468

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

The main factors to be considered when selecting equipment for crushing and grinding
are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The size of the feed.

The size reduction ratio.
The required particle size distribution of the product.
The throughput.
The properties of the material: hardness, abrasiveness, stickiness, density, toxicity,
flammability.
6. Whether wet grinding is permissible.

The selection guides given by Lowrison (1974) and Marshall (1974), which are reproduced in Tables 10.12 (see p. 465) and 10.13, can be used to make a preliminary selection
based on particle size and material hardness. Descriptions of most of the equipment listed
in these tables are given in Volume 2, Chapter 2; or can be found in the literature; Perry
et al. (1997), Hiorns (1970), Lowrison (1974). The most commonly used equipment for
coarse size reduction are jaw crushers and rotary crushers; and for grinding, ball mills or
their variants: pebble, roll and tube mills.

10.11. MIXING EQUIPMENT

The preparation of mixtures of solids, liquids and gases is an essential part of most
production processes in the chemical and allied industries; covering all processing stages,
from the preparation of reagents through to the final blending of products. The equipment
used depends on the nature of the materials and the degree of mixing required. Mixing
is often associated with other operations, such as reaction and heat transfer. Liquid and
solids mixing operations are frequently carried out as batch processes.
In this section, mixing processes will be considered under three separate headings:
gases, liquids and solids.

10.11.1. Gas mixing

Specialised equipment is seldom needed for mixing gases, which because of their low
viscosities mix easily. The mixing given by turbulent flow in a length of pipe is usually
sufficient for most purposes. Turbulence promoters, such as orifices or baffles, can be
used to increase the rate of mixing. The piping arrangements used for inline mixing are
discussed in the section on liquid mixing.

10.11.2. Liquid mixing

The following factors must be taken into account when choosing equipment for mixing
liquids:
1. Batch of continuous operation.
2. Nature of the process: miscible liquids, preparation of solutions, or dispersion of
immiscible liquids.
3. Degree of mixing required.
4. Physical properties of the liquids, particularly the viscosity.
5. Whether the mixing is associated with other operations: reaction, heat transfer.

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EQUIPMENT SELECTION, SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN

For the continuous mixing of low viscosity fluids inline mixers can be used. For other
mixing operations stirred vessels or proprietary mixing equipment will be required.

Inline mixing
Static devices which promote turbulent mixing in pipelines provide an inexpensive way
of continuously mixing fluids. Some typical designs are shown in Figures 10.52a, b, c.
A simple mixing tee, Figure 10.52a, followed by a length of pipe equal to 10 to 20 pipe
diameters, is suitable for mixing low viscosity fluids (50 mN s/m2 ) providing the flow
is turbulent, and the densities and flow-rates of the fluids are similar.
Mixing length
10-20 Pipe diameter

(b)
(a)

D
O.63 D

(c)

Figure 10.52.

Inline mixers (a) Tee (b) Injection (c) Annular

With injection mixers (Figures 10.52b,c), in which the one fluid is introduced into the
flowing stream of the other through a concentric pipe or an annular array of jets, mixing will
take place by entrainment and turbulent diffusion. Such devices should be used where one
flow is much lower than the other, and will give a satisfactory blend in about 80 pipe diameters.
The inclusion of baffles or other flow restrictions will reduce the mixing length required.
The static inline mixer shown in Figure 10.53 is effective in both laminar and turbulent
flow, and can be used to mix viscous mixtures. The division and rotation of the fluid at
each element causes rapid radical mixing; see Rosenzweig (1977) and Baker (1991). The

Figure 10.53.

Static mixer (Kenics Corporation)

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

dispersion and mixing of liquids in pipes is discussed by Zughi et al. (2003) and Lee and
Brodkey (1964).
Centrifugal pumps are effective inline mixers for blending and dispersing liquids.
Various proprietary motor-driven inline mixers are also used for special applications;
see Perry et al. (1997).

Stirred tanks
Mixing vessels fitted with some form of agitator are the most commonly used type of
equipment for blending liquids and preparing solutions.
Liquid mixing in stirred tanks is covered in Volume 1, Chapter 7, and in several
textbooks; Uhl and Gray (1967), Harnby et al. (1997) and Tatterson (1991), (1993).
A typical arrangement of the agitator and baffles in a stirred tank, and the flow pattern
generated, is shown in Figure 10.54. Mixing occurs through the bulk flow of the liquid
and, on a microscopic scale, by the motion of the turbulent eddies created by the agitator.
Bulk flow is the predominant mixing mechanism required for the blending of miscible
liquids and for solids suspension. Turbulent mixing is important in operations involving
mass and heat transfer; which can be considered as shear controlled processes.

Figure 10.54.

Agitator arrangements and flow patterns

The most suitable agitator for a particular application will depend on the type of mixing
required, the capacity of the vessel, and the fluid properties, mainly the viscosity.
The three basic types of impeller which are used at high Reynolds numbers (low
viscosity) are shown in Figures 10.55a, b, c. They can be classified according to the
predominant direction of flow leaving the impeller. The flat-bladed (Rushton) turbines
are essentially radial-flow devices, suitable for processes controlled by turbulent mixing
(shear controlled processes). The propeller and pitched-bladed turbines are essentially
axial-flow devices, suitable for bulk fluid mixing.
Paddle, anchor and helical ribbon agitators (Figures 10.56a, b, c), and other special
shapes, are used for more viscous fluids.

EQUIPMENT SELECTION, SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN

Hub-mounted
flate-blade
turbine

Disc-mounted flatblade turbine

471

Shrouded turbine
impeller

Hub-mounted
curved-blade
turbine

(a)

(b)

Figure 10.55.

(c)

Basic impeller types (a) Turbine impeller (b) Pitched bladed turbine (c) Marine propeller

(b)

(a)

(c)

Figure 10.56.

Low-speed agitators (a) Paddle (b) Anchor (c) Helical ribbon

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

The selection chart given in Figure 10.57, which has been adapted from a similar chart
given by Penney (1970), can be used to make a preliminary selection of the agitator type,
based on the liquid viscosity and tank volume.
For turbine agitators, impeller to tank diameter ratios of up to about 0.6 are used, with
the depth of liquid equal to the tank diameter. Baffles are normally used, to improve
the mixing and reduce problems from vortex formation. Anchor agitators are used with
close clearance between the blades and vessel wall, anchor to tank diameter ratios of
103

Anchor, helical ribbon

102

Liquid viscosity, Ns/m2

Paddle

101

Turbine

100

ell

op

Pr
er

Propeller (420 rpm)

or turbine
0r

15

(1
) or

pm

Turbine or
propeller
(1750 rpm)

tur
e

bin

10-1

10-2
10-1

100

101
Tank volume, m3

Figure 10.57.

Agitator selection guide

102

EQUIPMENT SELECTION, SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN

473

0.95 or higher. The selection of agitators for dispersing gases in liquids is discussed by
Hicks (1976).

Agitator power consumption

The shaft power required to drive an agitator can be estimated using the following
generalised dimensionless equation, the derivation of which is given in Volume 2,
Chapter 13.
Np D KReb Fr c
10.11
where Np D power number D

P
D5 N3 

Re D Reynolds number D
Fr D Froude number D

D2 N
,

DN2
,
g

P D shaft power, W,
K D a constant, dependent on the agitator type, size, and the agitator-tank
geometry,
 D fluid density, kg/m3 ,

D fluid viscosity, Ns/m2 ,
N D agitator speed, s
1 (revolutions per second) (rps),
D D agitator diameter, m,
g D gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2 .
Values for the constant K and the indices b and c for various types of agitator, tank-agitator
geometries, and dimensions, can be found in the literature; Rushton et al. (1950). A useful
review of the published correlations for agitator power consumption and heat transfer in
agitated vessels is given by Wilkinson and Edwards (1972); they include correlations for
non-Newtonian fluids. Typical power curves for propeller and turbine agitators are given
in Figures 10.58 and 10.59. In the laminar flow region the index b D 1; and at high
Reynolds number the power number is independent of the Froude number; index c D 0.
An estimate of the power requirements for various applications can be obtained from
Table 10.14.
Table 10.14.

Power requirements

baffled agitated tanks

Agitation

Applications

Power, kW/m3

Mild

Blending, mixing
Homogeneous reactions
Heat transfer
Liquid-liquid mixing
Slurry suspension
Gas absorption,
Emulsions
Fine slurry suspension

0.04 0.10
0.01 0.03
0.03 1.0
1.0 1.5
1.5 2.0
1.5 2.0
1.5 2.0
>2.0

Medium
Severe

Violent

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Figure 10.58.

Power correlation for single three-bladed propellers baffled, (from Uhl and Gray (1967) with permission). p D blade pitch, D D impeller diameter,
DT D tank diameter

EQUIPMENT SELECTION, SPECIFICATION AND DESIGN

Power correlations for baffled turbine impellers, for tank with 4 baffles (From Uhl and Gray (1967) with permission). w D impeller width,
D D impeller diameter

475

Figure 10.59.

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Side-entering agitators
Side-entering agitators are used for blending low viscosity liquids in large tanks, where
it is impractical to use conventional agitators supported from the top of the tank; see
Oldshue et al. (1956).
Where they are used with flammable liquids, particular care must be taken in the design
and maintenance of the shaft seals, as any leakage may cause a fire.
For blending flammable liquids, the use of liquid jets should be considered as an
intrinsically safer option; see Fossett and Prosser (1949).

10.11.3. Solids and pastes

A great variety of specialised equipment has been developed for mixing dry solids and
pastes (wet solids). The principal types of equipment and their fields of application are
given in Table 10.15. Descriptions of the equipment can be found in the literature; Perry
et al. (1997), Reid (1979). Cone blenders are used for free-flowing solids. Ribbon blenders
can be used for dry solids and for blending liquids with solids. Z-blade mixers and pan
mixers are used for kneading heavy pastes and doughs. Most solid and paste mixers are
designed for batch operation.
A selection chart for solids mixing equipment is given by Jones (1985).
Table 10.15.
Type of equipment

Solids and paste mixers

Mixing action

Applications

Rotating: cone,
double cone, drum

Tumbling action

Air blast fluidisation

Air blast lifts and mixes

particles

Horizontal trough
mixer, with ribbon
blades, paddles or
beaters
Z-blade mixers

Rotating element
produces contra-flow
movement of materials

Dry and moist powders

Shearing and kneading by

the specially shaped
blades
Vertical, rotating paddles,
often with planetary
motion

Mixing heavy pastes,

creams and doughs

Pan mixers

Cylinder mixers,
single and double

Shearing and kneading

action

Blending dry, freeflowing powders,

granules, crystals
Dry powders and
granules

Mixing, whipping and

kneading of materials
ranging from low
viscosity pastes to stiff
doughs
Compounding of rubbers
and plastics

Examples
Pharmaceuticals, food,
chemicals
Milk powder;
detergents,
chemicals
Chemicals, food,
pigments, tablet
granulation
Bakery industry,
rubber doughs,
plastic dispersions
Food, pharmaceuticals
and chemicals,
printing inks and
ceramics
Rubbers, plastics, and
pigment dispersion

10.12. TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS

In this section the principal means used for the transport and storage of process materials:
gases, liquids and solids are discussed briefly. Further details and full descriptions of the