Paper P501

Cigr 2009
6th Southern Africa
Regional Conference

21 rue dArtois, F-7508 PARIS

http://www.cigre.org

THIRTEEN YEARS TEST EXPERIENCE WITH

SHORT-CIRCUIT WITHSTAND CAPABILITY OF LARGE POWER
TRANSFORMERS

R.P.P. SMEETS
KEMA
(The Netherlands)

L.H. TE PASKE
KEMA
(The Netherlands)

P.P. LEUFKENS
KEMA
(The Netherlands)

T. FOGELBERG
ABB
(Sweden)

SUMMARY
The ability to withstand a short circuit is recognised more and more as an essential characteristic of
power transformers. IEC and IEEE Standards, as well as other national standards specify short-circuit
testing and how to check the withstand capability. Unfortunately, however, there is extensive evidence
that the matter is not as simple as the standards make it sound.
Failures caused by short circuits are still a major cause of transformer outages, though failure rates
vary widely in different countries and systems, depending on various circumstances, network
characteristics and the equipment installed.
Experience is reported of short-circuit testing of large power transformers during the past 13 years by
KEMA. In total, 102 transformers >= 25 MVA participated in the survey. Test statistics show that at
first access to standard IEC 60076-5 short-circuit tests, 28% failed initially. Failures were observed
throughout the complete range of voltage (20 - 500 kV) and power (25 - 440 MVA) tested.

KEYWORDS
Power transformer, short-circuit, testing, standardization

* : e-mail:
rene.smeets@kema.com, KEMA T&D Testing Services, the Netherlands
**: e-mail: thomas.fogelberg@se.abb.com, ABB Transformers, Sweden

I. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING SHORT-CIRCUIT WITHSTAND

Nowadays fast developing regions, where the demand for electric power is rising steeply, are adding
more and more power generating capacity and interconnections to the systems.
In addition to this, the changes in the sector are characterized by:
1. Expanding cross-border electricity trade brings network operations close to their limits
2. Development of local generation is considered independently from available network capacities
3. Load flows are changing both in magnitude and direction
4. Network components are ageing and tend to be brought to their loading limits
5. The network operation conditions have changed
That means that old and new transformers
will see more severe short circuit stresses
than before, creating the need for a careful
review of design considerations.
For the future, the mechanical rigidity of a
transformer is the most vital performance
factor. There are three reasons for this:
1. Withstand to short circuit stresses
2. Seismic requirements
3. Transport handling

Attributes of well-designed power transformers

-

Mechanical sound design and technology

Based on fundamental mechanics
Verified by many short-circuit tests
Rigid core clamping structure for short-circuit
strength and transport
Accurate manufacturing guided by strict tolerances
and quality systems
Rigid winding mandrels
Verified drying and pressing procedures
Rigid low-voltage winding design and clamping

Therefore, these must be the basics for a short circuit safe design. The short circuit force gives rise to
mechanical forces in milliseconds to hundred of tons.
The current peak value and the correspondent forces depend on many factors. In HV systems, the most
probable type of short circuit is a single-line-to-earth fault, normally due to environment conditions
such as a stroke of lightning on the line, equipment failure at the the station, pollution of insulation
strings, etc. Sometimes, short circuit faults develop into other more extensive faults, such as a singlephase-to-earth fault developing into a double-phase-to-earth and eventually a three-phase fault. The
relative severity of the different types of fault depends on the characteristics of the system. On the
other hand there are factors as arc resistances and earth network impedances which will have
compensatory effects.
Electromagnetic forces tend to minimize the magnetic energy density in the volume. It means that
inner windings will tend to reduce its radius and the outer windings the contrary, increase their radius.
In axial directions the windings are trying to reduce their heights.
Forces and related withstand criteria can be splitted into 2 components:
1. Radial forces.
The failure modes for radial forces include:
- buckling of inner windings (see fig.1) ;
- diameter increase of outer winding;
- spiralling of end turns in helical windings (see fig. 2).
An important feature of proper short circuit management is that inner windings are subject to free
buckling. It means they are self-supporting. There are no radial supports from core to windings and
from winding to winding. It means that the strength is determined by Cu hardness (yield point) and
conductor geometry. Spiralling is avoided by tough criteria or non-helical windings are used. Also the
dynamic response from the winding is considered

Fig. 1: Buckling: Collapse of the cylindrical

winding shell
Fig. 2: Spiraling: Tangential
shift of the end turns in helicaltype windings

2. Axial forces.
The failure mode for axial forces includes:
- mechanical collapse of yoke insulation, press rings, press plates and core clamps;
- conductor tilting;
- conductor axial bending between spacers;
- possible initial dielectric failures inside windings, followed by mechanical collapse.
The axial forces are calculated with FEM programs where axial displacement due to workshop
tolerances are fully considered; even so axial displacement due to winding pitch. Windings are dimensioned for maximum compression forces, where dynamic effects are embedded.
Ampere turn balancing between the windings is a
Which transformer units are worth being
prerequisite to avoid axial forces on the windings.
considered for short-circuit testing?
Therefore strict manufacturing tolerances for
windings are needed. As windings are springs
- Key generator step-up transformers and auxiliwith about 20% cellulose, the correct compacting
ary units in power plants
during known moisture and temperatures are the
- Key feeding transformers at power plant subkey to get the right spring constant for long time
stations or huge load centers
- Strategic intertie transformers, three-winding
service. Here well-defined processes in the
system transformers (tertiary), auto-transformwinding shop and active part assembly are a must.
ers
The final pressure setting after the vapour phase
Transformers with axially split winding conprocess shall then bring the windings under
nections
pressure during its life time.
Still the most important criteria are that all
windings need their pressure to avoid any
displacement between the windings.

- Series of transformers, one taken out for a

"type" test
- Track feeding transformers
- Transformers in networks known for high fault
incidence or high fault currents

Designing power transformers is an iterative and interactive process to find an optimal solution from
the point of view of:
- masses and losses
- sound level
- short circuit strength
- winding temperature, hot spots and cooling equipment
- dielectric strength between windings and inside windings

II. SHORT-CIRCUIT TESTING VS VERIFICATION BY CALCULATION TOOLS

Discussions on the pros and cons of short-circuit testing can be summarized to the following four
statements:
1. "Calculations can prove short-circuit withstand".
It is clear that calculation methods are an indispensable tool in the design phase of equipment.
Nevertheless, the test procedure is considered a better means of ascertaining the real performance of
equipment at short-circuit, since such a test demonstrates that both construction and design are adequate
(quote from [1]). Recently, this is recognised in an amendment to IEC 60076-5 Annex A that states (for
transformers > 2.5 MVA) that "for the purpose of evaluation the unit under consideration may be
simultaneously compared with a limited number of transformers that have passed the short-circuit test
succesfully and match most - but not all - the characteristics considered in Annex A" quote from [2].
2. "Few transformers fail in service due to short-circuits".
A large scale international survey on failures in service was conducted in 1983 by CIGRE WG 12.05 [3].
At that time, a failure rate of 2% was reported for HV transformers, and problems with manufacture
were quoted as the largest known cause of outage, problems with the design being stated as the second
largest known cause.
A recent Brazilian 10 year survey shows very high failure rate of power transformers (64%) and reactors
(24%), partly in service, partly in acceptance testing [4].
Detailed material was presented by CIGRE WG12.19 [5] on the failure rate due to poor short-circuit
withstand capability. A failure rate of 1.2 failures per 10000 transformer years due to external shortcircuits is reported1. It is striking that from the failed transformers, a third had passed a design review
succesfully, whereas none of the failed transformers had been submitted to a short-circuit test.
A much higher failure rate in service due to short-circuit is reported by Canada [6].
3. "Short-circuit testing is too expensive and too much time consuming".
It is certainly true that considerable costs are involved in short-circuit testing of large transformers. These
expenses, however must be weighted against the importance of the function of the transformer in the
network and the time it takes for repair or replacement.
These costs must be evaluated against the risk of loosing transformers in service.
Various large power companies have adopted the policy of requiring a short-circuit withstand test of
certain transformers purchased within the established procedures.
EDF (France) explicitely reports [7] a significant and positive influence of short-circuit testing on the
reduction of the rate of winding faults in the overall French experience of many decades. Similar experience is also reported from India [8], [9]. Others (among which NTPC-India, EGAT-Thailand, TNBMalaysia) incite suppliers to pass a learning path towards a succesful design through full-power shortcircuit testing thereby using it as an essential and successful tool for quality improvement.
In China, all enterprises producing transformers recognize the value of short-circuit testing in quality
assurance. The vast majority of users of transformers share this opinion. Transformer failure rate due to
lack of short-circuit withstand capability shows a drastic bending down of an upgoing trend after shortcircuit testing was introduced in China in the mid-nineties [10].
4. "Short-circuit testing reduces the transformer's lifetime".
Reputable manufactures agree on the fact that for a properly designed transformer with enough margin to
handle the electrodynamic stresses, the effect of the short-circuit stress will be that the windings undergo
a certain settling [9]. The effect of the settling is that the stiffness of the windings increases and this is
visible in a small variation (if any) in the reactance values measured between the first tests, but becoming
smaller or nihil at the last tests. Such a transformer is even stronger after the short-circuit-tests than
before, and can be put safely in operation again. Chinese experience [11] shows that 40 transformers
(110 - 220 kV) put into service after passing short-circuit tests, function without problem during the
monitoring period up to 5 years.
1

"Countries like China and India, where we today hear alot about problems with short-circuit failures have not given any
contribution to the survey" (quote from [1]).

III. KEMA'S EXPERIENCE FROM TESTING 1996 - 2008

Having available 8400 MVA of direct generator-fed short-circuit power (world's largest), tests on
transformers up very high MVA and kV ratings are possible. Thanks to the generators, there is a good
match of supply voltage with test-object, as well as sufficient time constant, and availability of power
supply [12].
An evaluation is made of short-circuit tests in the 13 year period 1996-2008. The tests are performed on
transformers with power 25 - 440 MVA and voltage 20 - 500 kV. in accordance with IEC standard
60076-5 (2006) or IEEE standard C57.12.90- (1993).
The population includes single-phase and three-phase transformers, auto-transformers, step-up -, railway
-, auxiliary - and three-winding transformers, 16 2/3, 50 and 60 Hz transformers, YD- and DY-transformers.
The largest transformers tested are 250 MVA single-phase and 440 MVA three-phase.
During the past 13 years, 114 times a test access for a transformer > 25 MVA (102 transformers from
which 12 are re-tested) has been counted:
73 Transformers showed no problem at the test-site. These transformers initially passed the shortcircuit test. The final test-result is not always known because there was not always involvement in
the subsequent routine tests, the inspection and the identification. In 4 cases, routine testing and/or
visual inspection at the manufacturers site revealed an unacceptable problem that was not detected
during short-circuit testing and its assessment. In total, 57 transformers were inspected at the
manufacturer's site.
29 Transformers showed a problem due to short-circuit stresses that became immediately apparent at
the test site. Mostly, this problem was an unacceptable increase of short-circuit impedance due to the
short-circuit stress, but a range of other more evident problems also occurred.
12 Transformers from the latter group had been retested after modification in the factory and did not
show a problem at the test site at the retest.
From these results, an initial failure rate is defined as the ratio of test objects that resulted in failure to
pass the test at first access (29 transformers) and the total number of transformers (102). Thus, the initial
failure rate is 28%. The failure rate to pass the complete set of requirements is slightly higher.

number of transformers

40
initially not OK
32

initially OK

24
16
8
0
25-50

50-100

100-200

>200

MVA (rated)

Fig. 3: Initial failure rate for various ranges of MVA rating

number of transformers

Mostly, the reason of not passing

short-circuit tests is because the
winding reactance variation is larger
than specified in the standards. This is
usually confirmed by visual inspection, that revealed a huge variety of
defects such as:
- Axial clamping system: Looseness
of force axial clamping, of axial
compression force, of axial supporting spacers and of top and
bottom insulating blocks;
- Windings: Axial shift of windings,
buckling, spiralling;
- Cable leads: Mechanical movement,
for instance from tapchanger to
regulating windings; deformed or
broken leads, outward displacement
and deformation of exit leads from
inner windings; broken exit leads;
- Insulation: damaged conductor insulation; displacement of vertical oil-

28

initially not OK

24

initially OK

20
16
12
8
4
0
20-100

100-200

200-300

300-400

>400

kV (rated)

Fig.4: Initial failure rate for various ranges of kV (primary) rating

duct spacers; dielectric flashover across HV-winding or to the tank; displacement of pressboard
insulation; tank current due to damaged conductor insulation; damage to tapchanger;
- Bushings: broken or cracked LV-bushings.

number of transformers

In the cases (the majority) that the reactance change is within the tolerances set by the standards, it is the
observation that (visual) inspection and routine testing in a few cases (approx. 7% of the cases) still leads
to rejection.
Visual inspection is necessary, because
14
initially not OK
deformations and displacements in
12
initially OK
supporting structures, clamping syst10
ems, insulation materials, winding exit
8
leads, external connections from the
6
coils to the tapchanger and within the
4
on-load tapchanger can not be detected
2
by the reactance measurements only.
0

In the figures 3, 4 a subdivision is made

of MVA and kV rating, showing an
generally equal susceptibility to initial
failures across the ranges surveyed.

96

97

98

99

00

01

02 03
year

04

05

06

07

08

Fig.5: Initial failure rate during the past 13 years 1996 - 2008

In fig. 5, the testing volumes and failure rates are indicated of tests at KEMA (>= 25 MVA). As can be
seen, there is a significant increase in testing need in recent years. The overall tendency of failure rate is
slowly decreasing in time, insofar the small population allows such a conclusion.
Experience with the short-circuit reactance measurements is that for power transformers a variation of
more than 1.0% indicates a large deformation in one or more coils. Also a gradually increasing variation
during the short-circuit tests, although in total not more than 0.5% to 1.0%, indicates a progressive
movement of winding conductors. Variations of the reactance values between the short-circuit tests in a
strange way form an indication of large flexibility of the windings.
One could wonder on what causes the high failure rate, observed by short-circuit test laboratories world
wide compared to the much lower failure in service. The main reason must be the severity of the tests,
compared to actual service conditions. From a recent enquiry of CIGRE WG13.08 it can be concluded
that on a statistical basis, large power transformers have to face several full and many small short-circuits
during their life, more precisely: the 90 percentile was estimated to be 4 full short-circuits in 25 years.
Thus, it must be assumed that this actual (full) short-circuit current in service is normally (much) smaller
than the rated short-circuit current for which the transformer is designed.
Because of the expected future increase in short-circuit power, especially in developing countries, this
situation may change, and the fact must be faced that during the life of the ageing transformer, its
withstand against short-circuits will be brought to the limits.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
It is concluded that short-circuit testing is a vital part of the design process, and a crucial verification
tool at the end of it [1, 12, 13]. The high failure rate at testing (around 28 %) is the best demonstration
that calculation tools alone are not sufficient to design a transformer capable to withstand the worst
case of short-circuit current.
V. REFERENCES
1. G. Bertagnolli: "Short-circuit Duty of Power Transformers", Book printed by ABB Trasformatori
Legano(Milano), ISBN Italy, 1996.
2. IEC 60076-5 Annex A, "Theoretical Evaluation of the Ability to Withstand the Dynamic Effects of
Short Circuit", 2006

3. CIGRE WG12.05: "An International Survey on Failures in Large Power Transformers in Service",
Electra 88, pp.21-37, 1983.
4. G. Bastos et al., "An Analysis of the Increase on Failure Rate Phenomenon and Measures taken to
improve Transformer Reliability", paper A2.01, CIGRE Conference 2006
5. G. Bertagnolli: "Results of short-circuit performance of transformers", CIGRE Transformer
Colloquium, Budapest, Short-circuit performance; Tests and Failures, report 2, CIGRE TC 12, 1999.
6. IEEE Transformer Comm. meeting, Presentation Hydro Quebec, 2008
7. G. Macor et al., " The Short-Circuit Resistance of Transformers: The Feedback in France Based on
Tests, Service and Calculation Approaches". CIGRE Conference, paper 12-102, 2000.
8. N.V.C. Sastry, H. Gupta, "Short-Circuit Test on EHV Transformers", 9th Int. Conf. on Short-Circuit
Currents in Power Systems, Cracow 2000
9. H. Gupta, N.N. Misra, "Concerns about Short-Circuit Tests", TrafoTech 2002, pp. 121-25, Mumbai,
India, January 2002
10. M. Wang, "1995-1999 Fault Statistics & Analysis All Transformer Type in China", Electrical
Equipment 2(1), 2001
11. Y. He, M. Wang, "The Transformer Short-Circuit Test and the High-Power Laboratory in China the Past, Present and Future", IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, Jan/Feb. 2004, vol.20 no.1, pp
15 - 19.
12. A.L.J. Janssen, L.H. te Paske, "Short-circuit Testing Experience With Large Power Transformers,
CIGRE conference, paper 12-105, 2000
13. T. Fogelberg, "Surviving a short-circuit", ABB Review 1/2008
14. A. Wiesbeck, "High Reliability of Power Transformers - Short Circuit Reliability", CEPSI
Conference, Macau, 2008