Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
on
ti
olu
Actions
ces
rvi
Jay Haskell
Caracas, Venezuela
Geoff Spalding
Amoco (UK) Exploration Co.
Aberdeen, Scotland
Se
Steve Bartz
Joe M. Mach
Jawaid Saeedi
Houston, Texas, USA
Production
Enhancement
Jeff Spath
Jakarta, Indonesia
Jorge Manrique
Englewood, Colorado, USA
Hemanta Mukherjee
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Tom Olsen
Aberdeen, Scotland
Steve Opsal
Texaco Exploration and Production Inc.
New Orleans, Louisiana
Eduardo Proano
Lafayette, Louisiana
Mark Semmelbeck
Midland, Texas
Oilfield Review
Field support
Field Support
Interpretation,
ID Groupsdevelopment
Area
engineers
Staff
Engineers
Custom-solutions teams
g
d rin
an inee
n
tio ng
uc ir e
od vo
Pr ser
re
Pr
re odu
se c
rv tio
oir n
en and
gi
ne
er
ing
Production Enhancement
Proactiverecognition
Candidate
Candidate Recognition
PEG-PCR
PEGS
DESC-PE
DESC-PE
Winter 1997
PEG Locations
Anchorage
Calgary
Aberdeen
Moscow
Paris
Beijing
Denver
Oklahoma City
Algeria
Midland
Cairo Kazakhstan
New Orleans
Houston
Lafayette
Bangkok
Caracas
Dubai
La Salinas
Maracaibo
Maturin
Tia Juana
Jakarta
Adelaide
The PEG teams. At this time, there are PEG offices located in key markets around the
world and more are planned. Some of these areas, like Venezuela with six in place, have
multiple teams. Proactive integrated efforts by PEG specialists recommend actions to
improve client production without regard to specific company or individual service
considerations within the Schlumberger Oilfield Services group.
Oilfield Review
7500
2400
ft
1200
ft
600 ft
300 ft
5500
4500
of perforations, stimulations, wellhead or separator pressure and tubing or choke sizes. Future pro3500
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
NODAL analysis. The intersection of reservoir IPR and flow-conduit performance curves represents estimated
production rates under specific conditions and pressures. This plot models two surface pressure conditions and
various lateral reentry drilling options.
Flowline
economic models.
Flow conduit
voir pressure defines an IPR curve for fluids flownode facing the reservoir bottomhole pressure
declines as production rates increase.
Starting from the separator and adding pressure
losses encountered in surface pipes and wellbore
tubing gives the pressure for various rates at the
IPR reservoir node. This calculation results in a
Completion
tubing intake, or flow-conduit, curve with bottomhole pressure increasing as production rate
Reservoir
Node
Winter 1997
When operators allow a local PEG to diagnose production gaps and initiate design,
execution and evaluation of services, both
parties focus on production and results. This
unique interaction ensures optimal recommendations to close productivity gaps and
application of the right services. Focusing on
production generates more revenue for both
clients and the service company. In todays
new business relationships, operators are
agreeing to share some of this added value,
and service companies are accepting some
downside risk. Having a vested interest in the
outcome of remedial actions helps the service provider better understand and meet
customer needs and expectations.
Producing Wells
Reser
Potential
Current
PEG
Fl
pe owrfo co
rm nd
an uit
ce
Pressure
voir IP
Productivity gap
Add pay
Reperforate
Acidize
Fracture
Control sand
Rate
to wellbores. Pressure drawdown at the completion is a function of flow rate. Factors that influ-
Oilfield Review
Production Gap
Solutions
Reservoir
performance
Potential
Actual
Perforate
Acidize
Fracture
Drill drainholes
Squeeze cement
Control water and gas
Mitigate fines
Perforate
Reperforate
Acidize
Sand control
Squeeze cement
zone. Poor cement may also allow communicaTools used for evaluation include perforationanalysis programs, saturation logs, ultrasonic
imaging tools, production logs and economic
analysis. Services that improve completion performance include high-performance reperforating,
sand controlgravel or fracture-packing sandcontrol jobs, squeeze cementing and acidizing.
Completion
performance
Sandface drawdown
Flow-conduit performanceWellbore
2 spf
Actual
12 spf
Potential
Flow-conduit
performance
Bottomhole flowing pressure
Actual
Potential
Winter 1997
Artificial-lift
performance
Actual
Bottomhole flowing pressure
Rod pumps
Gas lift
Submersible pumps
Operating conditions
Potential
Flow Rate
The PE opportunity. One way to increase production is by looking where oil and gas have already been found. Existing wells with
gaps in performance are the target of a focused and aggressive initiative to enhance production. The prizemore stock tank barrels of
oil and greater volumes of natural gas.
Production Enhancement
Analyze production
history
Analyze current
performance
Study enhancement
options
Evaluate PE jobs
Oilfield Review
PE Prospecting Methodology
PEG Analysis Function
Field surveillance
Well files
Experience
Identify production
anomalies through
indexing and mapping.
Search through
well information and
production histories.
Identify intuitively
obvious production
performance gaps.
Recommend and
design well testing
or wireline logging.
No
Can
unknown well
parameters be
obtained from iterative
NODAL production
history
matching
?
No
Are
there
sufficient data
in the well
files
?
Yes
Yes
Current performance
Quantify well-performance gaps
Predict maximum production potential
using validated well parameters. Analyze adding pay
zones, reperforating, acidizing, fracturing, reentry drilling,
installing or changing artificial-lift method, and modifying
flow-conduit tubulars or surface facilities.
No
Yes
Does
NODAL
analysis match
existing well
production
?
No
Enhancement options
Is
the well
performance
gap significant
?
Yes
Yes
Is
solution
related solely
to flow-conduit
or artificial lift
?
No
Oilfield Services company or integrated
solutions group designs, implements and
follows up on specific solutions and services.
Post-job evaluation
Winter 1997
Analysis complete.
had been reduced over the life of the field and pro-
m3],
or 24%
10
Oilfield Review
scale dissolver treatments to address barium sulfate deposition in the rock matrix, diverted acid
stimulations to treat calcium-carbonate scale and
fines migration, tip screenout hydraulic fracturing
and short coiled tubing drilled laterals to bypass
skin damage.
Three of the four proposed well interventions to
remove or bypass skinscale inhibitor, acid and
fracturinghave been applied, resulting in significant improvement in well productivity. Prior to
fracturing, one candidate well produced at a rate
of 700 BOPD [111 m3/d]. Three weeks after the
stimulation treatment, the well was producing
about 3200 BOPD [510 m3/d]. Scale dissolver and
acid treatments have also been successful. More
than 500 BOPD [80 m3/d] of additional oil production were realized from one well. The criterion to
begin phase three, a goal of 6000 BOPD incremental production, was achieved and surpassed.
The Amoco and GeoQuest Reservoir Technologies team is revising N.W. Hutton reservoir
descriptions and evaluating development scenarios that will increase the value of this field by
improving productivity. The proposed redevelopment includes production enhancement, well
construction and project management efforts
aimed at improving production and increasing
reserves through application of leading-edge technologies. It will be managed and coordinated by
IPM working in conjunction with the Schlumberger
Oilfield Services companies.
The organization and process were developed
jointly by Amoco and Schlumberger to create an
alliance structure and contractual provisions that
are equitable and beneficial to all parties. The
alliance approves budgets and proposals consistent
with the strategies of both the operator and the service company. Sharing financial risks and rewards
through value-pricing results in a high degree of
alignment between companies and refocuses
efforts and resources on achieving common goals.
1. Comrie P and Olsen T: A Risk Sharing Alliance Breathes
New Life into a Mature North Sea Field, paper SPE 38822,
presented at the 65th SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA, October 5-8, 1997.
Winter 1997
11
to compare actual results to predicted outcomes and carefully analyze the details of
this feedback. Resultssuccesses and failuresare evaluated, reviewed with the
client and then used as additional input in
another cycle of the PEG analysis process.
Out of 100 wells, for example, a PEG
evaluation might find as many as 10 potential candidates. Successful interventions
on these wells may then generate additional
PE opportunities.
The PEG process, which is always applied
one well at a time, is used for individual single-well evaluations, but is perhaps most
successful when employed to analyze
groups of wells or a field. This allows engineers to look at a statistically significant
number of wells, which can compensate for
some unsuccessful jobs and help ensure
overall project success. Wellbore mechanical modifications on some of the wells being
evaluated may also improve production and
contribute to overall production enhancement success.
Integrated Services
Geco-Prakla
Schlumberger
Wireline &
Testing
Dowell
PEG
and client
Anadrill
GeoQuest
Cooperation and
integrated services.
Production enhancement involves a
partnership, or team,
made up of the
client and a local
PEG organization
plus applicable
Oilfield Services
companies. When
coupled with integrated service company advanced
technologies, joint
actions taken by
these groups can
significantly improve
production from
existing wells.
Sedco Forex
Why Proactive?
Candidate recognition performed proactively is the antithesis of chance occurrencewaiting until wells go off line or
drop below economic limits before initiating action. Another reason to take advantage
of PCR is synergy, those actions taken jointly
to increase overall effectiveness beyond the
sum of their individual effects. Production
enhancement efforts create a partnership, or
team, often based on a handshake agreement, consisting of the client and a local
PEG organization working together with
Schlumberger Oilfield Services companies
(above right). Cooperation between these
groups, in concert with advanced technologies and well servicing methods, can be
effectively employed to improve production
from existing wells.
With the exception of tubulars, downhole
equipment and other stock warehouse parts,
Schlumberger provides services from discovery to depletion, including seismic surveying,
data processing and interpretation, drilling,
well logging, perforating, well testing,
cementing, acidizing, fracturing, and coiled
tubing or abandonment services. And many
of these applicationscleaning out fill, perforating or reperforating, logging, interpreting
and evaluating data to find more pay, acidizing to remove damage, fracturing to create
conductive flow paths, water and gas control,
and infill, directional, horizontal or lateral
drillingare directly related to moving IPR
curves and increasing productivity.
12
Oilfield Review
21
Zone
Limited
drainage
area
Lack of
waterflood
Inadequate
stimulation
Injecting
above
fracture
pressure
Poor
artificial-lift
performance
Lower and
Fill across
pay zone
Fractured in
the direction
of another well
Possible
Yes
Comments and PE
recommendations
middle
25
Upper
Yes
36
Upper
Yes
50
Upper
Yes
Replace, resize
rod pump
Yes
Yes
104
Upper
106
Upper
148
Lower
201
Lower
Yes
Yes
Yes
or fracture stimulation
Yes
No additional potential
Possible
Possible
Evaluate stimulation
and middle
204
Lower
Possible
Yes
and middle
evaluate stimulaton
Current production
PEG prediction
NODAL
Wellhead
analysis pressure,
maximum
psig
oil rate, B/D
Target
oil rate,
B/D
Skin
1844
60
250
70
30
20
150
300
120
10
1640
180
250
62
198
25
550
400
10
11
1844
60
250
50
26
44
35
175
300
110
10
21
35
121
175
31
1844
60
250
70
25
Unkown
300
120
10
32
1160
170
375
60
15
30
130
460
110
10
33
1715
226
550
200
194
121
40
310
700
350
15
34
40
117
120
Incremental
oil
production,
B/D
Comments
and
recommendations
700
Action plans. The final product of a PEG analysis is often a simple, one-page list of wells, sometimes in spreadsheet format, with specific
solutions and recommendations about actions, services or integrated applications that need to be performed to enhance production.
Winter 1997
13
14
8%
2%
25%
65%
Reservoir
Completion
Flow conduit
Artificial lift
Typical well candidates. The majority of PE well
interventions in North America fall into the reservoir
and completion performance gap categories.
Oilfield Review
Reservoir surveillance.
Methods like porosity mapping and hydrocarbon
indexing help locate
behind-pipe production
potential in existing fields.
60
50
Unperforated
hydrocarbon
index, ft
40
40+
35 to 40
31 to 35
30
26 to 31
22 to 26
17 to 22
20
13 to 17
8 to 13
10
4 to 8
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
No gas show
5000
5000
New zone
770 Mscf/D
5100
5100
GR
0 API 150 60
SIGM
Finding new pay zones. New formation evaluation techniqueslogs and processing softwarealso locate bypassed
oil and gas. A previously undetected zone produced 770
Mscf/D [22Mscm/d] and paid out in eight days.
Winter 1997
0 API 50 60
SW
PHIC
p.u.
100
75 p.u. 100
PHIT
p.u.
Fluid
Analysis
15
Pressure, psig
3000
Offshore
Louisiana
2000
1000
Productivity gap
0
100
200
300
400
500
Market price
Estimated payout
Market price
plus 30%
Market price
less 20%
Payout time
16
Oilfield Review
NODAL Production
System Analysis Model
10000
7500
2500
Flow conduit
Productivity
gap
0
0
250
500
750
1000
NODAL Production
System Analysis Model
10000
2250
Flow conduit
750
Productivity gap
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Winter 1997
17
NODAL Production
System Analysis Model
WELL: Wilcox
LOCATION: Texas
5000
3750
1250
Productivity gap
0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Production, Mscf/D
2500
2000
Venezuela
1500
1000
500
Productivity gap
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Drilling lateral drainholes. A well in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, had not produced
since 1986 because of mechanical wellbore problemsjunk in the hole. NODAL analysis
predicted 275 BOPD from a 70-ft lateral sidetrack. The well actually produced 250 BOPD
and paid out in 13 months.
18
Oilfield Review
Winter 1997
In most PEG evaluations, the overall reservoir development plan is fixed, but production enhancement may be an integral part of
more extensive reservoir management projects that are directed at optimizing field,
production and reservoir performance. Data
and results from the PE process also provide
insights and input for further detailed reservoir studies and simulation. On larger, complex projects, like the Amoco N.W. Hutton
field, production enhancement during early
stages can jump-start oil and gas production
and boost income to help generate funds for
initial remedial efforts. Efforts to improve
productivity should not be directed solely at
marginal wells, completions on the structural flanks of fields or areas with limited pay
or potential. Like fracture stimulation well
candidates, the best producers often make
the best PE prospects. Each well should be
evaluated to determine if it is producing at its
full potential.
13. Brady B, Elbel J, Mack M, Morales H, Nolte K and
Poe B: Cracking Rock: Progress in Fracture
Treatment Design, Oilfield Review 4, no. 4
(October 1992): 4-17.
Hanna B, Ayoub J and Cooper B: Rewriting the
Rules for High-Permeability Stimulation, Oilfield
Review 4, no. 4 (October 1992): 18-23.
Economides MJ, Hill AD and Ehlig-Economides C:
Petroleum Production Systems. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, USA: PTR Prentice Hall (1994): 421456, 457-494, 495-521.
Armstrong K, Card R, Navarrete R, Nelson E,
Nimerick K, Samuelson M, Collins J, Dumont G,
Priaro M, Wasylycia N and Slusher G: Advanced
Fracturing Fluids Improve Well Economics, Oilfield
Review 7, no. 3 (Autumn 1995): 34-51.
Chase B, Chmilowski W, Marcinew R, Mitchell C,
Dang Y, Krauss K, Nelson E, Lantz T, Parham C and
Plummer J: Clear Fracturing Fluids for Increased
Well Productivity, Oilfield Review 9, no. 3 (Autumn
1997): 20-33.
14. Hill D, Neme E, Ehlig-Economides C and Mollinedo
M: Reentry Drilling Gives New Life to Aging Fields,
Oilfield Review 8, no. 3 (Autumn 1996): 4-17.
15. Ackers M, Doremus D and Newman K: An Early
Look at Coiled-Tubing Drilling, Oilfield Review 4,
no. 3 (July 1992): 45-51.
Bigio D, Rike A, Christensen A, Collins J, Hardman
D, Doremus D, Tracy P, Glass G, Joergensen NB and
Stephens D: Coiled Tubing Takes Center Stage,
Oilfield Review 6, no. 4 (October 1994): 9-23.
16. Baker A, Gaskell J, Jeffery J, Thomas A, Veneruso T
and Unneland T: Permanent MonitoringLooking
at Lifetime Reservoir Dynamics, Oilfield Review 7,
no. 4 (Winter 1995): 32-46.
Beham R, Brown A, Mottershead C, Whitgift J, Cross
J, Desroches L, Espeland J, Greenberg M, Haines P,
Landgren K, Layrisse I, Lugo J, Morean O, Ochoa E,
ONeill D and Sledz J: Changing the Shape of E&P
Data Management, Oilfield Review 9, no. 2
(Summer 1997): 21-33.
Arango G, Colley N, Connelly C, Greenes K, Pearse
K, Denis J, Highnam P, Durbec C, Gutman L, Sims
D, Jardine S, Jervis T, Smith R and Miles R: Whats
in IT for Us? Oilfield Review 9, no. 3 (Autumn 1997):
2-19.
19
Schlumberger
Products
and
services
Cost
Price
Sales
Customers
Value pricing
Schlumberger
Clients
Production
enhancement
opportunities
Customized
products
and
integrated
solutions
Costs versus solutions. Value pricing moves customers and solutions forward in the service
process. Customized solutions emphasize production not low-bid jobs and can generate
greater value for both operators and an integrated service provider like Schlumberger.
Estimated production
enhancement target
Service revenue
Risk risk-share
cap
Reward
cap
Baseline or
minimum production
Production revenue
Added value
Compensation for services
Sharing risk and value. In value-pricing arrangements, operators share the rewards,
up to a cap, from projects that enhance production, add reserves, improve efficiency or
increase service quality. For risking some service revenue, down to a limit, Schlumberger
gets a fair share of this value. Value pricing makes sense if customized solutions, differentiated from other products and services, deliver measurable savings or increased revenue.
20
Oilfield Review
Incremental production
0 to 10
MR x 0.25
11 to 20
MR
21 to 50
MR x 1.25
51 to 80
MR x 1.5
Field support
81 to 100
MR x 1.75
101 to 150
MR x 2.0
MR x [Qs/Qi]
Field
Well
Individual services
Value-based pricing and contingent payment philosophies help buyers and service
providers think, act and make decisions in
terms of value rather than price, and therefore concentrate on optimum solutions and
results instead of the lowest price tools and
services. When Schlumberger as an integrated service company is given the task of
helping operators achieve a target incremental production, NPV or return-on-investment
(ROI) in exchange for a fair share of incremental production, costs are more effectively
turned into revenue. The result is a new focus
on the outcome, production to be generated
and value that is provided instead of the cost,
or expense, of services. Focusing on production generates more revenue and, as a result,
additional value for both the client and the
integrated service company.
The service sector, now more than ever, is
able to assume more responsibility for production operations. A complete range of
Schlumberger service capabilities is available to deliver customized solutions, and
manage well construction, production
enhancement interventions, field operations,
major projects and reservoir performance
(above right). But the blurring of traditional
boundaries between clients and service
providers can be complicated. Schlumberger
believes that service companies should be
independent, maintaining consistent relationships with all clients. Actions that might
result in overlap, confusion and potential
conflicts of interest are avoided even when
sharing risks and rewards.
Winter 1997
Candidate recognition
PEGPCR
DESCPE
Reservoir studies
Well studies
Reservoir studies
Field studies
Reservoir management
Integrated project management
Integrated reservoir optimization
Integrated
solutions
21
Interactive Exploration
Operating companies can now monitor from afar the progress of their
seismic data acquisition and processing projects on a daily basis.
Through advances in secure computer network access, the search
for hydrocarbons is approaching a level of interactivity that allows
oil company experts to virtually participate in the acquisition and
processing of their data in real time from the comfort of their offices.
Dilip Bhatt
John Kingston
Gatwick, England
Helge Bragstad
Asker, Norway
Dennis ONeill
Houston, Texas, USA
22
Oilfield Review
Winter 1997
23
Source
positions
Bin
Receivers
Reflection
points
Covering the target. The surface overlying the target is divided into bins. The number of
reflection points that project up into a bin is tallied and called the coverage; often the term
fold is also used to denote coverage.
Until a well is drilled, the most reliable information available for identifying targets is
gleaned from seismic data. Getting a highquality seismic survey at a cost-effective
price is crucial. To achieve this, operators
need details about survey progress during
seismic acquisition, whether on land or at
sea. This may be for health, safety and environmental reasons, contract conditions, or
24
Oilfield Review
Velocity analysis
coherence plot. As
part of stacking, a
velocity function
that varies with
depth is applied to
seismic traces. If the
velocity function is
the correct one, the
traces will line up,
and exhibit coherence, or similarity,
from one to the
next. A mathematical expression for
coherence is plotted
here in velocity
(horizontal axis)
versus two-way
travel time (vertical
axis). Blue signifies
low coherence, yellow is intermediate
and red is high. The
velocity function
that gives the best
stack is plotted as a
yellow step-like line.
Winter 1997
Velocity
25
Real-time seismic acquisition and processing project monitoring with secure access. The
Web-based SuperVision service encourages interactive exploration by providing up-to-date
information on project status while preventing unauthorized access.
Fire wall
Extending client connectivity with the SuperVision system. Seismic data from acquisition units (left) are transferred on internal Web servers
to data-processing centers on the Schlumberger intranet. Data are then archived on a TWS Trusted Web Service server. To access data, oil
companies (right) may use the Internet or direct ISDN lines, following strict authentication measures to access the TWS server.
26
Oilfield Review
Party chiefs log from an XYZ Oil Company survey. The SuperVision system allows up-to-the-minute checks on
acquisition status as well as a complete archive of all survey activity.
The TWS service relies on three technologiesfire wall, Netscape Enterprise server
and secure socket layerto ensure properly
controlled connectivity. The fire wall restricts
physical access and monitors traffic to detect
unauthorized access attempts. It also restricts
the electronic communication between two
different machines, or Internet protocol (IP)
addresses, to a certain class of conversations,
or port numbers. For example, machine A
might be allowed to access Web pages on
machine B, but not be able to do a remote
login. The Netscape Enterprise server manages access control. The secure socket layer
manages certified access and relies on public key encryption, digital certificates and
personal smart cards to assure security.3
Digital certification for access to the
Geco-Prakla TWS server is administered by
trusted third-party authorities called certificate authorities.
Winter 1997
27
Interactive coverage plot. On the main screen, each traverse of the vessel appears as a colored, vertical
swath. Black indicates full coverage and lighter colors show lower coverage. White areas in the middle
of a black area are gaps in coverage created by obstacles in the survey area. The inset panel describes
in more detail the four vertical subdivisions of each swath. The leftmost division of any swath shows the
coverage for the near-offset traces, with offsets between 180 and 1630 m. The second division gives
coverage for the near-to-mid offsets, from 1630 to 3080 m. The mid-to-far offsets (3080 to 4530 m) follow,
and the rightmost division shows coverage for the far offsets (4530 to 6100 m).
28
As a type of page, the coverage plot is completely different from the party chiefs log
because users can interact with it. Coverage,
or the number of shots hitting a bin, is computed and plotted for a streamer offset range.
But the coverage could also be plotted for a
different offset range using the same data.
From the SuperVision coverage plot, a new
offset range can be selected, and a new plot
generated. This interactive feature sets the
SuperVision project monitoring service apart
from any fax or hard-copy delivery method.
A third type of acquisition project monitoring page available on the SuperVision system
is the real-time quality control plot (next
page, top). The graphs in this example track
signal quality recorded in the streamer being
towed on the port side of the vessel, and
indicate shot points for which parameters
selected in the survey planning stage exceed
a prescribed value. The culprit in this case is
a noise level spike just before shotpoint
number 2600.
Oilfield Review
Exceptions to the
rule. When survey
noise parameters
exceed established
thresholds, a QQA
Quantified Quality
Assurance exception
report is generated.
In this case, the
signal quality
recorded in the port
streamer shows a
noise level spike
(center panel) near
shotpoint 2600.
Winter 1997
29
SuperVision page houses a record of velocity-analysis panels, and updates the archive
with all communications and data analyses
pertaining to the velocities that will be used
for stacking and migration (next page). The
multipanel display is standard output from
the Geco-Prakla SEISMOS data-processing
system. The velocity-depth panel on the left
shows coherence maxima picked as blue,
red and black squares. The center panel plots
the seismic data with the current velocity
field applied. The seven panels on the right
show the results of applying seven different
constant-velocity fields to the data.
The Vision
Tracking processing status. This report gives an overview of the processing project, including tasks in
chronological order, the time allotted for completion, and a look ahead at meetings and other milestones.
30
Oilfield Review
From velocity analysis. The multipanel display is standard output from the Geco-Prakla SEISMOS data-processing
system. The velocity and travel time panel on the left, which appeared earlier on page 25 shows coherence maxima
picked as blue, red and black squares. The center panel plots the seismic data with the current velocity field applied.
The seven panels on the right show the results of applying seven different constant-velocity fields to the data.
Winter 1997
dreds of gigabytes are not suitable for delivery to the oil company interpreters desktop
PC. But through the SuperVision page, for
example, a request can be made for the data
to be delivered through a different path to a
large machine down the hall, with the option
of using high-fidelity compression techniques to shorten transmission times.
31
Extended-Reach Drilling:
Breaking the 10-km Barrier
Frank Allen
Paul Tooms
BP Exploration Operating Co. Ltd.
Poole, England
Greg Conran
Poole, England
Bill Lesso
Patrick Van de Slijke
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Lesley
Brown, Susan Caito and John Minge, BP Exploration
Operating Co. Ltd., Poole, England; John Gammage,
Deutag Drilling, Poole, England; Dave Bergt, Jim Jares,
Toni Marszalek, Charlie Pratten and David White,
Anadrill, Sugar Land, Texas, USA; Mike Williams,
Anadrill, Poole, England; and Ty Rivet, Anadrill,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
ADN (Azimuthal Density Neutron), CDR
(Compensated Dual Resistivity) and GeoSteering are
marks of Schlumberger.
32
Oilfield Review
Winter 1997
33
Rank
Horizontal
Measured
displacement, ft depth, ft
TVD, ft
Operator
Well
Location
1*
33,182
34,967
5266
BP
M-11
2*
26,446
30,308
9554
Phillips
Xijiang 24-3
3*
26,361
28,593
5285
BP
M-05
25,764
30,600
NA
Norsk Hydro
30/6 C-26
North Sea
5*
25,108
27,241
NA
BP
M-09
6*
23,917
28,743
9147
Statoil
33/9 C-2
North Sea
7*
22,369
24,442
NA
BP
M-03
8*
22,180
24,680
5243
BP
M-02
21,490
26,509
NA
Norsk Hydro
30/6 B-34
North Sea
10*
21,289
25,991
NA
Norsk Hydro
30/6 C-17
North Sea
11
20,966
24,670
9076
Amoco
SEER T-12
North Sea
12*
20,577
21,102
NA
Norsk Hydro
31/4 A-8A
North Sea
13*
20,577
25,010
NA
Norsk Hydro
30/9 B-30
North Sea
14*
20,514
22,907
5528
Total Austral
ARA S7/1
15
20,289
25,164
NA
Norsk Hydro
30/6 B-6
North Sea
16*
20,151
25,541
NA
Norsk Hydro
30/6 C-24A
North Sea
17*
19,667
22,559
5324
BP
M-06
18
19,209
23,786
8845
Statoil
33/9 C-3
North Sea
19*
19,030
23,835
NA
Norsk Hydro
30/9 B-48
North Sea
20*
18,758
24,540
13,940
BP
2/1 A-13
North Sea
Wytch Farm
M-05
1000
TVD, m
2000
Wytch Farm
M-11
Wytch Farm
M-09
3000
4000
5000
6000
Standard technology
Advanced technology
7000
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000
11,000
Measured depth, m
Industry comparison of extended-reach wells. What was once considered the envelope of extended-reach drilling now merely indicates
the difference between standard and advanced technology. That envelope continuously enlarges as companies push technology to the
limit.
34
Oilfield Review
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
Offshore
Sherwood
40
30
Onshore
Sherwood
20
10
Bridport
0
1975
1985
1980
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
Island concept
Hook Island
Poole Harbor
Sea level
Sherwood reservoir
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
Extended-reach well
Sherwood reservoir
1000
2000
Departure, m
Artificial island development concept. The original proposal for development of the offshore reserves called for construction of an artificial island and simple directional wells.
Instead, extended-reach wells were chosen because there would be less impact on the
environment and development would cost less than half and occur three years earlier.
Winter 1997
35
10 km
Bournemouth
9 km
Poole
8 km
7 km
6 km
Poole Harbor
5 km
M-11
M-01
M-05
M-08
F-20
B1
B2
Gathering station
F-18
M-02
M-03
M-09
F-19
M-07
M-10
F-21
M-06
Purbec
London
Poole
Wellsite M
West
Sea level
185/8-in. casing
at 232 m MD
133/8-in. casing
at 1329 m MD
TVD subsea, m
500
1000
Mercia mudstone
N or
ne
Ar
fa
u lt
t h er
n fa u
lt
1500
Sherwood sandstone
Aylesbere group
2000
Geological cross section. The worlds longest extended-reach well has a stepout of 10,114 m and a total measured depth of 10,658 m.
36
Oilfield Review
Wireline & Testing supplied openhole logging services, cased-hole logging services,
drillstem test and tubing-conveyed perforating and well testing; and Dowell supplied
coiled tubing services.
The focus during the early part of the third
stage of development was to build multidisciplinary teams, with contractors working in
close proximity to the operators staff.
Contractor senior representatives have
offices close to one another within the operators office complex in Poole. This setup fosters a close but informal roundtable
arrangement. Communication barriers have
disappeared, and everyone on the project
has the same goalsto drill the wells efficiently, correctly and economically.
Decisions are made and involve both the
operator and contractors. For such a system
to work effectively, a high degree of trust and
openness is necessary among personnel of
all rank. This working environment has provided the opportunity to obtain excellent
benchmark data for drilling subsequent
extended-reach wells, leading to the recordsetting 10-km target.
At the onset of third-stage development,
two of the least known factors were the
increased time and cost for extended-reach
compared to conventional wells. Typically,
the first one or two wells of any project incur
the greatest time and cost as the learning
curve begins. Efficiency and performance
improve rapidly on subsequent wells as team
members work together more efficiently, and
technology is applied more effectively.
Generally, each well at Wytch Farm has been
drilled farther than the previous wells, allowing for incremental learning through experience. Had such an incremental learning
process not been used, many problems
would undoubtedly have occurred on the
M-11 well.
Every aspect of the M-11 well plan underwent a rigorous peer review to identify potential pitfalls and develop contingency plans.
Experts from BP and its partners thoroughly
analyzed key risks and processes in reservoir
issues, well placement, drilling mechanics,
hydraulics and safety. Having outsiders analyze the well plan provided a useful check
against existing contingency plans.
Profile Design
10 km
East
Tertiary group
Chalk group
Mercia mudstone
Sherwood sandstone
Aylesbere group
Winter 1997
7-in. casing
at 8881 m MD
51/2-in. liner
10655 m
M-11y
TD 10658 m
1585.2 m TVDSS
37
3D seismic
survey
1550
1560
1570
TVD subsea, m
1580
Sherwood zone
thickness
Zone
10
20
30
40
50
60
5.5 m
Absent
2.8 m
5.5 to 8 m
7.1 m
5.5 m
1590
1600
1610
Stratigraphic dip
0.4 west
Casing shoe
Mercia mudstone
20 m Standoff
Estimated present
oil-water contact
at 1621 m TVDSS
Zone 10
Zone 30
Zone 40
M-11y
kickoff
point
Zone 50
Zone 60
1620
1630
Stratigraphic dip
4 west
Original oil-water
contact at
1623 m TVDSS
Zone 70
1640
8000
8100
8200
38
8300
8400
8500
8600
Because steering capability would be limited, Well M-11 was designed to be drilled as
geometrically as possible through the reservoir, with some geosteering performed by
rotary steering drilling tools.
The key to success would be performing
every phase of the well plan flawlessly.
Directional control, hole cleaning, torque
and drag, and casing flotation each played a
role. The rest of this article describes how
they come together in the drilling of this
record-setting 10-km well.
Directional Control
8700
8800
8900
Oilfield Review
9000
2D seismic
survey
M-11z Trajectory
M-11y Sidetrack drilled
Stratigraphic dip
1 east
Fault throw 7.6 m
9200
9300
9400
9500
9600
9700
9800
9900
10,000
10,100
10,200
Horizontal departure, m
Sidetrack cross section. When the original borehole (M-11z) reached 9 km, the well was sidetracked to access a better part of the reservoir. The sidetracked lower bore (M-11y) was cased and completed, and the upper borehole left open. The tip of the well veers upward
to stay away from the oil-water contact and to penetrate additional formation layers for added geological information.
20
18
Rotary
Sliding
16
9100
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
8500
9000
Measured depth, m
Rotary and sliding penetration rates. In offset Well M-05, rotary drilling penetration
rates were several times greater than slide-drilling penetration rates. Conventional slide
drilling techniques were ineffective at extreme stepout distances because of difficulty
controlling downhole torque and weight on bit.
Winter 1997
39
40
Oilfield Review
ADN
Azimuthal Density
Neutron tool
Density and
porosity
MWD
Inclination,
azimuth
and shocks
CDR
Compensated
Dual Resistivity tool
Resistivity and
gamma ray
0.75
bend
GeoSteering tool,
motor, inclination,
resistivity and gamma ray
GeoSteering assembly. The Anadrill GeoSteering tool was used to drill the 81/2-in. reservoir sections of early Wytch Farm wells and to
drill out past the 9 5/8-in. casing shoe of Well M-11. This BHA configuration included a variable-gauge stabilizer to steer the well. Mud
pulses adjust the stabilizer blades in or out to alter the inclination of the assembly.
Winter 1997
41
ADN
Azimuthal Density
Neutron tool
Density and
porosity
CDR
Compensated
Dual Resistivity
tool
Dual resistivity,
gamma ray and
annular pressure
Stabilizer
MWD
Stabilizer
Downhole
weight on bit,
downhole torque,
multi-axis shocks and
directional information
Steerable rotary
drilling tool
Steerable rotary assembly. A BHA with a steerable rotary drilling tool was the primary directional system for most of the 12 1/4-in.
and 81/2-in. sections of Well M-11. The CDR tool was incorporated into the BHA design during the latter part of the 12 1/4-in. section to
help identify the top of the reservoir and determine the 9 5/8-in. casing seat.
42
Oilfield Review
Winter 1997
shakers. One of these shale shakers was outfitted with larger-mesh screens to salvage
and reuse lost-circulation material. Two centrifuges, in line after the shakers, removed
fine low-gravity solids.
Pipe rotation is another critical factor in
hole cleaning. The objective of the holecleaning program is to improve drilling performance by avoiding stuck pipe, avoiding
tight hole on connections and trips, maximizing the footage drilled between wiper
trips, eliminating backreaming trips prior to
reaching the casing point and maximizing
daily drilling progress.20 The more an
extended-reach well can be drilled in the
rotary mode instead of sliding, the better the
hole cleaning. Pipe rotation helps prevent
cuttings from accumulating around stabilizers, drillpipe protectors and tool joints.
Rotating pipe helps disturb any cuttings that
may settle to the low side of the wellbore,
keeping the cuttings suspended in and transported by the mud. Faster rotational speeds
of the pipe improve hole cleaning, but there
are some drawbacks to very high rotational
speeds. Although good for hole cleaning,
excessive rotational speed can increase the
severity of downhole vibration and shocks,
putting directional drilling and LWD equipment at electronic and mechanical risk.
Furthermore, excessive rotary speeds may
increase drillpipe and casing wear.
14. Bruce et al, reference 9.
15. Odell AC, Payne ML and Cocking DA: Application
of a Highly Variable Gauge Stabilizer at Wytch Farm
to Extend the ERD Envelope, paper SPE 30462, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, October 22-25,
1995.
16. Poli et al, reference 10.
17. Barr JD, Clegg JM and Russell MK: Steerable Rotary
Drilling with an Experimental System, paper
SPE/IADC 29382, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February
28-March 2, 1995.
18. Payne ML, Wilton BS and Ramos GG: Recent
Advances and Emerging Technologies for Extended
Reach Drilling, paper SPE 29920, presented at the
International Meeting on Petroleum Engineering,
Beijing, China, November 14-17, 1995.
19. Gammage JH, Modi S and Klop GW: Beyond 8km
Departure Wells: The Necessary Rig & Equipment,
paper SPE/IADC 37600, presented at the SPE/IADC
Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
March 4-6, 1997.
20. Guild GJ, Wallace IM and Wassenborg MJ: Hole
Cleaning Program for Extended Reach Wells, paper
SPE/IADC 29381, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February
28-March 2, 1995.
Lockett TJ, Richardson SM and Worraker WJ: The
Importance of Rotation Effects for Efficient Cuttings
Removal During Drilling, paper SPE/IADC 25768,
presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February 23-25, 1993.
43
140
Hook load
Weight on bit
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
Measured depth, m
Hook load during slide drilling the 121/4-in. section of Well M-11. The hook load during
slide drilling followed the expected trend (parallel black lines) down to 6000 m measured depth. After this depth, there was considerable gain in hook load. Beyond 8000 m,
applying weight on bit during slide drilling was difficult, if not impossible. Drilling past
this measured depth therefore required rotation to overcome friction and allow weight to
be transferred to the bit.
S u r f a c e t o rq u e , t h o u s a n d f t - l b f
B i t t o rq u e , t h o u s a n d f t - l b f
35
M-09 surface torque
M-11 surface torque
M-11z surface torque
M-11z bit torque
30
25
20
15
10
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
Measured depth, m
Torque during rotary drilling of the 121/4-in. section of Well M-11. The parallel lines
indicate the torque trend predicted for the M-11 121/4-in. section. The recorded surface
torque matched the prediction quite accurately.
44
Oilfield Review
45
10-km well
section at
total depth
40
35
30
25
F-19
F-21
M-03
M-05
M-08
M-09
20
15
10
5
0
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10,000
11,000
Measured depth, m
Surface torque during reservoir drilling. Modeling the actual surface torque in the 81/2-in.
sections of offset wells produced reasonable estimates of the expected torque at 10-km.
The predicted torque range at 10 km reaches the upper limit of the top-drive capacity.
Winter 1997
45
200
180
Hook load
Hook load, thousand ft-lbf
Weight on bit, thousand ft-lbf
160
140
Casing Flotation
120
100
80
60
40
Weight on bit
20
0
9000
9200
9400
9600
9800
10,000
10,200
10,400
10,600
10,800
Measured depth, m
Hook load and weight on bit in the 81/2-in. section of Well M-11. During rotary drilling
the 81/2-in. section, the hook load decreased slightly while still maintaining effective
weight on bit. Rotating the pipe lowered friction factors and helped keep the hole clean
to allow successful drilling past 10 km.
50
45
40
Surface
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
Bit
0
9000
9200
9400
9600
9800
10,000
10,200
10,400
10,600
10,800
Measured depth, m
Torque in the 81/2-in. section of Well M-11. Bit torque remained relatively stable
throughout the 81/2-in. reservoir section. The surface torque showed some fluctuation
but remained within the range predicted (parallel black lines) by torque and drag simulators.
46
Oilfield Review
Mud
also rotated at various times during the operation. Rotating the casing on Well M-08 was
merely a test of the procedures before they
had to be used on Well M-11. Once the casing begins to float in the well, the actual
torque required for rotation is small. In fact,
the actual running weight and torque closely
matched predicted values, proving that these
techniques could be used effectively on the
extreme-departure well.
This flotation method was used again on
Well M-09 to run 958-in. casing to 6580 m
[21,589 ft]. This flotation method was eventually deployed on Well M-11 to run 958-in.
casing to 8890 m [29,162 ft] measured depth
(below). The casing was floated to 7080 m
[23,228 ft] prior to installation of the flotation
collar. The casing was run into the openhole
for another 20 stands prior to filling the upper
section of casing to achieve the additional
running weight.
To handle positive casing buoyancy safely, a
push-tool was installed below the topdrive on
the rig. This tool engaged over the box connection of the casing and allowed the full
weight of the topdrive and blocks to be
95/8-in. casing
Air
Partially floated 9 5 8 -in. casing. Casing flotation experiments on Wells M-03, M-08 and
M-09 proved the concept for the extreme test in Well M-11. The bottom section of casing,
containing air, remained neutrally buoyant to allow the casing to slide more easily
along the well path. The mud-filled upper section provided the weight necessary to push
the entire string to bottom. Once the casing was landed, pump pressure was applied to
shear the plugs in the flotation collars and allow circulation.
Winter 1997
47
Jack Caldwell
Abu Chowdhury
Peter van Bemmel
Houston, Texas, USA
Folke Engelmark
Lars Sonneland
Stavanger, Norway
Norman S. Neidell
Zydeco Energy, Inc.
Houston, Texas
48
There was a time when exploration consisted simply of following surface signs such
as seeps, creek beds and salt domes, and
drilling where the party boss poked his stick;
but those days are gone. Petroleum seismology has revolutionized the search for hydrocarbons and brought about a period of
remarkable discoveries. Seismic exploration
has expanded dramatically with the tandem
advent of 3D seismic technology and powerful computer capabilities. Exploration has
been a race at sea and on land for ever
greater efficiency. The current limits of contemporary technology were apparently
reached last year, however. In marine seismic acquisition, eight streamers formed
750-meter [2460-ft] wide swaths and
10,000-meter [32,800-ft] offsets, and in land
seismic acquisition, very large-channel
capacity, 24-bit recording systems and
three-component sensors were employed.
Computing power has also grown exponentially, with massively parallel computers
such as the CM-5 (576 nodes and over
74 gigaflops of power) cutting processing
time to a tenth of what it was just ten
years ago. Sophisticated software systems
are now integrating the process flow so
seamlessly that engineering, petrophysical,
geological and geophysical data can be
merged at the explorationists workstation to
facilitate interpretation.
Oilfield Review
Winter 1997
49
50
Bright spot in the seismic record. A bright spot anomaly is a high-amplitude seismic
event. On the left panel, the bright spot shows up in the center as a black reflection of
positive amplitudes. On the right panel, the same bright spot shows up as a seismic
attribute, here in pink and red.
A channel-formed stratigraphic trap, the Flounder formation, in Gippsland basin, offshore Australia with diagnostic features indicated. Note the sigmoid pattern, the truncated
seismic events (arrow) indicative of an unconformity, and the amplitude changes from
one trace to another (between the chevrons).
Oilfield Review
Structural
Fold
Fault
Stratigraphic
ther from structural traps.1 Structural traps, conversely, are usually formed by tectonic forces after
sedimentary rocks are deposited and include anticlines or folds and faults (right).
Stratigraphic traps include pinchouts, in which a
lens of permeable sand is surrounded by less permeable silts and clays. These form in both land and
submarine stream environments. Here sand
Pinchout
Reef
Unconformity
Types of Traps. Structural traps are generally classified as either anticlines or folds, or faults. Stratigraphic traps are
generally categorized as pinchouts, unconformities and reefs.
rises. Unconformities represent a gap in the geological record due to erosion, nondeposition, or both
(right). The reservoir seal may be created by alteration of the exposed portion of the reservoir rock
Deposition
Uplift
Angular unconformity
The development of an unconformity. An unconformity is typically created through a process of deposition, uplift and
titling, erosion and redeposition.
Winter 1997
51
Synthetics for a survey design in the Gulf of Mexico. A synthetic seismogram shows the
correlation between log and seismic data and can indicate how well a stratigraphic target will be mapped. Here the most important tracks are tracks 3 and 4, representing the
synthetic and the seismic data (repeated for clarity). The impedance log in track 2 is
created from the velocity log in track 1 and the density log in track 8. Track 6 indicates
the semblance, or accuracy, of the match between the synthetic and seismic data, with
green representing high semblance. Track 5 is the recorded seismic line and includes the
well trajectory (vertical red line)which missed both red bright spots. SP and porosity
logs are shown in tracks 7 and 8, respectively.
52
Oilfield Review
A wide array acquisition. Back deck of the seismic acquisition vessel Geco
Topaz conducting a survey with a wide array of long streamers.
Winter 1997
53
54
(S waves).
increases.1
Oilfield Review
Gas
S wave
P wave
CMP
P wave
S wave
CCP
P-S
5000
7000
P-P
3000
4000
Shot
Receiver
Boat heading
1.4 km
Receiver
Shot
Imaging through gas with shear waves. The lower panel shows an image created by migrating P-P CMP-stacked
seismic data. The center of the image is weak and disrupted by a gas cloud obscuring the crest of the structure. The
top panel shows migrated P-P CCP-stacked data. The reflectors are clearly imaged all the way across the panel.
Winter 1997
55
Raw data
Data migration
3D cube reprocessing:
Enhanced frequency content
3D cube reprocessing:
Improved vertical resolution
3D cube inversion
Oblique
Complex oblique
Sigmoid
Complex
sigmoid-oblique
Oblique (parallel)
Shingled
Sigmoid
offlap
Aggradational
offlap
Shelf
edge Oblique
offlap
Shelf
edge
Channel-overbank
complex
Drape
Toplap
Sequence
boundary
Onlap
Downlap
Downlap surface
56
Slope
front fill
Mound
Onlap
Truncation
Sequence
boundary
Apparent
truncation
Apparent
truncation
Depositional and termination patterns. Types of depositional and termination patterns sought in seismic
data indicative of stratigraphic traps,
including discontinuities.
[After Visher, reference 9, main text.]
Oilfield Review
Winter 1997
Terminations. Both top and base of a submarine fan system in the Gulf of Mexico
have been interpreted. The customized color bar at the lower right of this seismic display emphasizes the high amplitudes of the gas-bearing fan sand at the center of the
screen. The gamma ray log curve (yellow line) is interpreted to present a submarine
fan system. Termination of the fan system is represented by the edges of the black
bright spot within the red and blue layers. The sand thickness decreases below seismic
resolution near the edges.
57
Offset
Voxel cube. Volume cell, or voxel interpretation of a 3D survey from the Gulf of Mexico
with GeoViz software. The voxel interpretation in red highlights the distribution of a particular seismic attribute, or characteristic, that maps the extent of a bright spot.
58
Oilfield Review
Winter 1997
One useful attribute in identifying stratigraphic traps in 3D seismic data is amplitude versus azimuth, an aspect of anisotropy
that combines both travel time and amplitude information and can indicate appropriate hydrocarbon reservoirs by whether the
unit has closure and whether its amplitude
is dim in the updip direction. Another use,
in mapping fracture zones, from which primary production often comes, is that it indicates areas of weakened amplitude, which
is caused by a poor coupling of S waves
across fractures. Azimuthal coverage is typically 360 in a 4C survey, thus assuring the
acquisition of this key attribute.
Accurate velocity measurement is also
essential to correctly interpreting structures
as stratigraphic traps, and particularly in
gauging variations in the recorded velocities.
Incorrect analysis can result from following
the wrong reflecting wavelet. If the medium
is 4C 3D seismic data, the measurement of
shear information is much more reliable,
permitting the use of the anisotropic effect
and identification of both the P-wave layer
velocity and the S-wave layer velocity, and
adding to the discrimination power with
respect to different lithologies, pore fluids
and abnormal pressure regimes.
Although amplitude and velocity are integral to an accurate interpretation of 3D seismic data, different attributes are important
in different aspects of the interpretation process. To determine which are more important, discrimination analysis is undertaken
by compressing the seismic data into a set
of attributes that might be relevant for the
particular problem that has been identified,
in this case the discovery of stratigraphic
traps. From these attributes, a set of attribute
transformations is selected.10
In what is called attribute space in the
model, points are defined for each position
with several attribute values. These can be
thought of as clusters. Separations between
the clusters permit discrimination, because
they show that there is no overlap between
the two classes of attributes. If, for example,
there are only two attributes, the attribute
space is two-dimensional and appears as a
crossplot, with each of the axes in that crossplot now an attribute parameter. If there are
two separate clusters in that crossplot, then
59
Coherence Technology
during the interpretation to further reveal the stratigraphic trap (below right). A nontraditional procedure,
Coherence processing
reflections, but for imaging discontinuities by analyzing waveform similarity (below). Traces that are similar to each other are mapped with high-coherence
coefficients, and when similarities end, discontinuities
may be inferred. As a consequence, when visualized
in a 3D volume or cube, coherence coefficients
enhance the detection and understanding of stratigraphic features (as well as faults) that are often not
visible in traditionally processed data.
Stratigraphic features are frequently difficult to see
in seismic data due to the low level or chaotic nature
of the seismic reflections they provide. Coherence
Multiple images of a subtle channel processed for coherence. What appears to be a barely perceptible, low-amplitude
body in the black and white section of stacked data is revealed by Coherence processing (right) to be a subtle submarine channel, with its trend and areal extent (red arrow) clearly visible. (Images courtesy of
Coherence Technology Co.)
Coherence Cube
Conventional
seismic data
High-Coherence Event
2000
Low-Coherence Event
2500
High- and low-coherence events. In a high-coherence event (top), waveforms are similar from trace to trace. In a low-coherence event (bottom),
waveforms are disimilar. (Images courtesy of Coherence
Technology Co.)
3000
3500
4000
High coherence
Low coherence
Integration of conventional seismic line with Coherence Cube (Created by Coherence Technology Co. using GeoViz software from GeoQuest). Zones of low coherence (black) are interpreted as discontinuities.
60
Oilfield Review
Offse
stratigraphic (and structural) traps that were not visible with traditional procedures. Estimates of 3D
dimensional seismic coherence are obtained by calculating localized waveforms within the regular grid
of a 3D seismic dataset. A sharp discontinuity is produced by stratigraphic boundaries.
Horizon slice. GeoViz 3D workspace showing horizon and surface slicing, which
allows detection of pay sands adjacent to a horizon or surface. High relative
amplitudes are shown in red and yellow.
Winter 1997
61