Proceedings of the Twenty-second (2012) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference

Rhodes, Greece, June 1722, 2012

Copyright 2012 by the International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers (ISOPE)
ISBN 978-1-880653-944 (Set); ISSN 1098-6189 (Set)

www.isope.org

Simulation of Ice Loads on Ship Hull

Vladimir Tryaskin and Vladimir Yakimov
Ship Structure Department, State Marine Technical University
Saint-Petersburg, Russian Federation

Pierre Besse
Research Department, Bureau Veritas Marine Division
Neuilly-sur-Seine, France

probabilistic nature in the development of special ship documentation

and on-board software used by ship operators to determine safe
operating modes in ice (primarily, the allowable ship speed). The
implementation of this approach would enhance the ship safety in ice.

ABSTRACT
The paper covers the statement of simulation problem for ice loads
acting on ship hull. The application of probabilistic approach to ice
loads estimation is substantiated. The main theoretical propositions as
well as the general algorithm and the basic scheme of simulation
process implementation are adduced. A number of test examples are
considered relating to the hull of Samotlor-type ice-going oil tanker.
The obtained results are analyzed. The special-purpose software
developed by the authors is used for probabilistic computer
experimentation.

The research into ice loads simulation was initiated at the Ship
Structure Department of St. Petersburg State Marine Technical
University in the second half of the 1980s and these efforts were
primarily associated with Kurdyumov. He formulated a general
statement of the problem, set up the theoretical basis for the random ice
load simulation technique based on the hydrodynamic model of solid
body impact on ice and put forward the principles for design and
performance of the probabilistic experiment. In 1992 all active research
efforts in this field were suspended. However, this problem remained to
be of interest in the course of time, and in 2008 the research in this field
was revitalized.

KEY WORDS: Simulation; ice loads; ship hull; hydrodynamic

impact model; probabilistic computer test; pseudo-random number
generators; distributions of stochastic quantities.

The method suggested here for simulation of ice loads on ship hull is
based on a combination of a simulation algorithm and generators of
pseudo-random numbers. The problem in its initial formulation is a
statistical one. The goal of the method is to justifiably select the
theoretical distribution laws for random ice load parameters and
subsequently estimate the average values of the parameters under
consideration. These empirical distribution functions (bar charts) are
plotted based on the results of a probabilistic computer experiment.
The characteristic feature of ship hull/ice interaction process is a
significant number of various stochastic factors directly influencing the
ice load magnitude. Under these conditions it is practically impossible
to identify the individual contributions of specific factors to the final
parameters of ice loads or to assess the correlations between these
factors.
The process of ship operation in ice can be represented as a series of its
operations on certain shipping routes. Each shipping route is subdivided
into zones based on the peculiarities of sea areas. The boundaries of
these zones are primarily set based on the spatial and temporal
variability of ice conditions. The ice conditions in adjacent zones are
expected to be significantly different and distinguished by specific
features. Therefore, an integral part of the probabilistic model is a
simulation model of random ice loads on ship hull at the specified
shipping route.

INTRODUCTION
The ship hull interaction with ice is of random nature, therefore it is
reasonable to apply probabilistic rather than deterministic method for
estimating the ice loads acting on the ship hull. The modern hardware
and software tools are able to simulate complicated processes and
investigate the same by performing computer experiments taking into
account various random factors.
The use of simulation (statistical modeling) techniques for estimation
of ice loads make it possible to formulate and solve a number of
important practical problems such as:
estimation the standard probability of occurrence for design ice loads
on ice-strengthened hull structures;
designing the hull structure of ice-class ships for the specified
probability of design ice load occurrence;
estimation the equivalent strength for various ships relating to the
same ice category or for various structures of the same ship taking into
account ice load variations;
prediction the damage rate of ship hull structures (or risk assessment)
under various in-service ice conditions;
justification the ice category assigned to a ship in accordance with the
actual ice conditions.
In addition, the simulation of ice loads allows us to account for their

The process of ice load simulation modeling can be represented as a

1215

assumed number of thickness ranges);

random value of ice thickness cover is calculated from

( H1i and H 2i lower and upper limit
H = H 2i ( H 2i H 1i ) i
Pi
of the specified thickness range, respectively).

series of steps:
preparation of initial data for the ship and the geographical area of its
operation in ice;
simulation of ice conditions (ice thickness, linear size, concentration)
at the specified shipping zone/route using the bar charts of partial
distributions;
simulation of ice physical and mechanical properties (temperature,
salinity, density, ultimate bending strength, ultimate crushing strength,
conditional parameter of dynamic ice crushing strength, Young's
modulus, Poisson's constant) at the specified shipping zone/route;
simulation of ship operating mode in ice (continuous motion or
ramming; operation in solid or broken ice of different concentration)
and acceptable ship speed in ice at the specified shipping zone/route;
simulation of impact impulse distribution over the ship hull length at
the actual waterline level;
estimation of ice load parameters (load intensity, linear load, total
contact force, linear dimensions of ship hull/ice contact zone, depth of
hull side penetration into ice, etc.) using the hydrodynamic solid
body/ice impact model suggested in the mid-1970s (Kurdyumov and
Kheisin, 1976), generalized by Tryaskin on the case of impact against
the ice, destroyed due to bending (Kurdyumov, Tryaskin and Kheisin,
1979) and used widely in Russia in the following years applied to icegoing ships and icebreakers;
accumulation, classification and processing of the obtained results
using the mathematical statistic processing techniques.

The ice survey data can also be used to plot bar charts of partial
distributions for the ice cover linear size and concentration.
In this study the total number of linear dimension ranges and their
limits are chosen based on the regulated width of typical drifting ice
formations: brash ice (less than 2 m across), ice cake (2 - 20 m), small
floes (20 -100 m), medium floes (100 - 500 m), big ice floes (500 2000 m), vast floes (2000 - 10000 m) and giant ice floe (over 10000 m).
No correlations have been found between the horizontal size and
thickness of ice cover, therefore generation of separate (independent)
bar charts of partial distributions for these two parameters of ice
conditions does not contradict the essential principles of simulation
modeling.
Regarding the bar chart of partial distributions for ice concentration it is
found that five grades are quite sufficient with the following
descriptions: consolidated ice, very close pack ice 10/10 9/10 (floes
frozen together), close pack ice 8/10 -7/10 (floes mostly in contact),
open pack ice 6/10 -4/10 (floes generally not in contact), very open
pack ice 3/10 1/10 (water preponderates over ice). The method
considered for estimation of ice loads on ship hull directly takes into
account the ice cover concentration only in simulating the ship in ice
operating mode and ship design speed in ice at the specified zone/route,
i.e. in finding the qualitative relationship between the ship speed in ice
versus ice thickness.
Random values (realizations) of linear dimension and concentration of
ice cover can be obtained from given charts of partial distributions as in
the case of ice cover thickness using the above given algorithm.

MAIN PROPOSITIONS
Modeling of Ice Conditions Parameters Using Bar Charts of
Partial Distributions
The modern surveillance and data acquisition systems are able to take
quick high-precision automatic measurements of ice cover thickness
(radars, telemetry systems, etc.), its linear dimension and concentration
(digital aerial survey, satellites, etc.). Since the ice cover thickness is
governing the ice resistance and ice load magnitude, the ice thickness
data should be used as the initial data input in the simulation process
under consideration.
The values of ice cover thickness obtained by ice survey are used to
plot the partial distributions bar chart which defines the probability of
ice cover with a fixed thickness gradation at the specified shipping
zone/route. Analytically, the partial distributions can be represented by
three number groups: group of left-hand (lower) limits of ice thickness
ranges; group of right-hand (upper) limits of ice thickness ranges and
group of ordinates corresponding to the probability that the measured
thickness values would fall within the specified range. In this study
seven ice thickness ranges are considered: 0.01 - 0.10 m, 0.10 - 0.30 m,
0.30 - 0.70 m, 0.70 - 1.20 m, 1.20 - 1.80 m, 1.80 -2.70 m and 2.70 5.00 m, which is in full compliance with the generally accepted
classification of ice cover by age (nilas, young ice, thin first-year ice,
medium first-year ice, thick first-year ice, second-year ice and multiyear ice).
A random value (realization) of ice thickness is determined directly
from the partial distributions chart plotted for the specified shipping
zone/route. If the thickness values within each range are assumed to be
distributed uniformly, then the realization of ice cover thickness will be
obtained by the following steps:
a random value is generated (using a standard generator of pseudorandom values) which is uniformly distributed in the interval (0, 1);
the design range of thickness is found to be valid for the two-sided

Fig. 1 to 3 give the examples of partial distributions charts for various

ice condition parameters at the Northern Sea Route in the Barents Sea
(Kolguev Island Kara Gate Strait) and in the East Siberian Sea (7200
of north latitude/16300 of eastern longitude 7100 of north
latitude/17000 of eastern longitude).
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.010.10

0.110.30

0.310.70

0.711.20

1.211.80

Fig. 1. Chart of ice thickness partial distributions.

inequality i 1 < i , where i = Pj , note that 0 = 0 and

j =0

N = 1 ( Pi probability of falling within the thickness range; N

1216

1.812.70

2.715.00

0.70

by direct measurements. In this study it is suggested that instead of

modeling the snow cover thickness by a random value it should be
specified by average values (obtained from ice survey) for each ice
thickness range of the partial distributions chart.

0.60
0.50

The sea ice, apart from fresh water ice crystals, includes a considerable
amount of liquid phase represented by cells with brine as well as air
bubbles, solid hydrated salt deposits and other mixtures of various
kinds, and it should be noted that proportions of these components
continuously vary with time. The presence of brine cells in ice
determines the ice salinity, which depends on the sea water salinity,
mixing rate, ice formation rate, ice age, etc. The ice cover salinity is
several times less than the salinity of the sea water which is frozen to
form this ice cover, on average 2 to 10 (Zhukov, 1976). As the ice
cover melts the brine, which is heavier than ice, gradually flows down
through cracks while the spaces between crystals are filled with air
bubbles. For this reason the sea ice which has melted at least during one
summer season features lower salinity than the young and first-year ice,
while the multi-year ice is almost entirely fresh.
The salinity of first-year ice (thickness 0.30 to 1.80 m) is most
commonly found using the following empirical formula (Ryvlin, 1974):

0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
<2

220

21100

101500

5012000 200110000

>10000

Fig. 2. Chart of ice linear dimension partial distributions.

0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40

Si = S 0 (1 b) e

0.30

a H i

+ b S0 ,

(3)

where S0 is the average sea water salinity frozen to form the ice cover,

0.20

; H i is the ice cover thickness, m;

b is the constant nondimensional factor equal to the ratio of the ice salinity at the end of its
winter season growth cycle and the average sea water salinity.
The factor a accounts for the effect of ice growth rate on ice salinity
and varies in the range from 3.0 (ice growth rate over 4.0 m per day)
to 6.0 (ice growth rate less than 0.5 m per day). In this study the factor
a is assumed to be uniformly distributed in the specified range and it
is generated by standard generator of pseudo-numbers.
The specific thickness-averaged brine content in sea ice can be
estimated with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes versus ice
temperature Ti and ice salinity Si using the following equation
(Frankenstein and Garner, 1967):

49.185
(4)
b = 0.001 Si
+ 0.532 .

Ti

0.10
0.00

109 . 87 .

64 .

31 .

Fig. 3. Chart of ice concentration partial distributions.

Modeling of Physical and Mechanical Characteristics for Ice

Cover
In this study the following physical and mechanical ice properties are
modeled: temperature, salinity, density, ultimate bending strength,
ultimate crushing strength, conditional parameter of dynamic ice
crushing strength, Young's modulus, Poisson's constant.
It is known that in natural conditions the ice cover temperature is
subject to wide variation over thickness, and it should be noted that the
temperature of the lower ice surface is constant and close to the
seawater freezing point (1.6C1.8C), while the temperature of the
upper ice surface approximately follows the ambient air temperature.
The lower is the ice cover temperature the higher is the ice cover
strength and, ultimately, the higher are the ice loads exerted on the ship
hull due to interaction with the ice cover. In this connection the
temperature of the upper ice cover surface is assumed as the design ice
temperature with a certain error to the safe side. This temperature is
calculated using the following equation:
H
(1)
Ti = T0 i ,
H red
H red = H i + 1.43 H s +

2 .0
,
k w V w + 0 .3

The sea ice cover density is primarily determined by its porosity and
salinity, it should be noted that the porosity has a much greater
influence on the ice cover density than the ice salinity. The ice cover
density weakly grows with the brine content and steeply falls with the
increase of air bubble content. A typical range of ice cover density
variations is from 0.84 t/m3 to 0.94 t/m3, note that lower-end values
correspond to summer-autumn season, while the higher-end values
correspond to the winter-spring season (when the temperature of the ice
cover decreases its density increases). The available analytical
expressions can be used to estimate the ice cover density versus ice
temperature, specific content of liquid and gaseous phases in ice, etc. In
this study a simplified approach is used: the ice cover density is
considered as a random value uniformly distributed over the specified
range and it is modeled by standard generator of pseudo-numbers.

(2)

where T0 is the average ambient air temperature, deg.; H i is the ice

cover thickness , m;

According to the experimental data the ultimate bending strength of ice

f varies in a wide range in function of ice cover temperature and

H red is the reduced ice cover thickness

salinity; however this value is practically not dependent on the load

application time. The average values of f obtained from static tests

additionally including the snow and wind effects, m; H s is the snow

cover thickness, m; Vw is the average wind speed, m/s.
The total amount of snow on ice is commonly characterized by the
snow cover thickness. These values are widely variable depending on
the geographical and seasonal factors and, as a rule, shall be determined

of floating ice cover in natural conditions are 0.50 to 0.70 MPa for
strong winter-season saline ice and 0.20 to 0.30 MP for summerseason saline ice weakened by melting (Ryvlin and Kheisin, 1980).

1217

Among many experimental techniques proposed for determining the

ultimate bending strength of ice the most reliable method today is
breaking of ice-cut beams and cantilevers afloat. Unlike small-size
specimens this method provides practically the same results across a
range of different research studies with quite a moderate scatter of
f values. Also, the ice bending strength determined by tests on small-

is quite low in the summer season due to melting under solar radiation,
while in the winter season it proves to be much higher than that of ice
specimens due to constrained deformation. As a rule, the constrained
deformation effects are taken into account by introducing an
appropriate factor of proportionality. According to approximate
estimates of Korzhavin the constrained deformation increases the
ultimate strength of ice obtained under uniaxial compression of ice
specimens by a factor of 2.5 to 2.7 (Korzhavin, 1962).
Due to the effects of numerous and various factors the ultimate ice
compression strength c varies in a rather wide range (according to
some sources up to 8.0 -10.0 MPa and even up to 25.0 MPa in case of
triaxial compression) (Nawwar, Nadreau, and Wang, 1983). In the
engineering calculations it is assumed that among the multitude of
factors influencing the value of c it is sufficient to consider only the
temperature and salinity of ice cover. It is also quite important to
investigate how c is influenced by the loading rate because under
dynamic loading the ice compression strength is increased several times
as compared to static values.
It is known that the ultimate crushing strength of ice c is higher than

size specimens (1.00 to 2.00 MP) is significantly higher than a similar

value determined from tests on floating ice beams and cantilevers.
The empirical dependence between the ultimate bending strength of ice
f and specific content of brine b obtained after processing and
generalization of experimental data is as follows (Doronin and Kheisin,
1975):

b
(5)
f = 0.70 1
f .
0
.
202

Allowance f accounts for the actual scatter (i.. deviation from

formula-based values) of the parameter f values obtained from tests.
It is within 0.10 MPa. In this study the allowance f is assumed to

the ultimate bending strength of ice f , while the strength of ice cover

be uniformly distributed in the specified range (from 0.10 MPa to

+0.10 MPa) and it is generated by standard generator of pseudonumbers.

are mainly determined by ice temperature and salinity: the ice strength
is increased s the temperature is reduced and the same is reduced as
the salinity is increased. In this study a linear relationship between c

Fig. 4 shows the results of modeling the ultimate bending strength of

ice for the Northern Sea Route in the Barents Sea and East Siberian
Sea.

and f is proposed:

c = k f .

6.0

(6)

Based on the estimates of various authors the range of proportionality

factor k is limited to 1.5 - 6.0. This factor is considered as a random
value uniformly distributed in the specified range of values and it is
simulated by standard generator of pseudo-random numbers.

5.5
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5

Fig. 5 shows the results of modeling the ultimate compression strength

of ice for the Northern Sea Route in the Barents Sea and East Siberian
Sea.

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5

1.0

1.0

0.9

0.5

0.8
0.010
0.030
0.050
0.070
0.090
0.110
0.130
0.150
0.170
0.190
0.210
0.230
0.250
0.270
0.290
0.310
0.330
0.350
0.370
0.390
0.410
0.430
0.450
0.470
0.490
0.510
0.530
0.550
0.570
0.590
0.610
0.630

0.0

0.7
0.6

Fig. 4. Ice ultimate bending strength, MPa: modeling results.

0.5

Ice compression strength c is usually determined experimentally by

crushing ice pieces of standard size and cubic or similar to cubic forms
using special test rigs. It should be noted that c is significantly
dependent on the velocity and direction of load application to
specimens, characteristic dimensions of specimens, their structure,
temperature, salinity, crystal orientation with respect to the optical axes,
etc. In accordance with the experimental data, the values of c under
static loading range from 0.5 MPa to 1.0 MPa (Popov, Faddeev,
Kheisin and Yakovlev, 1967). However, the values of c obtained by
tests when the ship hull interacts with ice cover should be treated
exclusively as certain measures of local ice crushing strength. These
values cannot be used directly (without processing) to determine ice
loads on ship hull because the ice failure pattern in the experiment is
essentially different from the pattern of ice edge crushing caused by
ship side penetration into ice. The main difference is that in case of
tests on ice specimens a uniaxial compression is applied, while the ship
hull/ice cover interaction involves constrained deformation (biaxial
compression). It should be noted that the compression strength of upper
ice layers, which are mainly locally crushed by an inclined side of ship,

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.050
0.150
0.250
0.350
0.450
0.550
0.650
0.750
0.850
0.950
1.050
1.150
1.250
1.350
1.450
1.550
1.650
1.750
1.850
1.950
2.050
2.150
2.250
2.350
2.450
2.550
2.650
2.750
2.850
2.950
3.050
3.150
3.250
3.350
3.450
3.550

0.0

Fig. 5. Ice ultimate crushing strength, MPa: modeling results.

In the model used here for determination of ice loads on ship hull the
dynamic strength of ice cover is described by parameter a p which is
assumed as a conditional parameter of dynamic ice crushing strength.
In this paper the parameter a p is calculated in function of ultimate ice
compression strength c :
n

(7)
ap = A c .
B
The values a p estimated by the empirical formula given above are in

good agreement with the data obtained from the analysis of ship hull

1218

equally likely events P = PR . For modelling the ice cover edge

side structure strength under interaction with ice, which was performed
for the existing ice-class merchant ships.

geometry in the ship/ice impact area a series of random-number

sequence is used with random numbers being uniformly distributed in
the range (0, 1).
The rounded ice edge is described by radius R , while the angular edge
is described by corner angle . These parameters have little influence
on the ice load magnitude, therefore these can be simulated
approximately using basic approaches. According to the available
statistics the acceptable curvature radius values range from 10 m to
40 m, while the corner angle observed in reality range from 45 to 145
(Popov, Faddeev, Kheisin and Yakovlev, 1967). In this study the
parameters R and are assumed to be uniformly distributed over the
specified ranges and these are generated by standard generator of
pseudo-numbers. Instead of the parameters R and it is possible to
simulate the values ( 2 R ) and (tg ) which are directly included in
2
respective expressions for estimation of ice loads.

Fig. 6 shows the results of modeling the conditional parameter of

dynamic ice crushing strength for the Northern Sea Route in the
Barents Sea and East Siberian Sea.
0.010
0.009
0.008
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
5.0
15.0
25.0
35.0
45.0
55.0
65.0
75.0
85.0
95.0
105.0
115.0
125.0
135.0
145.0
155.0
165.0
175.0
185.0
195.0
205.0
215.0
225.0
235.0
245.0
255.0
265.0
275.0
285.0
295.0
305.0
315.0
325.0
335.0
345.0
355.0
365.0
375.0
385.0
395.0
405.0
415.0

0.000

Modeling of Ship Operation Mode in Ice and Designed Ship

Speed in Ice

Fig. 6. Conditional parameter of dynamic ice crushing strength:

modeling results.

In view of the significant number of various factors determining the

ship motion in ice conditions its modeling is the most complicated and
laborious task. The specifics of ship motion process in ice and the
requirements laid to ship hull strength enable to mark out some typical
ice navigation modes. This study considers the following modes for
design ship:
an independent motion in ice or a motion in a channel behind an icebreaker (the mode is set as initial information);
a continuous motion in ice or a ramming tactics (the mode is installed
depending on ship speed in ice);
a motion in compact ice or a motion in broken ice with different
concentration (the mode is installed depending on ice condition
parameters).

The elastic properties of ice cover represented as a plate are described

by some averaged values of Youngs modulus Ei and Poisson's
constant i . The most common experimental techniques for finding the
above-mentioned characteristics of ice cover are acoustic and seismic
methods as well as tests of small-size ice specimens.
The value of Ei significantly depends on the deformation time and
temperature of ice cover and to a lesser degree on the ice salinity.
According to the experimental data the Youngs modulus for strong
saline Arctic ice under dynamic loading ranges from 2.0 GPa to
4.0 GPa (Popov, Faddeev, Kheisin and Yakovlev, 1967). These values
of Ei were obtained by measuring the resonance (critical) frequency of
bending waves propagating in ice cover and these correspond to
average values of Youngs modulus over large area. Under static
loading Ei significantly depends on the ice deformation rate, and it
should be noted that at loading rates less than ~0.1 MPa/s one can
clearly observe plastic behaviour of ice cover mainly caused by creep
effects. The Youngs modulus of sea ice under long-term loading
proves to be by an order of magnitude lower as compared to the
dynamic modulus of elasticity.
The Poisson constant i for sea ice is a relatively stable value ranging
from 0.33 to 0.37 (Ionov and Gramuzov, 2001).
In this study the ice cover elasticity characteristics, viz. Youngs
modulus and Poisson constant, are assumed to be random values
uniformly distributed over respective ranges (2.0 - 4.0 GPa for Ei

When the ship speed in ice is modelled it is suggested to use simplified

(linear, piecewise-linear etc) relationships linking this motion
characteristic and ice cover thickness. The influence of ice cover
hummocking, fracturing and snow-covering isnt taken into account at
the present stage.
When the ship is sailing in compact ice the ship speed is determined as
a rule according to the following well-known formula:
(8)
= 0 (1 H i / H lim ) ,
where 0 is the ship speed in open water, kn.; H i is the ice cover
thickness, m; H lim is the ultimate thickness for level compact ice
which is run by continuous ship motion, m.
When the ship is sailing in broken ice the ship speed can be estimated
depending on ice concentration in accordance with the following
numerical expressions:
0
(9)
= 1k
H i + 0 , if H i < H1k ;
H1k

under dynamic loading and 0.33 - 0.37 for i ), and these are simulated
by standard generator of pseudo-random numbers.
During the interaction of ship hull with ice the ship side impacts against
the ice cover edge whose geometry in contact area can be qualitatively
different. In the model used in this study to determine the ice loads on
ship hull it is assumed that the ice edge has a standard (simplified)
shape: either rounded or angular shapes. The crushed area due to
cutting of a rounded or angular ice edge by the ship side plane is
accordingly represented by a parabolic or triangular segment. In this
study the edge shape choice is stochastic and made in the assumption
that the probability of impact on a rounded edge PR and the probability

2 k 1k
H 2 k 2 k H1k
, if H1k H i H 2 k ;
H i + 1k
H 2 k H1k
H 2 k H1k

2k

H lim k H 2 k

Hi +

2 k H lim k
, if H i > H 2 k ,
H lim k H 2 k

(10)
(11)

where H lim k is the ultimate thickness for level broken ice which is run
by continuous ship motion, for k -th rank of specified bar chart for ice
concentration partial distributions, m; H1k , H 2 k are the values of ice
cover thickness which determine a location of intermediate range

of impact on an angular edge P = 1 PR are equal, i.e. these are

1219

of impacts number over hull length is transforming and becoming

more complicated. By strain-gage tests it has been established that the
main factor governing the distribution of impacts number over hull
length under rectilinear ship advance in ice is the waterline shape.
Moreover, according to the experimental data the changes in ice
conditions dont exert a considerable influence on the type of impacts
number distribution over hull length, while the maximum probability
density of impacts number falls in the ship area of maximum waterline
curvature:

bounds in accepted expressions for k -th rank of specified bar chart for
ice concentration partial distributions, m; 1k , 2 k are the values of
ship speed in broken ice corresponding to the values of ice cover
thickness H1k , H 2 k .
A piecewise-linear relationship between ship speed in broken ice and
ice cover thickness was obtained by analysis, processing and
approximation of full-scale trial data on a large-tonnage ice-going
cargo ship by adherence of physical principles for real ship motion
process in ice conditions.

K=

The given expressions intended for determination of ship speed in ice

specify only its certain average value. However, icebreaking process
discreteness, ice cover non-uniformity, ship heave and pitch in ice as
well as other factors cause stochastic speed fluctuations (Ryvlin and
Kheisin, 1980). No information is available regarding the distribution
function of speed fluctuations, but the great number of independent
stochastic factors causing such fluctuations allows us to assume that
these are distributed by the normal law characterized by following
probability density:

3 / 2

(14)

When the distribution of impact impulses frequency is modelled it is

suggested in this study to use the following technique. To obtain quite
close to actual distribution of impacts number over hull length it is
advised to introduce a certain fictitious distribution of contact points
over hull breadth that would cause a distribution of impacts number
over hull length being completely similar to the experimentally
determined distribution. If the specified fictitious distribution is
replaced by trapezium whose ordinate b is chosen herewith in way
that the coordinate of maximum probability density of impacts number
coincides over hull length with the coordinate of maximum waterline
curvature, then the modeling of non-dimensional contact point
coordinate over hull breadth can be performed using standard
pseudorandom number generator:

( x )2

1 H i 0 min
,

3 H lim 0 min

dy

1 + ( ) 2
dx

where y = f (x ) is the equation for waterline corresponding to design

ship draft.

1
2
(12)
f ( x) =
e 2 .
2
It is known, that practically all values (more than 99.7%) of normally
distributed stochastic quantity are contained in the range 3 . An
estimation of mean-square distance for ship speed in ice including
fluctuations can be done supposing all its values are in sector restricted
by straight lines 1 = 0 (1 H i / H lim 1 ) and 2 = 0 (1 H i / H lim 2 ) :

d2y
dx 2

1 b
1
b2

,
y ( ) =
+

+
2 1 b
4 (1 b) 2 1 b

(13)

where min is the minimum speed of steady ship motion in ice, kn.

(15)

where y = y /(B / 2) is the non-dimensional linear coordinate finding

the position of ship hull/ice contact point concerning central
longitudinal plane and corresponding to design waterline half-breadth;
is the random number distributed uniformly in the interval (0, 1);
b is the non-dimensional parameter; B is the design ship hull breadth,
m.
To proceed to the sought-for distribution of impacts number over hull
length it is necessary to calculate the stochastic values of dimensional
coordinate x finding the contact point position lengthwise per

When the ship is operating in ice with the speed min its motion
remains steady and the stoppage probability is negligibly small.
However, in modelling the stochastic values of ship speed in ice
including fluctuations distributed by the normal law it is formally
possible to obtain positive values lesser than min as well as negative
values < 0 . These results can be interpreted as ship stoppage.
After ship stoppage the operator applies the ramming tactics, afterwards
the continuous motion in ice is either restored or not. The ramming
speed is determined by subjective factor in a considerable measure: the
operator sets an upper speed limit reasonably in order to avoid
extensive hull damages and ship jamming in ice during the impact
interaction. An average value for ramming speed dont exceed
4.06.0 kn. usually for ships with low ice category and can reach
10.011.0 kn. for ships with high ice category and icebreakers (Ionov
and Gramuzov, 2001). Based on mentioned specifics of ramming
tactics process it is expected that the ramming speeds are distributed
according to the normal law.

stochastic values of non-dimensional coordinate y by means of given

equation for design waterline y = f ( x) and then to group the obtained
values relative to the specified sections over hull length.

SIMULATION RESULTS FOR ICE LOADS ON SHIP HULL

In this study the simulation of ice loads is performed in respect to the
hull of Samotlor-type ice-going oil tanker. The specified ship of about
17200 tons deadweight was designed under a class of Russian
Maritime Register of Shipping and has UL ice category. It is intended
both for independent operation in ice and for operation in a channel
behind an icebreaker on the lines of Northern Sea Route in west and
east parts of Russian Arctic. It is considered in test examples that the
ship moves ahead and rectilinear in a channel behind an icebreaker on
the following two lines of Northern Sea Route: in the Barents Sea
(Kolguev Island Kara Gate Strait) and in the East Siberian Sea
(7200 of northern latitude/16300 of eastern longitude 7100 of
northern latitude/17000 of eastern longitude). The seasonal navigation
period is April.
The ice loads parameters are determined with the use of known
dependences of hydrodynamic solid body/ice impact model. The
accepted impact model is based on the solution of task about an

Modeling of Frequency Distribution for Impact Impulses

over Ship Hull Length
Full-scale ship trials and observations indicated that the location of ship
hull/ice contact point is stochastic, while the occurrence of ice cover at
any section between ship central longitudinal plane and its half-breadth
is equiprobable. Thereby, if the initial ice state isnt distorted by ship,
the uniform distribution of ice cover over hull breadth would be
considered true and the probability density of impacts number over
hull length would be accepted proportional to sin ( is the angle of
waterline inclination to ship central longitudinal plane).
In fact during the interaction between ship side and ice the distribution

1220

4.00

extrusion (squeezing) of the relatively thin intermediate layer from

power contact zone to free surface during the ship side penetration into
ice. This layer is notable for small-dispersed structure and has both
viscous and plastic properties at the same time. The following ice
loads parameters are modeled in test examples:
ice load intensity which characterizes a maximal pressure value in
power contact zone between ship hull and ice;
height of ice load distribution which characterizes a maximal
transverse dimension of power contact zone between ship hull and ice;
linear ice load.
The random values (realizations) of ice loads parameters are obtained
during the probabilistic computer experiment. The special-purpose
software developed by the authors is used directly for its
implementation (Dudal, Yakimov and Tryaskin, 2010). The initial
distributions for specified stochastic parameters are ascertained
experimentally and presented in the bar charts form. Afterwards these
distributions are approximated by continuous two-parameter gamma
distribution having the following view of probability density for
nonnegative random values:
f ( x) =

(k )
k

x k 1 e

3.50

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

2.500

2.150

2.025

1.925

1.825

1.725

1.625

1.525

1.425

1.325

1.225

1.125

1.025

0.925

0.825

0.725

0.625

0.525

0.425

0.325

0.225

0.125

0.025

0.00

Fig. 9. Height of ice load distribution, m: results for route in Barents

Sea.1.00
0.90
0.80

0.70

(16)
0.60

0.50

where ( k ) = t k 1 e t dt is the Euler gamma function; > 0 is the

0.40

scale coefficient; k > 0 is the shape coefficient.

0.30
0.20

Fig. 7 to 12 give the modeling results for ice loads parameters.

0.10

0.00030

4.800

4.100

3.650

3.450

3.250

3.050

2.850

2.650

2.450

2.250

2.050

1.850

1.650

1.450

1.250

1.050

0.850

0.650

0.450

0.250

0.050

0.00

Fig. 10. Height of ice load distribution, m: results for route in East
Siberian
Sea.
0.00120

0.00025

0.00020

0.00100
0.00015

0.00080
0.00010

0.00060
0.00005

0.00040

9500

8500

8100

7700

7300

6900

6500

6100

5700

5300

4900

4500

4100

3700

3300

2900

2500

2100

1700

900

1300

500

100

0.00000

0.00020

Fig. 7. Ice load intensity, kPa: results for route in Barents Sea.
0.00030

21000

15800

13800

12800

11400

10600

9800

9000

8200

7400

6600

5800

5000

4200

3400

2600

1800

1000

200

0.00000
0.00025

Fig. 11. Linear ice load, kN/m: results for route in Barents Sea.
0.00030

0.00020

0.00025

0.00015

0.00020

0.00010

0.00015

0.00005

0.00010

13600

0.00005

Fig. 8. Ice load intensity, kPa: results for route in East Siberian Sea.

30000

26000

24400

22600

21800

21000

20200

19400

18600

17000
17800

16200

14600
15400

13800

13000

11400
12200

10600

9800

9000

8200

7400

6600

5800

4200
5000

3400

1800
2600

200

0.00000

1000

11800

11300

10900

10500

10100

9700

9300

8900

8500

8100

7700

7300

6900

6500

6100

5700

5300

4900

4500

4100

3700

3300

2900

2500

2100

1700

900

400

1300

0.00000

Fig. 12. Linear ice load, kN/m: results for route in East Siberian Sea.

1221

Ionov, BP, and Gramuzov, EM (2001). Ship Propulsion in Ice,

Sudostroenie, Saint-Petersburg, 512 pp.
Korzhavin, KN (1962). Ice Effect on Engineering Structures, Academy of
Sciences of the USSR, Novosibirsk, 204 pp.
Kurdyumov, VA, and Kheisin, DE (1976). "Hydrodynamic Model of
Solid Body Impact against the Ice", Applied Mechanics, Vol XII, No
10, pp 103-109.
Kurdyumov, VA, Tryaskin, VN, and Kheisin, DE (1979). "Determination
of Ice Load and Estimation of Ice Strength for Transport Ships Hulls",
Proc. LSI: Ice Trafficability and Ice Strength of Sea-Going Ships, pp 312.
Nawwar, AM, Nadreau, IP, and Wang, YS (1983). "Triaxial
Compressive Strength of Saline Ice", Proc. 7th Int. Conf. on Port and
Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions, Espoo, Finland, Vol 3, pp
193-201.
Popov, YN, Faddeev, OV, Kheisin, DE, and Yakovlev, AA (1967).
Strength of the Ships Sailing in Ice, Sudostroenie, Leningrad, 224 pp.
Ryvlin, AY (1974). "Prediction Method of Ice Bending Ultimate
Strength", Arctic and Antarctic Problems, No 45, pp 79-86.
Ryvlin, AY, and Kheisin, DE (1980). Ship Tests in Ice, Sudostroenie,
Leningrad, 208 pp.
Tryaskin, VN, Didkovskiy, AV, Kuteinikov, MA, Grubov, DA,
Andryushin, AV. (2009). Recommendations on Structure of Ice Ship
Safety Certificate and RS Methodological Instructive Regulations on
its Development. Transactions of Russian Maritime Register of
Shipping. Issue 32, pp. 1-22.
Tryaskin, VN, Yakimov, VV and Kuteinikov, MA (2010). Validation of
Requirements in Regulatory Directions of Russian Maritime Register
of Shipping for Development of Information on ice-going ship
safety, Transactions of the Krylov Shipbuilding Research Institute.
Issue 55(339), pp. 21-30.
Zhukov, LA (1976). General Oceanology, Gidrometeoizdat, Leningrad,
334 pp.

CONCLUSION
The paper presents the results of research the authors, conducted over
the past 4 years. The proposed method of stochastic simulation of ice
loads has shown its effectiveness. The considered simulation model is
implemented for the relative simple problem - determination of ice
loads on the ship hull. Much more complicated is the inverse problem the construction of the laws of distribution of admissible velocities of
ships in ice, solution of which the authors suggest to be completed in
the near future. Proposed physical model of the ship hull with ice
interaction gives possibility to solve this problem. At the same time it is
possible to take into account probability characteristics of strength of
the hull structures due to corrosion and mechanical wear, variability of
strength characteristics of steel, deviations from the actual values asbuilt (design) dimensions of structural members. The solution of this
problem will allow reasonably approach to standardization of the ice
strength of vessels for ice navigation including advanced large-tonnage
vessels, to development of certificates on the safety of ships navigating
in ice - special documents governing the permissible conditions of
operation of the vessel in ice, which are implemented by Russian
Maritime Register of Shipping in the practice (Tryaskin, Didkovskiy,
Kuteinikov, Grubov, Andryushin 2009, Tryaskin, Yakimov and
Kuteinikov, 2010).

REFERENCES
Doronin, YP, and Kheisin, DE (1975). Sea Ice, Gidrometeoizdat,
Leningrad, 318 pp.
Dudal, AY, Yakimov, VV, and Tryaskin, VN (2010). "Direct Calculation
of Ice Loads on Ice-Going Vessels and Offshore Unites", Proc. 24th
Asian-Pacific Technical Exchange and Advisory Meeting on Marine
Structures, TEAM, Vladivostok, pp 154-161.
Frankenstein, G, and Garner, R (1967). "Equations for Determining the
Brine Volume of Sea Ice from -0.5 to -22.9C", J. Glaciol., No 6(48),
pp 943-944.

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