INTRODUCTION

1.1

WHAT IS SOLAR ENERGY?

Solar energy is a renewable energy source that converts the suns heat and light into energy. It is
more common than people realize. For example, the food we eat to give us energy comes from
plants. Plants use sunlight for photosynthesis which makes them grow and produce food. The sun
is also responsible for making other forms of renewable energy. Biomass energy, for example, is
made by converting organic materials like plantsinto energy. The sun is needed to grow the
plants or bio-mass that is converted into energy. Wind energy is also created by the sun. When the
sun heats up the earths atmosphere, it causes certain areas to be warmer than other areas. When
cool are as collide with the warm areas, wind is produced. Without the sun, there would be no
wind. Solar energy is also connected to the creation of fossil fuels. Millions of years ago, plants
died and were buried under tons of pressure. After millions of year coal, oil and natural gas were
created from these plants.

Fig. 1 Solar Car

Fig.2 solar panel

1.2 BACKGROUND:
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Not only is the sun a source of heat and light, its a source of electricity too! Solar cells, also
called photovoltaic cells, are used to convert sunlight to electricity. Solar cells are used to provide
electricity all kinds of equipment, from calculators and watches to road side emergency phones
and recreational vehicles Solar cells are most commonly made from silicon, the same material
used to make computer chips. Silicon is one of the Earths most common elements, and is a major
component of sand and many kinds of rocks. A solar cell is built like a sandwich, with two layers
of silicon separated by a thin layer of insulating material. All three layers work together to convert
sunlight into electricity. When sunlight falls onto the solar cell it produces a small electric charge.
Like a battery, the charge is positive on one side of the cell, and negative on the other. A wire
connects the two sides of the cell, allowing electricity to flow. This flow, or current, of electricity
can be used to power a small light bulb, turn an electric mot motor, or recharge a battery.

Fig. 3 Mounting Of Panel

Fig. 4Mounting of panel on the car

Solar cells are often used in locations where there isnt any electricity and where electricity is
needed in small amounts. In such cases, solar cells are usually connected to batteries allowing
electricity to be stored for use during times when the sun isnt shining. A single solar cell is able to
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produce only a small amount of electricity. But solar cells can be connected together on a multicell panel to produce larger amounts of electricity. As with batteries, the more cells that are
connected to one another, the greater the current of electricity that can be produced.1 Solar panels
can produce enough electricity top over satellites, recreational vehicles, and equipment for other
applications where electricity is used in large amounts. For this project, you will be using the
electricity from solar panels to power a small car.

HOW IS SOLAR ENERGY USED TO RUN A SOLAR CAR?

The basic building block of a solar-electric system is the photovoltaic cell. The amount of
electrical power created by the photovoltaic cell bar Suns Rays Knock Electrons off of Atoms
Top Material, Bottom Material Electrons Close-Up View Electrons Flow Through the Motor,
Producing Power Electrons are Pulled From Bottom Material to Top Material Motor.

Fig. 5 Solar energy system

SOLAR CELL
Solar cells, also called photovoltaic cells, are used to convert sunlight to electricity. Solar
cells are most commonly made from silicon, the same material used to make computer chips.
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Silicon is one of Earths most common elements, and is a major component of sand and many
kinds of rocks.
A solar cell is built like a sandwich, with two layers of silicon separated by a thin layer of
insulating material. All three layers are work together to convert sunlight into electricity.
There are three layers: the uppermost layer consists of n-type silicon, which can release
negatively charged particle called electrons when simulated by light. The lower layer is
composed of p-type silicon, and develops a positive charge when simulated by light. The
middle layer is called the junction layer and acts as an insulator between the n-type silicon and
the p-type silicon.
A ray of light consists of a stream of photons-tiny packets of light energy-moving along
at around 300,000 kilometers per second. When these energy packets strike the upper layer of a
solar cell, they jar loose electrons, which build a negative charge in the silicon layer (explaining
why it is called n-type silicon). These electrons are attracted to the layer below, but are forced
to travel through an electric circuit made of thin connecting wires. Electrons generated on the
upper layer of several cells are gathered together to form an electric current, and are sent down a
wire to a motor or some other appliance. Once they have done their work, the electrons are
allowed to return to the lower layer of the solar cell, completing the circuit. The amount of
electricity the panel can produce depends on the intensity the light, the number of cells arranged
on the panel, and how they are connected to each other.
Solar cells connected in series (in a long chain, positive to negative) will increase the
voltage of the panel. Solar cells connected in parallel (all their positive terminals to another wire,
and all the negative terminals to another wire) will increase the current, or amperage of the panel.
In most commercial panels, the individual cells are connected both ways, with rows of cells in
series to raise the voltage of the panel and then those rows connected to each other in parallel, to
raise the amperage. Some trials of the cells connection need to be done before finding the best
connection to increase the power from the panels.
In this project, the solar panel is chosen as the energy source to increase the power supply
and reduce the energy loss due to the resistance of a wire. There is no energy loss to overcome
the resistance in a wire. When the length of wire increases, the resistance of the wire decreases.
4

All energy from the sun will be produced enough electricity to roll the motor and move the car at
the highest speed.

2.1 SOLAR PANEL

Fig. 6 Solar panel

2.2 CONSTRUCTION
There is more than enough energy hitting the earth in the form of solar radiation to meet
power needs of our species. Estimates indicate that there is four time as much wind energy
available for our use as the species uses every year. Solar power is even more dramatic, the sun
showers the planet with more energy every day than we use in a year. So the difficulty has never
been the availability of sun and wind, they are readily available.
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The difficulty with solar panels has always been the efficiency of power transfer. You see,
it is one thing to say that the sun showers us with several terawatts of power every day, and
another thing to put that power to work for us. The majority of modern human power use is
electric. This means we need to convert the radiant solar energy to usable electric current. This
presents a technological hurdle for us, because for most of our history, our electric conversion has
been turbine based. Solar panels however, dont utilize a turbine at all. Instead sunlight striking
silicon crystals creates electric potential.
This transfer of sunlight to electric potential has always been an inefficient one. The
scientist who first harnessed this effect, which he dubbed photovoltaic, was only able to elicit a
1% return on the energy he put into his solar

cell. He created his cell by coating a

semiconductor (selenium) with gold. Through a century of refinement, we have painstakingly

reached solar panels that can produce a return of more than 30% of the power they receive.
One of the reasons behind this is that any given semiconductor only responds to a certain
wavelength of light. This means a single-substance solar panel will only ever be able to convert a
portion of the sunlight it receives to electricity; no matter how well it converts that portion. That,
in essence is where we stand today.
Manufacturing advances in the past decade have finally lowered the cost of solar panels to
the point that a 30% efficiency panel can pay for the cost of production and installation over the
first six years of its life. This means that solar power is finally economically viable, since panels
are designed to run for at least 10 years before they start to break down.

2.3. SOLAR PANEL WORKING

Solar panels are technically any kind of panel that uses solar thermal energy to produce
electricity. There are a variety of panel types, from those used to heat water as with solar hot water
panels, to those which are used to store solar energy, such as solar thermal energy panels.
Furthermore, a solar panel can be described as a photovoltaic panel, which is what is used in the
professional solar power industry to generate electricity from the rays of the sun. Despite the type
of solar panel being discussed, almost all solar panels are flat. This is due to the fact that the
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surface needs to be at a 90 degree angle from the suns rays for optimal configuration.
Photovoltaic panels, the most common form of solar panels in the professional electrical
generation industry, are able to absorb energy from the sun through a variety of smaller solar cells
on their surface. Much like how a plant is able to absorb energy from the sun for photosynthetic
purposes, solar cells behave in a similar fashion. As the photons from the sun's rays the

solar

cells on a photovoltaic panel, the energy is transferred to a silicon \ hit. The photon
is then transformed

into

electricity and then passed through semi conductor connecting

wires to finally enter a power generation facility or battery. The solar cells on calculators and
satellites are photovoltaic (PV) cells or simply a group of cells electrically connected
and parceled in one frame. Photo voltaic, where photo means light and voltaic means electricity,
transforms sunlight directly into electricity. Photovoltaic cells are prepared with particular
materials called semiconductors such as silicon, which is presently the most generally used. When
light hits the Photovoltaic cell, a specific share of it is absorbed inside the semiconductor material.
This means that the energy of the absorbed light is given to the semiconductor. The energy
unfastens the electrons, permitting them to run freely. Photovoltaic cells also have one or
more electric fields that act to compel electrons un fastened by light absorption to flow in a
specific direction. This flow of electronic introducing metal links on the top and bottom of the
-Photovoltaic cell, the current can be drawn to use it externally.

BATTERY
This battery is made up of very small (likely 1/2 AAA) batteries that are tab welded
together and then wrapped in a box with leads to the standard 4.5V connections. If you need some
tiny batteries for a small robot or specific lightweight or size constrained design, the secan be torn
apart for the smaller batteries. Each battery is roughly a 4.5V 160mAh NiMH battery.

Fig. 7 Battery

VEHICLE SPECIFICATION
1. The vehicle must be safe to contestants and spectators, e.g., no sharp edges, projectiles, etc.
2. The vehicle must fit the following dimensions: 30 cm. by 60 cm. by 30 cm.
3. Decals of the sponsor organizations (provided by JSS) must be visible from the side on the
body of the car. A 3 cm. by 3 cm. space must be left for the assigned car number.
4. The suns light is the only energy source that may be used to power the vehicle. No other
batteries or energy storage devices are permitted.
5. Any energy-enhancing devices, like mirrors, must be firmly attached to the vehicle.
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6. The vehicle must be steered by the guide wire using one or more eyelets affixed to the front of
the vehicle. The vehicle must be easily removable from the guide wire, without disconnecting the
guide wire.
7. The body of the car must be three dimensional. The solar cell cannot be used as the body of
the car.

CONSTRUCT THE BODY

1. Using the utility knife, cut the foam board into three pieces one measuring 20 cm by 7cm,
and two measuring 2 cm by 7 cm. Use the metal ruler to guide your cuts.
2. Glue the two smaller foam board pieces to the large foam board piece as shown in the
illustration below.3. Using a ruler, carefully mark the positions of the screw eyes on the two
smaller pieces as shown in the illustration below
3. Using a ruler, carefully mark the positions of the screw eyes on the two smaller pieces as shown
in the illustration below.
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Fig.8 Construction of body

Fig.9 Construction of wheel

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Fig.10 Wheel Fitting

Fig.11 Pulley Fitting

4. Turn the screw eyes into the foam board pieces. Be sure the screw eyes penetrate both layers of
foam board.
5. Slip an axle through the screw eyes to check their alignment. The axle should be parallel to the
end of the foam board. If necessary, adjust the screw eyes.

5.1 MOUNT THE WHEELS

1. Slip a rubber tire onto each of the two large wheels, and two of the small wheels. The smallest
wheel will be used later.
2. With scissors, cut the vinyl tubing into small sections approximately 5 mm in length. These will
be used as spacers on the cars axles.
3. Test the fit of the wheels and axles. The wheels should grip the axles firmly. If the wheels
cannot be pressed onto the axles, try sanding the ends of the axles to reduce their thickness
slightly, and check again for fit.

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Fig.12 Mount the motor

Fig. 13Fitting of belt

4. Assemble the rear axle as shown in the illustration. Do this by slipping the axle through the
screw eyes, then adding the spacers followed by the drive pulley (the third small wheel) and
wheels. You may need to sand the axle a little to allow the drive pulley to slide on.
5. Add the front axle with its wheels and spacers, as shown in the illustration.
6. At this point, check your car to see how well it rolls. Put the car on the floor and give it a gentle
push. Make sure it rolls easily and in a fairly straight line. Adjust the axles slightly to
get a better alignment, if necessary. If the screw eyes seem loose, carefully place a drop of hot
glue where the screw eyes come through the foam board to hold them in position.

5.2 MOUNT THE MOTOR

1. Push the small black pulley onto the shaft of the motor, as shown on the next page. Slip the
motor into its clip.
2. Stretch the elastic band over the rear wheel and place it on the axle-mounted drive pulley.
3. Position the motor so that the elastic band makes good contact with both pulleys without being
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stretched more than 5 mm. Once you know where the motor should fit, mark that location on the
foam board with a pencil. Remove the backing from the self-adhesive motor clip, and press the
clip and motor onto the foam board in the position that you marked.

5.3 PREPARE THE SOLAR PANEL

1. On the back of each solar panel you will find a metal connecting bar and two threaded metal
contacts. Each contact is equipped with a small washer and a nut. The metal bar and contacts are
used to connect the panels together, and to connect wires to the panels. Remove the nuts, washers
and metal bars from the connectors and set these aside, being careful not to lose them.
2. Connect the two solar panels using one of the metal connecting bars, as shown below. Be sure
the bar connects the positive terminal on one panel to the negative terminal on the other. Secure
the connecting bar using washers and nuts, tightening them gently using the pliers.

Fig.14 wire fitting in panel

Fig.15 Supply of panel

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Fig.16 wire cutting

Fig.17 wire joining

Fig.18 current supply to the battery

4. Use scissors to cut the alligator clip test lead into two pieces of equal length. Strip about 1cm of
insulation from the two cut ends, and in each case twist the exposed copper wire slightly together.
5. Using the pliers, carefully bend the spare connecting bar to form an angled support for the solar
panels, as shown below.
6. Position the second connecting bar on the threaded metal contact, as shown below. This will be
used to help support the panels in a later step.
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7. Loop the bared ends of each test lead over the threaded contact and screw a nut onto each
jointly tighten each nut using pliers, making sure the wire is well secured.

Fig.19 motor foundation cutting

Fig.20 motor fitting

Fig.21 motor supply wire fitting

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5.4 MOUNT THE PANELS

1. Use the utility knife to carefully cut a small slot in the large foam board section as shown
below.
2. Use the brass paper fastener to secure the connecting bar to the foam board. Push the fastener
through the hole in the belt connecting bar and spread the tabs where they poke through the slot in
the foam board.
3. Arrange the panel and its support so that it sits at an angle on the body of your solar car. Use a
small piece of clear tape to fasten the lower end of the panel assembly to the foam board..
4. Use the alligator clips to connect the wires to the terminals on the electric motor. If necessary,
tape loose wires to the body of the car to keep them from touching either the ground or moving
parts of the car.

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CIRCUIT OPERATION
The solar panel is used to convert the solar energy absorbed from the sun to the dc current. This is
given to the rectifier section to convert entire pure DC. This is given to 4.5v battery for charging.
The intensity of solar energy is tested by led thus the battery is charged completely with the solar
panel .This battery supplies energy for the circuit operation to turn the vehicle.
The battery supplies power to the voltage regulator (which produces two kind of voltages
4.5v and 5v) through a filter which completely reduce the ripples to get pure DC. Which
produces to voltages 9v and 5v .5v given to the micro controller for its operation and 4.5v is
supplied to the LDR (light dependent resistor).
We operate the vehicle with a remote using IR sensor .This IR sensor is infrared with
the

micro

controller

(89c2051)

along

with

the

driver

IC

circuit

.driver

IC

(ULN2803).the driver circuit pumped with a program for the operation of relays by receiving
signals from microcontroller. We use keys in IR transmitted for moving a vehicle the IR receiver
input from the IR transmitter it is passed to the micro controller and then to driver IC. According
to the signal received from the micro controller the program is executed in the driver through
which relays are operated. In use our project we use four 5v relays where.
1. First relay for moving front and back.
2. Second relay for moving right.
3. Third relay for moving left.
4. Fourth relay for producing sound horn.
The motor and buzzer are operated with the relay. Thus the vehicle runs the regulator
supplies 4.5v to the LDR (light dependent resistor) which works based on the intensity of light. It
is given to a LED (head lights).where they are automatically ON during night times OFF during
day and night times during moving of vehicle.

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IR REMOTE SWITCH
With most pieces of consumer electronics, from camcorders to stereo equipment, an
infrared remote control is usually always included. Video and audio apparatus, computers and also
lighting installations nowadays often operate on infra-red remote control. The carrier
frequency of such infra-red signals is typically in the order of around 36 kHz. The control codes
are sent in serial format modulated to that36 kHz carrier frequency (usually by turning the carrier
on and off).There are many different coding systems in use, and generally different manufacturers
use different codes and different data rates for transmission. "IR" stands for infrared. Infrared light
is invisible since its frequency is below that of visible red. Otherwise, it is like any other light
source, operating under the same laws of physics.

BLOICK DIAGRAM OF IR REMOTE SWITCH

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Fig. 22 IR remote switch

EXPLANATION:

.
IR Sensor is used to receive signals from the remote and send it to controller. The controller
processes the signal and decides the pin to give signal to driver IC. The driver IC is used to
control 5 DC volt load, through relays.
Controller used manufactured by ATMEL in advanced CMOS the driver ICULN2803, a
monolithic high voltage and high current Darlington transistors arrays.
Power supply unit supplies 5V DC to the controller and crystal oscillator generates
11.0592

MHz

of

frequency to drive

the

controller.

The

controller

used

here

is

manufactured by ATML in advanced CMOS

7.1 IR SENSOR
The IR sensor receiver is a three terminal device used to decrease the size of
circuit, which consists of three terminals, VCC, ground and output signal.
When any key is pressed (from 1 to 8), the sensor receives the signal and sends it to
controller. The controller senses the particular switch pressed and enables the particular pin
number in the port connected to IC ULN2803. The driver circuit of the IC is activated and relay is
in such a way to switch ON/OFF the load.
Suppose consider that key 1 is pressed, then p1.0 of controller will be enabled and relay
will be operated, making the load of that relay to get ON. If once again key 1 is pressed, then
p1.0 is enabled and relay 1 will be operated, making the load of that relay OFF.

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Fig. 23 IR sensor

The TSOP1736 is a miniaturized sensor for receiving the modulated signal of infrared
remote control systems. A PIN diode and preamplifier are assembled on a lead frame, the epoxy
package is designed as an IR filter. The modulated output signal, Carrier Out, can be used for
code learning applications. This component has not been qualified according to automotive
specifications.

7.2 FEATURES:
>Photo detector and preamplifier in one package
>Ac coupled response from 20 khz-455 k hz. all data formats
>Improved shielding against electrical field disturbance
>TTL and CMOS compatibility
>Output active low
>Supply voltage: 2.7 V to 5.5 V
>Carrier out signal for code learning functions
>Lead (Pb) free component

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APPLICATIONS OF IR REMOTE SWITCH:

1)

It can be used to control the ON and OFF of 5 different devices with the help of a single

remote in homes.
2) It can be used in industries to make the heaters on and off.
3)

With slight modification we can convert this project for power controlling in

industries such as speed control of motors.

4) It can be used in office cabins.
5) It avoids electric shock and gives long life to the loads and switches.etc.

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IC VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant
voltage level.
It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic components
Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
With the exception of passive shunt regulators, all modern electronic voltage regulators
operate by comparing the actual output voltage to some internal fixed reference voltage. Any
difference is amplified and used to control the regulation element in such a way as to reduce the
voltage error. This forms a negative feedback servo control loop; increasing the open-loop gain
tends to increase regulation accuracy but reduce stability (avoidance of oscillation, or ringing
during step changes). There will also be a trade-off between stability and the speed of there
response to changes. If the output voltage is too low (perhaps due to input voltage reducing or
load current increasing), the regulation element is commanded, up to a point, to produce a higher
output voltage - by dropping less of the input voltage (for linear series regulators and buck
switching regulators), or to draw input current for longer periods (boost-type switch
in regulators); if the output voltage is too high, the regulation element will normally be
commanded to produce a lower voltage. However, many regulators have over-current protection,
so that they will entirely stop sourcing current (or limit the current in some way) if the output
current is too high, and some regulators may also shut.

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LED :( LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

LED is a p-n junction device which emits light when forward biased by a phenomenon called
electro luminescence when led is forward biased the electrons and holes move towards the
junction and recombination takes

place as a result of recombination the electrons lying in

the valence band of p-region .the difference energy between conduction band and valence band is
radiated in the form of light energy.
LEDs are always encased to protect their delicate wires then the efficiency of generation
of light increases with the increase in injected current and decrease in temperature. LEDS radiate
different colours such as red, green, yellow, orange and white.
In order to protect led resistance of 1k ohm or 1.5k ohms must be connected inseries with
the led. LEDS emit no light when reverse biased. LEDS operate at voltage levels from1.5 to 3.3
volts and with the current of sum 10s of milliamps. The power requirement istypically from 10
to 150 milli watts. LEDS can be switched on and off at a very fast speed of 1ns.

Fig. 24 LED

ADVANTAGES:23

>The tracking system is not constrained by the geographical location of installation of the solar
panel.
>It is designed for searching the maximum solar irradiance in the whole azimuth and tilt angle.
>The operator interference is minimal because of not needing to be adjusted.

APPLICATIONS:Solar tracking system is used in satellites as a source of fuel.

>It is used in solar thermal collector to collect heat.
>It is used in solar hot water panel that uses the sun's energy to heat a fluid ,which is
used to transfer the heat to a heat storage vessel
>It is used in water heaters.
>It is used in heat exchangers.
>It is used in solar power plants
>It is used for desalination of sea water
>It is used in inverters (AC to DC).
>It is used in solar water pumps

TEST OF SOLAR CAR

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Fig. 25 Test of solar car

Test your car by placing it in bright sunlight, or under a bright (150 watt or greater) light
bulb. The wheels should begin to spin quickly. If the wheels are turning the wrong direction,
switch the wires connected to the motor. This will reverse the direction of the motor. You can
make small adjustments to the angle of the panels, the alignment of the wheels, and the position of
the motor to reduce friction, increase the power from the panels, and improve the speed of your
car.

CONCLUSION
FUTURE OF TRANSPORTATION:
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In the coming decades, transportation in the U.S. is expected to change radically in

response to environmental constraints, fluctuating oil availability and economic factors.
The transportation systems that emerge in the 21st century will be defined largely by the
choices, skills and imaginations of todays youth.
As scientists and engineers, they will develop new vehicle and fuel technologies. As
citizens, they will make decisions balancing mobility, environmental, and economic needs.
> To collect the greatest amount of energy from the sun, solar panels must be aligned orthogonally
to the sun.
> For this purpose, a new

solar tracking technique based

on micro-controller was

implemented and tested in this study.

> There are several new solar cell concepts that aim at making better use of the solar
spectrum and achieve much higher energy conversion efficiencies.

REFERENCES
26

> Encyclopedia.
>http://www.nrel.gov/education/
>Study of electronic components by J.A. Smith (2nd edition) , 1999.
>"Practical Photovoltaic" by Richard Komp PhD,
>Battery Science: Make Widgets That Work. By Doug Stillinger
>Electronic circuit analysis and design by Donald A. Neumann, Mc Grawhill BookCompany,
USA 1996.
>Amplifiers comparators and special functions, Texas instrument, Data book volumeB, Custom
Printing Companys1997.

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