite thought. Such a duality includes the spirit and soul, matter
or materiality. The Universe or the greater world, which in Zurvanite theology
is referred to as Spihr or Zurvan, is the infinite body of Zurvan and is the
context for the battle of good and evil. Therefore, Zurvan is not entirely in
control of one of the two primordial spirits, while both the matter and the soul
are combinations of both good and evil forces. Such a paradoxical combination
can also be seen in the human existence or the smaller world. Two spirits
(Ohrmazd and Ahriman) came together inside the first man (Keyumars), ZatSparam asserts.
Other narratives concerning the defilement of man by woman also
confirm the notion of good-evil combination:
After Ohrmazd gave the women to righteous men, they fled and went to
Satan; and when Ohrmazd provided righteous men with peace and
happiness, Satan provided women in turn, with happiness
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Zat-Sparam tates:
He (Ahriman) joined the demon so that together they try to defile
women by which defile men too, so that they deviate from their tasks
and duties
Defilement of the female by Ahriman paved a path through which evil found a
place in human existence, hence he formed a part of human essence.
Therefore, human actions depend on the power of each of these two forces.
The clearest characteristic of the Zurvanite thought, the belief in determinism,
can obviously be seen here. Adversity and prosperity are matters intrinsically
depend on Mans nature, and each persons tendency to good or evil relates to
his distance from good or evil.
The story of Zahhk is an example of such approach to the concept of
evil. Zahhk was a dragon in Avestan stories, with three heads and six eyes.
After Iranian alterations, he turned into a foreign king. Avesta clearly speaks of
the evil nature of Zahhk represented by his dragon appearances. His evil
deeds in Shahnameh can be explained by a reference to such old background.
He is an evil creature with a destructive nature. Analyzing this evil nature,
apart from the mythical basis of this character, Firdausi reflects on the human
justification and analysis of contexts in which evil forces rise in Zahhk's
nature. His analysis is adaptable with the idea of natured evil and the
omnipresence of evil and good in human soul.
Although Firdausi accepts the role of Ahriman in gravitation of people to
Obari and Sastari, he regards it as the natural aptitude of Man to accept the
evil. Since Zahhk was naturally evil, he is essentially impressionable to the evil
forces.
Yet that abandoned youth respected not
His father, but conspired to shed his blood.
I heard a sage once say: Though fierce in strife
No son will dare to take his fathers life;
If such a crime should seem to be implied,
Seek for the reason on the mother's side
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Zahak s filthy nature has a similar but different base in the Bundahishn. This
book (Bundahishm) says that Zahhk is Siamaks relative in his fathers side,
and of Ahrimans progeny on the mother side: Zahhk, is the son of Arudasb,
son of Zingav, son of Asbir Afshang, son of Tz, son of Faravag, son of Siamak.
On his mother side, Zahhk is the son of Odak, son of Bayak, son of Tim Bayak,
son of Ovoyakh, son of Pairi Or, son of Vourva Esm, son of Gaduiso, son of
Dervaskan, son of Ahriman.
The evil nature of Zahhk in Shahnameh is because of an evil act her
mother committed, while in the Bundahishn it is because of his relation to
Ahriman from his mothers side of the family. It seems as if a relocation of the
myth in Shahnameh is an attempt to rationalize it. Nevertheless, it seems that
the essence of Zahhk has been an evil one from the beginning, so he is the
evil side of the battle, and a creature submitted to Ahriman. Similar to Zahhk,
one who assists Ahriman is naturally a vicious creature. Therefore, the
influence that Ahriman exerts encompasses the material life of the man as
well. In doing so, he tries to infect the world in order to recruit more followers.
Judgement
The creator, according to some verses from Shahnameh, had been called the
Judge. Considering the context in which this metaphor functions, one may
cautiously read in this an Iranian Zurvanite belief. Whereas the normative
evaluating role of God in doomsday applies to orthodox Zoroastrianism, none
of the relevant verses that contain the Judge metaphor could be taken as
representing final reward, punishment, and evaluation of human deeds.
The veteran Giv dismounted from his horse,
Invoking blessing on the warrior-prince,
And said : May day and night be fortunate
To thee, thy foemen's hearts be rooted out,
Since God hath given to thee worth and birth,
With throne and stature, state and Grace divine.
This hoary paladin
Is both a wise and understanding prince;
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And know that next to God our Judge and GuideHe was the means of saving us from death.
He with his love screened us from injury,
And seeketh now for quarter in return;
So grant him to us, O thou noble one!
For he hath never led the way to ill.
Bizhan was pained because his sire was wroth,
And swore an oath before the Almighty Judge:
I will not take the saddle oft' my steed
Until I have avenged Zarasp or perished.
For I have sworn a great oath by the moon,
The world's Judge, and the Shah's own diadem,
That if I am not slain I will not ride
Back from the mountain but avenge Zarasp.
I swear by God the Judge Omnipotent,
By white day and by azure night that till
I shall avenge Bahrain my head shall see
No covering save a Human helm.
And thus he spake to God: O righteous Judge!
Thou gavest to me fortune, throne, and prowess,
But now I shame before Thee.
If our good star prove helpful it will give us
Our will upon our foes, while if the Judge
Of heaven shall end us with the scimitar,
No more or less can hap than His decree,
So measure not your breaths in your dismay.
The man of old, supposing that Bizhan,
The lion-taking chieftain, and Ruhham,
His offspring both, had perished in the fight,
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Time is the dominant force of the whole existence from which no one can
escape. It is time that arranges the affairs, it can find and control everything, it
is the most conscious, and so you can leave the judgment upon the time. It is
time that destroys. If something is destined to happen, everything can be
destroyed in its own time. No mortal can escape from it, not even if he flies up
to the sky or hides in the depth of a well or in the cold waters of a spring.
Then what is the relation between time and Rouzegr? Time, though is
not dependent on mans measurement, and exists independently from human
understanding, appears in the passing of day and night. Man feels the passing
of the time through the movement of the astronomical objects and the
emergence of night and day that Rouzegr represents it the best. According to
the Ulema-i Islam, time is an abstract concept independent of passing day and
night.
If someone claims that time is equal to the passing of day and night, we
should answer, on the contrary, that for so long there has been time but
no night and day
However, the time has correlated with the passing of day and night for so long
that it seems hard for people to separate them from one another.
Time and destiny relate, as well, since they both are transient.
Everything in this world has its own moment and it is times passing that gets
us to the events. All the occurrences through time had been pre-destined in
eternity and we only need time to get to the events. Just like the final
domination of good over evil in the ending of the world. This notion of time
and its determinant nature can be seen, repeatedly, in the Shahnameh. Thus,
for stronger cases:
not foolishly that thou shalt find
Balm in a place that faith hath filled with bane,
And if Creation be not to thy mind
And thus addressed them: It hath been my lot
To see no desert but that made by war
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In Zurvani thought, all humans, whether good or bad, own a portion of the
destiny that descends through Spihr. It is not possible to add or subtract
perpetual allotment to it nor can anyone manipulate it by thought or virtue.
Thus in the Shahnameh:
Thou wilt not see a faulty part in him
Except this blemish that his hair is white.
So heaven willed, O seeker after glory!
Day darkened to Jamshid, he lost the Grace
That lighteneth the world, and though with tears
Of blood he sought for pardon Grace was not,
And dread of coming evil was his lot
This is the common lot of all mankind
Mans strength is weakness when he growth old
Yet fortune in one stay abideth not,
Now honey and now gall make up Mans lot
Then bare him quickly off to Mount Alburz,
Where were her nest and young, for them to tear
Regardless of his cries; but God, who giveth
All good, had ruth on him, his lot was other
All of us are born to die; it is our lot whereto
We yield our necks
To meet with trials is the lot of all,
And he that mounteth must expect a fall
Thy father once gave up his place to thee,
And thou must give up thine. Such is our lot
It hath been my lot
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the one side, and the other twelve, on the other side, determine the
faith of the world
There is detailed explanation of good stars and vicious stars in the Zoroastrian
Bundahishn:
In beginning, when Ahriman was marching, the darkened sun and moon
could not commit a sin. Seven chieftains of the planets have come unto
the seven chieftains of the constellations, as the planet Mercury (Tir)
unto Tistar, the planet Mars (Vahram) unto Haptok-ring, the planet
Jupiter (Auharmazd) unto Vanand, the planet Venus (Anahid?) unto
Sataves, the planet Saturn (Kevan) unto the great one of the middle of
the sky, Go^ihar :i and the thievish (Du^gun) Mtopar, provided with tails,
unto the sun and moon and stars. The sun has attached Mas-par to its
own radiance by mutual agreement, so that he may be less able to do
harm (Vinas)
For in the beginning it was so appointed that the star Jupiter
(Auharmazd) was life towards the creatures, not through its own nature,
but on account of its being within the control (band) of the luminaries;
and Saturn (Kevan) was death towards the creatures. Both were in their
supremacy (b a list) at the beginning of the creatures, as Jupiter was in
Cancer on rising, that which is also called Ivan ('living'), for it is the place
in which life is bestowed upon it; and Saturn was in Libra, in the great
subterranean, so that its own venom and deadliness became more
evident and more dominant thereby
In the Shahnameh, too, the stars are to determine the overall destiny, life and
death , rather than only pain and comfort.
They feared their star would sink and
Sat together in anxious thought
Their stars dispose them to delight in ill;
Besides their troughs are in two provinces,
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themselves in thought, words, and deeds. One of them was good and the other
evil. It becomes obvious that for a monist, believing that creatures can offer
any kind of help and support to God is interpreted as a kind of blasphemy.
Therefore, belief in the role of Spihr and stars, which effects on the
individuals capability of doing on the cosmic stage, has faded away and
replaced by the belief in Gods will.
The divine will can be heard mostly from Asfandiyr, who is the man of
religion and publicizes the new religion of Zarathushtra. He, exactly after each
victory, remembers God and praises him for his kind help.
O righteous Judge! Thou hast bestowed upon me
Strength, Grace, prowess. Thou hast laid
These beasts upon the dust and all good art guide
He bathed himself and, looking to all-holly God alone
As his protector, said: O righteous Judge!
Thou hast destroyed these creatures by my hand
Then in the presence of all-holy God
He wallowed in the dust and wept, exclaiming:
who could have slain that dragon if the World-lord
Had not assisted him?
O just and only god! Thou art our guide
Upon the mountain and the waste
O righteous Judge! Thou hast bestowed
Upon me wisdom, puissance, and prowess,
Hast driven out the sorcerers and been my guide to every good
Gushtsp, Asfandiyr and Katayun, in contrast to Zl, Simorgh, Rustam, and
Zavre who appeal to the Spihr-affected determinism in the Rustam-Asfandiyr
tale, remember God's will.
No host will serve; the world-lord, if my faith
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The transience of life is so obvious that motivates everyone apart from their
beliefs and religion. With the Zurvanite perspective containing a belief in a
concept of time that regulates all existence, transience is naturally more
prominent along with the tendency to suspect the unreliability of the world.
In Zurvanism, the world is the result of the time exactness. To make the
creation possible, time is to be limited and any limitation has a beginning and
an end. Compared to the eternity and infinity of Zurvan, the world is just a
passing momenta constantly changing pause that lasted for twelve
thousand years. The good and the evil are in a permanent conflict and the
good needs change and movement to destroy the evil. Zurvan i derang-xvatdy,
i.e., the limited time is the one that provides such movement and change
without which the evil and chaos will last forever. Thus the world is doomed to
change.
The world finds no possibility to come into existence other than as
changeable and transient, hence consent or designated to it is the only way.
I only wish for that which is mine own,
And let the harvest be as heaven hath sown
One must accept the destiny and try to make life full of joy. When the length of
life is not manageable by any human, the width must be considered to be
enlarged. Humanity should notice that world is transient.
This world is a lodging not a home.
None ever had more Grace than had Jamshid,
Yet still high heaven trod him under foot,
And found the world a monarch in his stead
They have but bricks and dust to form their bed,
And he that sowed good seed is blest alone.
From dust we come and shall return to dust,
And all is dread, distraction, and distrust.
The world will outlast thee; its mysteries
How wilt thou ken? Tis full of instances
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they appear in Zurvanism. Moreover, in the end, the universe will follow what
Ahura Mazda the Benevolent had intended. In this perspective, if man fails to
obtain result from his deeds in this world, he will put his trust in the other
world and Gods heaven, hence if he does not achieve his desires, it may be in
his best interest.
We hold in this thesis the ephemerality of world and dominance of
destiny over life in Shahnameh is adopted from Zurvanite mind-set. Its
message is the belief in happiness and gratification are the best ways to
conquer lifes ennui.
Mirth as thy mate sufficeth, and no sage
Will name to-morrow
At whiles allot crown, treasury, and throne,
At whiles chain, dungeon, bitterness, and grief!
Man must accept his lot whate'er it be;
Mine own affliction is my poverty
Come, let us give ourselves to joy and feast :
When it is time for us to pass we pass
One day a rise, another day a fall,
Now all is gladness and then terror all,
In sooth our best course is the cup to raise
That maketh earth look bright, and fleet the days
We have already seen in such passages there exists the attitude which
famously reappeared in the poetry of Omar Khayyam.
Zurvan: God of Death
In Zurvanism, Time (Zurvan) not only is the initial reason for creation and
destiny definer, but Time is also the God of the Death;
Death is the final destiny for everything and everybody. Time, that is
Zurvan its worldly figure, has determined its moment. Life happens
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across time and death happens does too. The final truth of everything is
Zurvan
The spirits of the dead people must pass through path of death, the Zurvanmade path to reach the invat Bridge. An Avestan text Aogemadaa mentions
that Zurvan can never be hidden and there is no remedy against him. When
Time comes upon a man, he can do nothing against it; and Time sews up the
eye of Man.
In the Bundahishn, Zurvan determines longevity: before advent of
Ahriman, thus spake Zurvan; Keyumars, the raider, was preordained to survive
thirty winters and become imperial. Time, in a different part of the
Bundahishn, is a main factor of death; if it were doomed to decay, there
would be no escape for mortal human whether he flies upward or descends
unto a well or sinks under cold offspring.
An association of time and death is carefully depicted in Shahnameh:
Now hath faith put thy head within my reach.
Well hadst thou held aloof, for time itself
Would have thy life
Bent down the body of the gallant youth,
Whose time was come and all whose strength was gone,
And like a lion dashed him to the ground
If there remaineth time for him on earth
He will remain ; do thou remain with him
Assuredly his time hath come,
For he hath set forth to encounter me
Our time, I fear, is come. If they shall take thee
They will not leave thee living and will rack
Our hearts for thee
The hero-flinging crown-bestower followed
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What a prospect! Yet even though he is not sure, for in what this
honour consistswhether it be an honourable estate in the house of
eternity or merely honour from the lips of men as yet unbornis left
utterly obscure; and as to the concupiscent, their faith will be manifest
when they are deadyet we do not know to whom and where, for a
veil is drawn over our ultimate lot
The dust and bricks close o'er our head
And all is consternation, awe, and fear
All that is known is that after our brief and miserable sojourn in this
valley of tears we must pass on to the house of eternity, which,
according to Denkard, is the essence of infinite Time. Here we can
expect no ecstatic union with the one, no merging of the self into self
as of a drop into the sea... Manwho is the microcosmwill return to
the Infinite Zurvan, where motion finds eternal rest in an Infinite which
neither understands nor is capable of being understood.
One could accept Zaehners suggestion that Zl and his family to be Zurvanites,
since in Rustam/Asfandiyr story where Asfandiyr talks explicitly about
Heaven Smirchthat is, in relation with Zlalludes to what are taken as false
beliefs about the other world. However, we cannot go further to consider the
Shahnameh to be entirely based on Zurvanism. As start, the stories in
Shahnameh, from the very beginning until the faith of Kai Khosrow events are
all displayed as worldly accounts of worldly heroes. However, while narrating
Gushtsps sovereignty and the concurrent emergence of Zoroaster and the
beginning of Asfandiyrs religious prophecy, there is an air of religion finding
dominance over the tone of the epic, although, it only in the accounts of The
Seven Trials of Asfandiyr and his battle with Rustam, one can find much more
talking of belief in God`s will and heaven than in any other section of the
Shahnameh, as far as research for in this dissertation has revealed. One cannot
help but notice that the idea of rewards and penalties for the worldly deeds
originates from Zoroastrian doctrine, and has evidently found its way to other
religions from the Iranian originated religions to Judaism.
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Zaehner believes that belief in heaven and hell among the Jews dates
back to the time of their settlement in the land of Babylon, in the vicinity of the
Persians and the Medes.
...for the theory of a direct Zoroastrian influence on post-exilic Judaism
does explain the sudden abandonment on the part of the Jews of the old
idea of Sheol, a shadowy and depersonalized existence which is the lot
of all men irrespective of what they had done on earth, and the sudden
adoption, at precisely the time when the exiled Jews made contact with
the Medes and Persians, of the Iranian Prophet's teaching concerning
the afterlife
Belief in heaven and hell is known to be of Zoroaster`s specific teachings.
Therefore, it is safe to say that Asfandiyr, as a missionary and preacher of
Zoroastrian Mazdaism, regards all worldly deeds through the lens of their
results in the Other World, and openly speaks of heaven. However, before the
appearance of Asfandiyr and Zoroaster, there is not much talk of the manner
and quality of afterlife in Shahnameh; that world is always referred to as the
other world or that universe, except in one occasion which is in the
account of the early days of Kai Khosrow`s rule:
If any of our host
Shall fall, their place is Paradise above
and of course, compared to the plethora of verses uttered by Asfandiyr and
his kin, this one verse is not significant. In the account of Asfandiyr, the
afterlife has also been referred to as the other world, but along with specific
hints about the quality of heaven and hell.
Who left the way of God and forfeited
Good days on earth and jocund paradise
Be happy now in jocund Paradise,
For God compacted thee of manliness and justice
103
104
The Shahnameh is holy to Iranians; it is a testament to the fact that they have
an identity that precedes their other identities, an identity as old as their
concept of time. Firdausi knew this fact, when he developed a link between
the ancient Persian doctrines with the Iranian psyche in an effort of making
integrity and to at least remind them of who they used to be if they should
ever find who they are puzzling. As he wrote:
For thirty years exceeding toil I bore
And made the Persians live in Persian lore.
Unless the world-lord had close-fisted grown
I should have had a seat upon the throne
106
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