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Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation
UNIT -6
1. Draw the Maxwells Bridge Circuit and derives the expression for the unknown element at
balance?
Ans:
Maxwell's bridge, shown in Fig. 1.1, measures an unknown inductance in of standard arm offers the
advantage
of compactness and easy shielding. The capacitor is almost a loss-less component. One
arm has a resistance R x in parallel with Cu and hence it is easier to write the balance equation using the
admittance of arm 1 instead of the impedance.
The general equation for bridge balance is
Also
2. Draw the Wiens Bridge Circuit and derives the expression for the unknown element
at
balance?
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Therefore
Therefore
(1.1)
And
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The two conditions for bridge balance, (1.1) and (1.3), result in an expression determining the required
resistance ratio R2/R4 and another express determining the frequency of the applied voltage. If we satisfy
Eq. (1.1) an also excite the bridge with the frequency of Eq. (1.3), the bridge will be balanced.
In most Wien bridge circuits, the components are chosen such that R 1 = R3 = R and C1 = C3 = C.
Equation (1.1) therefore reduces to R2IR4 =2 at Eq. (1.3) to f= 1/2RC, which is the general equation
for the frequency of fl bridge circuit.
The bridge is used for measuring frequency in the audio range. Resistances R1 and R3 can be ganged
together to have identical values. Capacitors C1 and C3 are normally of fixed values
The audio range is normally divided into 20 - 200 - 2 k - 20 kHz range In this case, the resistances can
be used for range changing and capacitors, and C3 for fine frequency control within the range. The
bridge can also be use for measuring capacitances. In that case, the frequency of operation must be
known.
The bridge is also used in a harmonic distortion analyzer, as a Notch filter, an in audio frequency and
radio frequency oscillators as a frequency determine element.
An accuracy of 0.5% - 1% can be readily obtained using this bridge. Because it is frequency sensitive, it
is difficult to balance unless the waveform of the applied voltage is purely sinusoidal.
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inand
Therefore,
\
The term appears in the expression for both LX and RX. This indicates that the bridge is frequency
sensitive.
Hay Bridge is also used in the measurement of incremental inductance. The inductance balance
equation depends on the losses of the inductor (or Q) and also on the operating frequency.
AN inconvenient feature of this bridge is that the equation giving the balance condition for
inductance, contains the multiplier 1/ (1 + 1/Q2). The inductance balance thus depends on its Q and
frequency.
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Therfore
For a value of Q greater than 10, the term L/Q2 will be smaller than 1/100 and can be therefore neglected.
Therefore LX = R2 R3 C1 which is the same as Maxwell's equation. But for inductors with a Q less than
10, the 1/Q2 term cannot be neglected. Hence this bridge is not suited for measurements of coils having
Q less than 10. A commercial bridge measure from 1H - 100 H with 2% error.
4. Draw the Wheat stones Bridge Circuit and derives the expression for the unknown element at
balance?
Ans:
WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE (MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE)
Whetstones bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring resistances and is popular for
laboratory use. The circuit diagram of a Wheatstone bridge is given in Fig. 11.1. The source of emf and
switch is connected to points A and S, while a sensitive current
indicating meter, the galvanometer, is connected to points C and
D. The galvanometer is a sensitive micro ammeter a zero center
scale. When there is no current through the meter, the
galvanometer pointer rests at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current in one
direction causes the points deflect on one side and current in the
opposite direction to the other side.
When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms
at point A i.e. I1 and I2. The bridge is balanced when there is no
current through the galvanometer, or when the potential
difference at points C and D is equal, i.e. the potential across the
galvanometer is zero.
4.1
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Hence
5. Explain about Ac bridges and also the precautions to be taken while using a
Bridge?
Ans:
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6. Draw the Andersons Bridge Circuit and derives the expression for the unknown element at
balance?
Ans :
The Anderson Bridge is a very important and useful modification of the Maxwell-Wein bridge as
shown in the fig 6.1 (a)
The balance condition for this bridge can be easily obtained by converting the mesh impedance C,R3,R5
to a equivalent star with the star point 0 as shown in fig 6.1 (b) by using star/delta transformation
As per delta to star transformation
Therefore,
Simplifying,
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And therefore
This method is capable of precise measurement of inductance and a wide range of values from a few H
to several Henry.
7. Compare the measuring accuracy of a Wheat stone bridge with the accuracy of
an ordinary meter?
Ans:
Errors in PMMC Ammeters
The accuracy in a moving coil instruments example, an ammeter is dictated by the following
sources of errors.
(i) Weakening of permanent magnets due to ageing and temperature effects.
(ii) The weakening of springs due to regular usage and temperature effects.
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(iii) Variation in Resistance of moving coil with temperature. The copper wire wound
has a temperature coefficient of about 0.004/C. When this instrument used for
measurement of very small currents in the milli-amp or micro-amp range, the
moving coil is directly connected to the output terminals of the instrument. The
indication would then decrease by 0.04% per C rise in temperature for a constant
current.
(ii) Thermo electric effects. The galvanometer deflection is affected by thermo electric emfs
which are often present in the measuring circuit.
(iii) Temperature effects: The change in resistance due to variation of temperature causes
serious errors in measurement. The error are more predominant in the case of resistors are
made up of materials having high temperature coefficients. In the case of copper having a
temperature coefficient of 0.004/C, a change in temperature of 1C causes an error of about
0.4%.
8. Draw the circuit of a basic Q-meter diagram and explain its principal of
operation using a vector diagram?
Ans: The instrument which measures some of the electrical properties of coils and capacitors is referred
as Q-meter. The working principle of a Q-meter depends on the characteristics of a series resonance
circuits, i.e., the voltage drop across the coil or capacitors is equal to the applied voltage times the Q
factor of the circuit. Thus if the circuit subjected to a fixed voltage, the voltmeter connected across the
capacitor is calibrated to indicate the Q value directly. A series resonance circuit and its voltage and
current relationship at resonance conditions are illustrated in figure 8.1 (i) and fig 8.1 (ii) respectively.
At resonance condition,
XL = X C
E C = I XL=I X C
E=IR
Where,
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X C = Capacitive reactance
XL=Inductive reactance
I = Current flowing through the circuit
E = Applied voltage
R = Resistance of the coil
The Q factor or the magnification of the circuit is defined as,
From the above equation it is clear that if the voltage E is maintained at a fixed level, the voltmeter
across the capacitor can be calibrated in terms of Q directly. The circuit arrangement of basic and
practical Q-meter is shown below.
The oscillator is a wide range RF oscillator that supplies the oscillations whose frequency lies between
50 kHz to 50 MHz and delivers current to Rsh which is a shunt resistance of low value, and is typically
around 0.02Q. Therefore the Rsh introduces very negligible (almost no resistance) resistance into the
oscillator circuit. Thus it represents a voltage source of magnitude E with a very low internal resistance.
The voltage across Rsh is measured using a thermocouple meter that is marked as 'multiply Q by meter.
The voltage drop across the tuning capacitor or resonating capacitor EC is measured by means of an
electronic voltmeter. The scale of this electronic voltmeter is calibrated in terms of Q values directly.
To carry out the measurement the unknown components is connected across the test terminals and the
circuit is adjusted to resonance using any one of the two methods given below.
By setting the frequency of the oscillator to a certain given value and adjusting the tuning capacitor.
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By presetting the capacitor to a required value and varying the frequency of oscillator.
The Q value indicate on the output meter should be multiplied by the index setting of the 'multiply Q by
meter to get actual, or accurate Q value.
The indicated value of Q on the output meter is known as 'circuit Q' since it includes the losses of voltmeter tuning capacitor and insertion resistor. The effective Q value of the measured coil will be higher
than indicated Q or circuit Q. This difference is small therefore it can be neglected. However this
difference is large if the resistance of the coil is small compared to the insertion resistor value.
The inductance of the coil can be found from the known values of c (resonating capacitance) and / (frequency). Since XC =XL
2fL= 1/2fC
Therefore L = 1 / ( 2 f )
C Henry
9 What are the applications of wheat stone bridge and explain its limitations?
Ans:
Applications of Wheatstone bridge
1. The basic application of a Wheatstone bridge is measurement of resistance. It is used to measure
medium resistance values.
2. It can also be used to measure inductance and capacitance values.
3. Various industrial applications involve measurement of physical quantities (such as temperature, pressure, displacement etc) in terms of electrical resistance. The various industrial applications in which a
Wheatstone bridge is used are.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
It is used with explosive meter to measure the amount of combustible gases in a sample.
(v)
(vi)
4.
5. It is used with explosive meter to measure the amount of combustible gases in a sample.
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When the input signal (to be recorded) is applied to the frequency modulator, the frequency of the
carrier signal gets modulated as per the frequency level of the input signal. When there is no input (i.e.
input voltage = 0) the centre frequency of the carrier signal remains unchanged and hence the output of
modulator oscillator at a frequency When the input signal is applied and if the input voltage is positive,
the carrier frequency gets deviated by certain percentage in one direction. If the input voltage is negative
the carrier frequency gets deviated by certain percentage in the opposite direction. A positive voltage
input signal increases the carrier frequency fc, while a negative voltage input signal decreases the carrier
frequency, as shown in the figure (2) below.
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For A.C input signals, the output of the modulator will be a signal of varying frequency, and the
variation in frequency is directly proportional to the amplitude (voltage) of the input signal.
The output of the frequency modulator is then fed to the recording head of the system. The recording
head records this modulated signal on the magnetic tape. Later, when the tape is passed through the
reproduce head, it produces a voltage which represents the same modulated waveform being recorded on
the tape. The output of the reproduce head is then demodulated by passing it through a frequency
demodulator. Hence, the output of the demodulator consists of carrier frequency and other unwanted
frequencies along with frequency of input signal. In order to remove these unwanted frequencies the
output of the demodulator is given to low pass filter, which allows the frequency components of only
input signal to pass through it. Thus, in this way a signal is recorded and reproduced by FM recording
technique.
Advantages of FM Recording
1.
In FM recording technique, the D.C component of the signal being recorded is preserved.
2.
In this recording technique, the recorded signal is accurately reproduced because this
technique is independent of amplitude variations.
3.
It is widely employed for recording the output voltages of transducers such as force,
pressure or acceleration transducers.
4.
5.
FM recorders can record a wide range of frequency signals i.e. D.C signals to several kHz
signals.
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Disadvantages of FM Recording
1.
FM recording systems are more complex than direct recording systems because FM recorders
utilize modulation and demodulation devices.
2.
FM recording is very sensitive to fluctuations in speed of tape. The variations in tape speed
leads to unnecessary modulation of the carrier signal.
3.
For efficient recording, the FM recording technique requires the tape speed to be high and
constant.
4.
FM recorders are costlier than direct recording systems because they require a high quality of
tape transport and speed control.
5.
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