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UNIT 1

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SEMICONDUCTORS &
DIODES

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ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

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In order of conductivity: superconductors,

conductors, semiconductors, insulators

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conductors: material capable of carrying

electric current, i.e. material which has
mobile charge carriers (e.g. electrons,
ions,..)
e.g. metals,
liquids with ions (water, molten ionic
compounds), plasma
insulators: materials with no or very few free
charge carriers; e.g. quartz, most covalent
and ionic solids, plastics
semiconductors: materials with conductivity
between that of conductors and insulators;
e.g. germanium Ge, silicon Si, GaAs, GaP,
InP
superconductors: certain materials have
zero resistivity at very low temperature.

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ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS:

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In solid materials, electron energy levels

form bands of allowed energies, separated
by forbidden bands
valence band = outermost (highest) band
filled with electrons (filled = all states
occupied)
conduction band = next highest band to
valence band (empty or partly filled)
gap = energy difference between
valence and conduction bands, = width of
the forbidden band
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electrons in a completely filled band cannot

move, since all states occupied (Pauli
principle); only way to move would be to
jump into next higher band - needs energy;
electrons in partly filled band can move,
since there are free states to move to.

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CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS INTO THREE TYPES,

ACCORDING TO THEIR BAND STRUCTURE:

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insulators: gap = forbidden

region between highest filled
band (valence band) and
lowest empty or partly filled
band (conduction band) is very
wide, about 3 to 6 eV;
semiconductors: gap is small about 0.1 to 1 eV;
conductors: valence band
only partially filled, or (if it is
filled), the next allowed empty
band overlaps with it

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Band structure and conductivity

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Band structure and conductivity

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INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

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semiconductor = material for which

gap between valence band and
conduction band is small;
(gap width in Si is 1.1 eV, in Ge 0.7
eV).
at T = 0, there are no electrons in the
conduction band, and the
semiconductor does not conduct
(lack of free charge carriers);
at T > 0, some fraction of electrons
have sufficient thermal kinetic energy
to overcome the gap and jump to the
conduction band;
fraction rises with temperature;
e.g. at 20o C (293 K),
Si has 0.9x1010 conduction electrons
per cubic centimeter; at 50o C (323 K)
there are 7.4x1010 .

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Intrinsic semiconductor

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electrons moving to conduction band

leave hole (covalent bond with
missing electron) behind;
under influence of applied electric
field, neighboring electrons can jump
into the hole, thus creating a new
hole, etc. holes can move under
the influence of an applied electric
field, just like electrons;
both
contribute to conduction.
in pure Si and Ge, there are equally
many holes (p-type charge carriers)
as there are conduction electrons (ntype charge carriers);
pure semiconductors also called
intrinsic semiconductors.

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N-Type material
donor (n-type) impurities:

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dopant with 5 valence electrons (e.g.

P, As, Sb)
4 electrons used for covalent bonds
with surrounding Si atoms, one electron
left over;
left over electron is only loosely
bound only small amount of energy
needed to lift it into conduction band
(0.05 eV in Si)
n-type semiconductor, has
conduction electrons, no holes (apart
from the few intrinsic holes)
example: doping fraction
of 10-8 Sb in Si
yields about 5x1016 conduction
electrons per cubic centimeter at
room temperature, i.e. gain of 5x106
over intrinsic Si.

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N-TYPE MATERIAL

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P-TYPE MATERIAL
acceptor (p-type) impurities:

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dopant with 3 valence electrons (e.g. B,

Al, Ga, In) only 3 of the 4 covalent
bonds filled vacancy in the fourth
covalent bond hole
p-type semiconductor, has mobile
holes, very few mobile electrons (only
the intrinsic ones).

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advantages of doped
semiconductors:

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cantune conductivity by choice of

doping fraction
can choose majority carrier (electron
or hole)
can vary doping fraction and/or
majority carrier within piece of
semiconductor
can make p-n junctions (diodes) and
transistors

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P-TYPE MATERIAL

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DIODES
p-n JUNCTION:

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p-n junction = semiconductor in which

impurity changes abruptly from p-type to ntype ;
diffusion = movement due to difference in
concentration, from higher to lower
concentration;
in absence of electric field across the
junction, holes diffuse towards and across
boundary into n-type and capture electrons;
electrons diffuse across boundary, fall into
holes (recombination of majority carriers);
formation of a
depletion region
(=
region without free charge carriers)
around the boundary;
charged ions are left behind (cannot move):
negative ions left on p-side net negative
charge on p-side of the junction;

positive ions left on n-side net positive

charge on n-side of the junction

electric field across junction which prevents

further diffusion

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Diode

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PN Junction

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DIODE

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diode = biased p-n junction, i.e. p-n

junction with voltage applied across it
forward biased: p-side more positive
than n-side;
reverse biased: n-side more positive
than p-side;
forward biased diode:

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the direction of the electric field is from

p-side towards n-side
p-type charge carriers (positive
holes) in p-side are pushed towards
and across the p-n boundary,

n-type carriers (negative electrons) in

n-side are pushed towards and across
n-p boundary
current
flows across p-n boundary

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DIODE

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FORWARD BIASED

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REVERSE BIASED

reverse biased diode: applied voltage makes n-side more

positive than p-side

electric field direction is from n-side towards

pside
pushes charge carriers away from the p-n
boundary
depletion
region widens, and no current flows

diode only conducts when positive voltage applied to pside and negative voltage to n-side
diodes used in rectifiers, to convert ac voltage to

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REVERSE BIASED

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ZENER DIODES

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ZENER DIODES

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The simplest of all voltage

regulators is the zener diode
voltage regulator.
A zener diode is a special
diode that is optimized for
operation in the breakdown
region.

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ZENER DIODE CIRCUIT

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The zener diode is typically connected

reverse biased, in parallel with the
load.
Resistor Rs limits current to zener.

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Simplest rectifier

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Simplest rectifier resistive

load

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Simplest rectifier

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VOLTAGE REGULATION

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A voltage regulator circuit

automatically maintains the output
voltage of a power supply constant,
regardless of
a change in the load
- a change in the source voltage

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SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR

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SHUNT VOLTAGE REGULATOR

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Unit-2

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TRANSISTORS AND
AMPLIFIERS

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TRANSISTORS

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(bipolar) transistor = combination

of two diodes that share middle
portion, called base of transistor;
other two sections: emitter'' and
collector;
usually, base is very thin and lightly
doped.
two kinds of bipolar transistors: pnp
and npn transistors
pnp means emitter is p-type,
base is n-type, and collector is ptype material;
in normal operation of pnp
transistor, apply positive voltage to
emitter, negative voltage to
collector;

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TRANSISTORS

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OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR

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if emitter-base junction is forward biased,

holes flow from battery into emitter, move
into base;
some holes annihilate with electrons in ntype base, but base thin and lightly doped
most holes make it through base into
collector,
holes move through collector into negative
terminal of battery; i.e. collector current
flows whose size depends on how many
holes have been captured by electrons in
the base;
this depends on the number of n-type
carriers in the base which can be
controlled by the size of the current (the
base current) that is allowed to flow from
the base to the emitter; the base current is
usually very small; small changes in the
base current can cause a big difference in
the collector current;

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PNP TRANSISTOR

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PNP TRANSISTOR

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if emitter-base junction is forward biased,

holes flow from battery into emitter, move
into base;
some holes annihilate with electrons in ntype base, but base thin and lightly doped
most holes make it through base into
collector,
holes move through collector into negative
terminal of battery; i.e. collector current
flows whose size depends on how many
holes have been captured by electrons in
the base;
this depends on the number of n-type
carriers in the base which can be
controlled by the size of the current (the
base current) that is allowed to flow from
the base to the emitter; the base current is
usually very small; small changes in the
base current can cause a big difference in
the collector current;

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Operation as amplifier

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PNP TRANSISTOR

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Transistor acts as amplifier of base

current, since small changes in base
current cause big changes
in
collector current.
transistor as switch: if voltage applied to
base is such that emitter-base junction is
reverse-biased, no current flows through
transistor -- transistor is off
therefore, a transistor can be used as a
voltage-controlled switch; computers use
transistors in this way.

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Field-effect Transistor (FET)

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In a pnp FET, current flowing

through a thin channel of ntype material is controlled by
the voltage (electric field)
applied to two pieces of ptype material on either side
of the channel (current
depends on electric field).
Many different kinds of FETs
FETs are the kind of transistor
most commonly used in
computers.

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Field-effect Transistor (FET)

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SCRs and Their Characteristics

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The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) is

a four-layer pnpn device with three
leads, the anode, gate, and cathode.
An SCR will not conduct until the
forward breakover voltage is
reached, even though its anodecathode is forward-biased.
The gate current in an SCR controls
the forward breakover voltage.
Once an SCR turns on, the gate loses
all control.
The only way to turn an SCR off is to
reduce the anode current below the
holding current,

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SCRs and Their Characteristics

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A silicon controlled rectifier

(SCR) is a four-layer pnpn
device.
Fig. 32-3 (a) shows the
basic construction of an
SCR, and Fig. 32-3 (b)
shows the schematic
symbol.
The SCR has three external
leads: the anode,
cathode, and gate.

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SCRs and Their Characteristics

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Triacs

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A triac is a bi-directional
thyristor used to control the
power in ac circuits.
A triac has two leads
designated MT1, and MT2 or A1
and A2.
A triac has a gate lead which is
used to control its conduction.
A triac is equivalent to two SCRs
in parallel.

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Triacs

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TRIACS

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Unijunction Transistors

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The unijunction transistor (UJT) is a

three-terminal semiconductor device
that has only one p-n junction.
The unijunction transistor (UJT) has two
base leads, B1 and B2 and an emitter
(E) lead.
The interbase resistance, RBB of a UJT is
the resistance of its n-type silicon bar.
The ratio RB1/(RB1 + RB2) is called the
intrinsic standoff ratio, designated .
UJTs are used in conjunction with SCRs
and Triacs to control their conduction
angle.

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Unijunction Transistors operation

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The unijunction transistor (UJT) is a

three-terminal semiconductor device
that has only one p-n junction.
The unijunction transistor (UJT) has two
base leads, B1 and B2 and an emitter
(E) lead.
The interbase resistance, RBB of a UJT is
the resistance of its n-type silicon bar.
The ratio RB1/(RB1 + RB2) is called the
intrinsic standoff ratio, designated .
UJTs are used in conjunction with SCRs
and Triacs to control their conduction
angle.

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Unijunction Transistors symbol

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UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
CHARACTERISTICS

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Negative resistance is illustrated

in the emitter characteristic
curve shown in Fig. 32-12.

Once VP is reached, the

emitter voltage, VE, decreases
as IE increases.

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UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
CHARACTERISTICS

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UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTORS
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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Application

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Fig. 32-13 shows how a UJT

can be used as a
relaxation oscillator.
Because the voltage
waveform, VB1 is a sharp
pulse of short duration, it is
the ideal gate triggering
source for either an SCR or
triac.

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Unit-3

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DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

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DIGITAL

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Digital system is known as

any
electronic system that
handle and
process electrical signals in
the form of
0s and 1s, no more analog
signals
used here.

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Logic gates

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A logic gate is an elementary

building block
of a digital circuit. logic gate is
an electronic
circuit can perform specific
processing on the input
signals.
Logic gates have two inputs
and one output.

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0
1

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Basic logic gates

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BASIC LOGIC GATES

0
0

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EX-OR GATE

1
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0
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1

0
1
0

1
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A
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NAND GATE

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Boolean algebra basics

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logic operations symbols:

OR: (+) Plus symbol, e.g.:Y=
A+B
AND: (.) Dot symbol, e.g.:
Y=A.B
NOT: () a bar is drawn above
the letter, e.g.: Y= .
XOR: ( ) Plus symbol
surrounded with a circle, e.g.:
Y=A B.

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Boolean algebra basics

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. Commutative
e.g. A+B = B+A, A.B = B.A.
2. Associative
e.g. A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C =
A+B+C,
(B.C) = (A.B).C = A.B.C.

3.Distributive

e.g. A (B+C) = AB + AC.

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A+ B= A+B.
A=A.

-De Morgan's law:

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A+1= 1.
A+0= A.
A.0= 0.
A.1= A.
A+A= A.
A+= 1.
A.A= A.
A. = 0.
A+AB= A.

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Boolean algebra basics

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THE 8085 MICROPROCESSOR

ARCHITECTURE & INTERFACING

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The 8085 and Its Buses

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The 8085 is an 8-bit general purpose

microprocessor that can address 64K Byte of
memory.
It has 40 pins and uses +5V for power. It can
run at a maximum frequency of 3 MHz.

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The pins on the chip can be grouped into 6

groups:

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Address Bus.
Data Bus.
Control and Status Signals.
Power supply and frequency.
Externally Initiated Signals.
Serial I/O ports.

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The Address and Data Busses

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The address bus has 8 signal lines A8 A15

which are unidirectional.
The other 8 address bits are multiplexed
(time shared) with the 8 data bits.

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So, the bits AD0 AD7 are bi-directional and

serve as A0 A7 and D0 D7 at the same time.

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During the execution of the instruction, these lines carry

the address bits during the early part, then during the
late parts of the execution, they carry the 8 data bits.

In order to separate the address from the data,

we can use a latch to save the value before the
function of the bits changes

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The Control and Status Signals

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There are 4 main control and status signals. These are:

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ALE: Address Latch Enable. This signal is a pulse that become 1

when the AD0 AD7 lines have an address on them. It
becomes 0 after that. This signal can be used to enable a
latch to save the address bits from the AD lines.
RD: Read. Active low.
WR: Write. Active low.
IO/M: This signal specifies whether the operation is a memory
operation (IO/M=0) or an I/O operation (IO/M=1).
S1 and S0 : Status signals to specify the kind of operation being
performed .Usually un-used in small systems.

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Frequency Control Signals

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There are 3 important pins in the

frequency control group.
X0 and X1 are the inputs from the
crystal or clock generating circuit.

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The frequency is internally divided

by 2.

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So, to run the microprocessor at 3

MHz, a clock running at 6 MHz
should be connected to the X0
and X1 pins.

CLK (OUT): An output clock pin to

drive the clock of the rest of the
system

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Microprocessor Communication
and Bus Timing

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To understand how the

microprocessor operates
and uses these different
signals, we should study
the process of
communication between
the microprocessor and
memory during a memory
read or write operation.

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Steps For Fetching an Instruction

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Lets assume that we are trying to fetch the

instruction at memory location 2005. That
means that the program counter is now
set to that value.
The following is the sequence of operations:

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The program counter places the address

value on the address bus and the controller
issues a RD signal.
The memorys address decoder gets the
value and determines which memory
location is being accessed.
The value in the memory location is placed
on the data bus.
The value on the data bus is read into the
instruction decoder inside the
microprocessor.
After decoding the instruction, the control
unit issues the proper control signals to
perform the operation.

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Timing Signals For Fetching an

Instruction

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At T1 , the high order 8 address bits (20H)

are placed on the address lines A8 A15
and the low order bits are placed on AD7
AD0. The ALE signal goes high to indicate
that AD0 AD8 are carrying an address. At
exactly the same time, the IO/M signal goes
low to indicate a memory operation.
At the beginning of the T2 cycle, the low
order 8 address bits are removed from AD7
AD0 and the controller sends the Read (RD)
signal to the memory. The signal remains
low (active) for two clock periods to allow
for slow devices. During T2 , memory places
the data from the memory location on the
lines AD7 AD0 .
During T3 the RD signal is Disabled (goes
high). This turns off the output Tri-state
buffers in the memory. That makes the AD7
AD0 lines go to high impedence mode.

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Demultiplexing AD7-AD0

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From the above description, it becomes

obvious that the AD7 AD0 lines are
serving a dual purpose and that they
need to be demultiplexed to get all the
information.
The high order bits of the address remain
on the bus for three clock periods.
However, the low order bits remain for
only one clock period and they would
be lost if they are not saved externally.
Also, notice that the low order bits of the
address disappear when they are
needed most.
To make sure we have the entire address
for the full three clock cycles, we will use
an external latch to save the value of
AD7 AD0 when it is carrying the address
bits. We use the ALE signal to enable this
latch.

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Demultiplexing AD7-AD0
8085

ALE

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A15-A8

Latch

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AD7-AD0

A7- A0

D7 - D0

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Given that ALE operates as a pulse

during T1, we will be able to latch the
address. Then when ALE goes low, the
address is saved and the AD7 AD0 lines
can be used for their purpose as the bidirectional data lines.

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Cycles and States

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T- State: One subdivision of an

operation. A T-state lasts for one clock
period.
An instructions execution length is
usually measured in a number of Tstates. (clock cycles).

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Machine Cycle: The time required to

complete one operation of accessing
memory, I/O, or acknowledging an
external request.

This cycle may consist of 3 to 6 T-states.

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Instruction Cycle: The time required to

complete the execution of an
instruction.

In the 8085, an instruction cycle may

consist of 1 to 6 machine cycles.

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Generating Control Signals

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The 8085 generates a single RD signal.

However, the signal needs to be used
with both memory and I/O. So, it must
be combined with the IO/M signal to
generate different control signals for the
memory and I/O.

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Keeping in mind the operation of the IO/M

signal we can use the following circuitry to
generate the right set of signals:

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The ALU

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In addition to the arithmetic &

logic circuits, the ALU includes
the accumulator, which is part
of every arithmetic & logic
operation.

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Also, the ALU includes a

temporary register used for
holding data temporarily during
the execution of the operation.
This temporary register is not
accessible by the programmer.

 S-sign flag

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The Flags register

Z-zero flag

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The sign flag is set if bit D7 of the

accumulator is set after an arithmetic or
logic operation.

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Set if the result of the ALU operation is 0.

Otherwise is reset. This flag is affected by
operations on the accumulator as well
as other registers. (DCR B).

AC-Auxiliary Carry

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This flag is set when a carry is generated

from bit D3 and passed to D4 . This flag
is used only internally for BCD
operations. (Section 10.5 describes BCD
addition including the DAA instruction).

P-Parity flag

After an ALU operation if the result has

an even # of 1s the p-flag is set.
Otherwise it is cleared. So, the flag can
be used to indicate even parity.

CY-carry flag
Discussed earlier

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The 8085 machine cycles

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The 8085 executes several types

of instructions with each
requiring a different number of
operations of different types.
However, the operations can
be grouped into a small set.
The three main types are:

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Memory Read and Write.

I/O Read and Write.
Request Acknowledge.

These can be further divided

into various operations
(machine cycles).

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Opcode Fetch Machine Cycle

Opcode fetch cycle.

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In this cycle, the microprocessor brings

in the instructions Opcode from
memory.

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To differentiate this machine cycle from

the very similar memory read cycle,
the control & status signals are set as
follows:
IO/M=0, s0 and s1 are both 1.

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This machine cycle has four T-states.

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The 8085 uses the first 3 T-states to fetch

the opcode.
T4 is used to decode and execute it.

It is also possible for an instruction to

have 6 T-states in an opcode fetch
machine cycle

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Memory Read Machine Cycle

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The memory read machine

cycle is exactly the same
as the opcode fetch
except:

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It only has 3 T-states

The s0 signal is set to 0
instead.

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The Memory Read Machine Cycle

pa
ul

To understand the memory read

machine cycle, lets study the
execution of the following instruction:
MVI A, 32

In memory, this instruction looks like:

in

The first byte 3EH represents the

opcode for loading a byte into the
accumulator (MVI A), the second byte
is the data to be loaded.

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The 8085 needs to read these two

bytes from memory before it can
execute the instruction. Therefore, it
will need at least two machine cycles.
The first machine cycle is the opcode fetch
discussed earlier.
The second machine cycle is the Memory
Read Cycle.
Figure 3.10 page 83.

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The Memory Write Operation

pa
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In a memory write operation:

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in

The 8085 places the address

(2065H) on the address bus
Identifies the operation as a
memory write (IO/M=0, s1=0, s0=1).
Places the contents of the
accumulator on the data bus and
asserts the signal WR.
During the last T-state, the contents
of the data bus are saved into the
memory location.

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Memory interfacing

in

pa
ul

There needs to be a lot of

interaction between the
microprocessor and the
memory for the exchange of
information during program
execution.

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Memory has its requirements on

control signals and their timing.
The microprocessor has its
requirements as well.

The interfacing operation is

simply the matching of these
requirements.

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Memory structure & its

requirements
RAM
Input Buffer

WR

pa
ul

Data Lines

Address
Lines

Address
Lines

Output Buffer

RD

ej

Output Buffer

in

CS

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Data Lines

Date
Lines

The process of interfacing the

above two chips is the same.

However, the ROM does not have

a WR signal.

CS

RD

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Interfacing Memory

pa
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Accessing memory can be

summarized into the following three
steps:
Select the chip.
Identify the memory register.
Enable the appropriate buffer.

in

Translating this to microprocessor

domain:

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The microprocessor places a 16-bit

address on the address bus.
Part of the address bus will select the
chip and the other part will go through
the address decoder to select the
register.
The signals IO/M and RD combined
indicate that a memory read operation
is in progress. The MEMR signal can be
used to enable the RD line on the
memory chip.

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Address decoding

pa
ul

The result of address decoding

is the identification of a register
for a given address.

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in

A large part of the address bus is

usually connected directly to the
address inputs of the memory chip.
This portion is decoded internally
within the chip.
What concerns us is the other part
that must be decoded externally
to select the chip.
This can be done either using logic
gates or a decoder.

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Interfacing concepts

A15- A10

pa
ul

Interfacing concepts
together
8085

Chip Selection
Circuit

CS

ALE

Latch

IO/M

WR RD

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AD7-AD0

in

A15-A8

A7- A0

A9- A0

1K Byte
Memory
Chip

D7 - D0
RD

WR

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Interfacing the 8155

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in

pa
ul

The 8155 is a special chip

designed to work with the
8085 to demonstrate the
interfacing of the 8085.
the 8155 has 256 bytes of
RAM, 2 programmable I/O
ports and a timer.
It is usually used in systems
designed for use in
university labs.

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in

pa
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Traffic light controller

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Stepper motor controller

In the PM type stepper motor, a permanent
magnet is used for rotor and coils are put on
stator. The stepper motor model which has 4poles is shown in the figure on the left. In case of
this motor, step angle of the rotor is 90 degrees.

pa
ul

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in

As for four poles, the top and the bottom and

either side are a pair. coil, coil and coil, coil
correspond respectively. For example, coil and
coil are put to the upper and lower pole. coil
and coil are rolled up for the direction of the
pole to become opposite when applying an
electric current to the coil and applying an
electric current to the coil. It is similar about
and , too.
The turn of the motor is controlled by the
electric current which pours into , , and . The
rotor rotational speed and the direction of the
turn can be controlled by this control.

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in

pa
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STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER

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in

pa
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STEPPER MOTOR CONTROLLER

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TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
To accurately control process temperature
without extensive operator involvement, a
temperature control system relies upon a
controller, which accepts a temperature sensor
such as a thermocouple or RTD as input. It
compares the actual temperature to the
desired control temperature, or setpoint, and
provides an output to a control element. The
controller is one part of the entire control
system, and the whole system should be
analyzed in selecting the proper controller. The
following items should be considered when
selecting a controller:
Type of input sensor (thermocouple, RTD) and
temperature range
Type of output required (electromechanical
relay, SSR, analog output)
Control algorithm needed (on/off, proportional,
PID)
Number and type of outputs (heat, cool, alarm,
limit)

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in

pa
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TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER
There are three basic types of controllers: onoff, proportional and PID. Depending upon the
system to be controlled, the operator will be
able to use one type or another to control the
process.

pa
ul

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in

On/Off Control
An on-off controller is the simplest form of
temperature control device. The output from
the device is either on or off, with no middle
state. An on-off controller will switch the output
only when the temperature crosses the setpoint.
For heating control, the output is on when the
temperature is below the setpoint, and off
above setpoint. Since the temperature crosses
the setpoint to change the output state, the
process temperature will be cycling continually,
going from below setpoint to above, and back
below. In cases where this cycling occurs
rapidly, and to prevent damage to contactors
and valves, an on-off differential, or hysteresis,
is added to the controller operations.

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TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER

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in

pa
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This differential requires that the

temperature exceed setpoint by a certain
amount before the output will turn off or
on again. On-off differential prevents the
output from chattering or making fast,
continual switches if the cycling above
and below the setpoint occurs very
rapidly. On-off control is usually used
where a precise control is not necessary,
in systems which cannot handle having
the energy turned on and off frequently,
where the mass of the system is so great
that temperatures change extremely
slowly, or for a temperature alarm. One
special type of on-off control used for
alarm is a limit controller. This controller
uses a latching relay, which must be
manually reset, and is used to shut down a
process when a certain temperature is
reached

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pa
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in

ej

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