Metamorphism

A metamorphic rock is one that forms when a pre-existing rock or protolith, undergoes a solid
state change in response to the modification of its environment
The process of change is called metamorphism
Solid sate means that a metamorphic rock does not form by solidification of magma
Change means that metamorphism produces new minerals that did not occur in the protolith
and/or produces a new texture that is distinct from the protolith
Metamorphism takes place where a protolith endures a rise or fall in temperature and/or pressure,
undergoes compression and shear, or reacts with hydrothermal fluids
Consequences and Causes of Metamorphism
Metamorphic rocks can possess metamorphic minerals, new minerals that grow in place within
the solid rock under metamorphic temperatures and pressures
Can produce a group of minerals that together make up a metamorphic mineral assemblage
Can have metamorphic texture defined by distinctive arrangements of mineral grains not found in
other rock types
Texture commonly results in metamorphic foliation
o Parallel alignment of platy minerals (such as mica) and/or the presence of alternating
light coloured and dark coloured layers
Process of forming metamorphic minerals may take thousands to millions of years
Common Metamorphic Processes
Recrystallization changes the shape and size of grains without changing the identity of mineral
making up the grain
Phase change transforms one mineral into another mineral with the same composition but a
different crystal structure (involves rearrangement of atoms on an atomic scale)
Metamorphic reaction, or neocrystallization results in growth of new mineral crystals that differ
from those of the protolith
o Minerals of protolith undergo chemical reactions to produce new minerals
Pressure solution occur when a wet rock is squeezed more strongly in one direction than in others
Mineral grains dissolve where their surfaces are pressed together, producing ions that migrate
through the water to precipitate elsewhere
Plastic deformation happens when a rock is squeezed or sheared at elevated temperatures and
pressures, and grains behave like soft plastic and change shape without breaking
Metamorphism due to Heating
Heat causes atoms to vibrate rapidly, stretching and bending chemical bonds
If bonds stretch too far and break, atoms may form new bonds with other atoms
Repetition of this process leads to rearrangement of atoms within grains, or to migration of atoms
into and out of grains, process called solid state diffusion
Recrystallization and/or neocrystallization take place, enabling a metamorphic mineral
assemblage to grow into solid rock
Most metamorphic rocks formed at temperatures between 250C to 850C
Metamorphism due to Pressure

Pressure can cause a material to collapse inward, including a mineral

Near the earths surface, minerals with relatively open crystal structures can be stable
However, if they are subjected to extreme pressure, the atoms pack more closely together and
denser minerals tend to form
Transformations involve phase changes and/or neocrystallization

Changing Both Pressure and Temperature

In the earth, pressure and temperature change together with increasing depth
Stability of certain minerals (ability of a mineral to form and survive) depends on both pressure
and temperature
When pressure and temperature increase, the original mineral assemblage in a rock becomes
unstable, and a new assemblage forms out of minerals that are stable
Metamorphic rocks formed at different depths may contain different minerals
Compression, Shear, and Development of Preferred Orientation
Compression flattens a material
shear moves one part of a material sideways relatively to another
When rocks are subjected to compression and shear at elevated temperatures and pressures, they
can change shape without breaking
As it changes shape, the internal texture of a rock also changes
For example, platy (pancake shaped) grains become parallel to one another, and elongate (cigar
shaped) grains align in the same direction
Both platy and elongate grains are inequant grains (dimension is not the same in all directions)
Alignment of inequant minerals in a rock results in a preferred orientation
Role of Hydrothermal Fluids
Metamorphic reactions commonly take place in the presence of hydrothermal fluids
Under extremely high pressures and temperatures, the water of hydrothermal fluids is in a
supercritical state, with characteristics of both gas and liquid
Chemically react with rock and accelerate metamorphic reactions since atoms involved in the
reaction migrate faster through a fluid than a solid
Provide water that can be absorbed by minerals during metamorphic reactions
Fluids passing through a rock may pick up some dissolved ions and drop off others, changing a
rocks overall chemical composition
Changing chemical composition by reaction with hydrothermal fluid = metasomatism
Types of Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Foliation refer to the parallel surfaces and/or layers that can occur in a metamorphic rock
Can give metamorphic rocks a striped or streaked appearance and can give them the ability to
split into thin sheets
Contain foliation because it contains inequant mineral crystals that are aligned parallel to one
another, defining preferred mineral orientation
May be also due to alternating dark and light coloured layers of the rock


Slate

Distinguished from one another according to their composition, grain size, and nature of foliation

Finest grained foliated metamorphic rock

Forms by metamorphism of shale or mudstone (rocks composed dominantly of clay) under
relatively low pressures and temperatures
Slate Contains a type of foliation called slaty cleavage, which allows it to split into thin sheets
o Develops when pressure solution removes portions of clay flakes not perpendicular to the
compression direction while those perpendicular to compression grow
o Some flakes passively rotate into parallelism with the cleavage plane
Compression also causes the layers to bend into curves called folds

Phyllite
Fine grained metamorphic rock with foliation caused by the preferred orientation of very fine
grained white mica
Parallelism of translucent fine grained mica gives phyllite a silky sheen known as phyllitic luster
Forms by metamorphism of slate at high temperatures to cause neocrystallization of white mica
Metaconglomerate
Under metamorphic conditions that produce slate or phyllite, a protolith of conglomerate
becomes metaconglomerate
Pressure solution and plastic deformation flatten pebbles and cobbles into pancake like shapes
Alignment of inequant clasts define a foliation
Schist
Medium to coarse grained metamorphic rock that possesses a type of foliation called schistosity,
defined by the preferred orientation of large mica flakes (muscovite or biotite)
Schist forms at a higher temperature than phyllite
Gneiss
Compositionally layered metamorphic rock, striped appearance
Typically composed of alternating dark coloured and light coloured layers that range in thickness
from millimetres to metres
Banding may have evolved directly form the original bedding in a rock
Gneissic banding can form when the protolith undergoes an extreme amount of shearing under
conditions in which the rock can flow like soft plastic
o Flow stretches, folds, and smears out pre-existing compositional contrasts in rock and
transforms them into aligned sheets
Can also develop by a process called metamorphic differentiation where chemical reactions
segregate different minerals into different layers
Migmatite
Gneiss may begin to melt, producing felsic magma and residual, still solid, mafic rock
If melt freezes again before flowing out of the source area, a mixture of igneous rock and relict
metamorphic rock called migmatite forms

Part igneous and part metamorphic

Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rock

Contain minerals that recrystallized or grew during metamorphism but have no foliation
Formed without compression and shear, or most new crystals can only grow in an equant form
Quartzite
Formed by the metamorphism of pure quartz sandstone
Pre-existing quartz grains recrystallize, creating new, larger grains during metamorphism
Distinction between cement and grains disappear, open pore space disappears, and grains become
interlocking
When quartzite cracks, the fractures are conchoidal and may cut across grain boundaries
o Fractures in sandstone curve around grains
Quartzite looks glassier than sandstone and does not have a grainy sandpaper like surface
Can vary in colour from white to gray, purple, or green depending on impurities
Marble
Formed by the metamorphism of limestone
During formation of marble, calcite composing the protolith recrystallizes, so fossil shells, pore
space, and the distinction between grains and cement disappear
Marble typically consist of a fairly uniform mass of interlocking calcite crystals
Relatively soft and has a uniform texture that gives it cohesiveness and homogeneity
Comes in a variety of colours depending on the impurities it contains
Marble may be foliated if the original protolith contained layers with different impurities and
shear caused the marble to flow plastically
Defining Metamorphic Intensity
Metamorphic grade is used to indicate the intensity of metamorphism, meaning the amount or
degree of metamorphic change
Classification of metamorphic grade depends primarily on temperature as it plays the dominant
role in determining the extent of recrystallization and neocrystallization
Metamorphic rocks formed at low temperatures = low grade rocks, and those that are formed at
high temperatures = high grade rocks
Intermediate grade rocks formed at temperatures between these extremes
As grade increase, recrystallization and neocrystallization tend to produce coarser grains and new
mineral assemblages stable at higher temperatures and pressures
Presence of index minerals in a rock indicate approximate metamorphic grade
Metamorphic zones are areas of equal metamorphic intensity in which mineral content of the rock
is the same