Lydia Harrison

(2015)

Is literature always political? Explore how early modern texts engage with political culture.

We are all enmeshed in politics because we are all citizens of somewhere even writers
and we cannot escape being shaped by political decisions, big and small. 1 This statement,
written by Olive Senior, encapsulates the notion that literature and politics are co-dependent;
it represents the idea that the writer and their work are always contextualised and that what is
written has always been influenced by the political culture of the time. With this, the answer
to the question is literature political? could be given as a simple yes, a writer reflects on
their environment, but upon exploration, the depth posed by the relationship between
literature and politics is both important and substantial. This is because of how a text engages
with political culture: depending on a purpose or audience, literature can be more inviting of
a relationship with politics, whether it be with subject or author, or can be less obviously so.
To illustrate how modern texts engage with political culture, this essay will include Eves
Apology in Defense of Women (a subsection of Aemelia Lanyers Slaves Deus Rex
Judorum), Sir Walter Raleghs The Discovery of the Empire of Guiana and Queen Elizabeth
Is reply to one of Walters poems: Ah, Silly Pug, Wert Thou so Sore Afraid, along with
secondary journals and critics. Using close analysis of the style, context, purpose and
language included in the texts, this essay will explore the different ways in which early
modern texts engage with political culture.
It is imperative, firstly, to put early modern political culture into context. The early modern
period in question refers chiefly to the Renaissance period, which the Oxford English
Dictionary defines as: The revival of the arts and high culture under the influence of
classical models, beginning in the 14 th century.2 Though the exact date of the end of the
Renaissance period is disputed amongst scholars, it is most commonly attributed to the 17 th
1 Olive Senior, Literature is political because we are political animals, The Guardian, 29 (2013)
2 (2009) http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/162352?redirectedFrom=Renaissance#eid (last accessed
7.01.2015)
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century. Indeed, Eric Cochrane writes: The end of the Renaissance [is] all the way down to
1633.3 To contextualise further, political culture in the early modern period, in which all
three texts were known to be written, was dominated mainly by the male gender; many of
Elizabeth Is courtiers were male and female authorship was largely uncommon or
uncredited. Wendy Wall elucidates this nicely in her book The Imprint of Gender, writing:

When stationers brandished female titles for their works one effect of this
representation was, of course, a consolidation of the womans proscribed subordinate
position in Renaissance culture.4

This is an extremely important factor in answering how early modern texts engage with
political culture because Aemelia Lanyer and Elizabeth Is texts both address gender issues
and, although indirectly, Ralegh too incorporates the idea of dispute between Man and
Woman.
From the start, Aemelia Lanyers Eves Apology in Defense of Women engages with
political culture through representation of the female character upon reflection on the culture
at the time. Indeed, the theme of the poem is to present Eve, who, as the poem states, tasted
of the tree (stanza 3, line 3) as a victim in politically patriarchal world. 5 Her poem is a
reflection of the lack of power and authority that much of the female gender was condemned
to during the Renaissance period. Indeed, when Slaves Deus Rex Judorum was written in
3 Eric Cochrane, The End of the Renaissance in Florence, Bibliothque dHumanisme et
Renaissance, Vol. 1 (1965), p. 27
4 Wendy Wall, Chapter One: Turning Sonnet: The Politics and Poetics of Sonnet Circulation, The
Imprint of Gender (New York: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 62
5 Aemelia Lanyer, Eves Apology in Defense of Women, The Norton Anthology of English
Literature (London: Norton, 2012), p. 1434
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1611, James I, who disliked his wife, was on the throne and surrounded himself with young
men to advise him. Along with this, the impassioned style of the narration of Eves Apology
in Defense of Women also provides another dimension to her poem: she is showing that Eve is
a representation of the female gender as a whole. With this, the depiction of the Roman
official Pilate and Eves husband Adam as representation of the male gender links well into
the political theme because their presence contextualises the poem; Lanyer cleverly addresses
the dominance of men in politics and royal courts. Indeed, the narrator challenges Mans
claim to sovereignty and almost pleads to be at an equal:

Then let us have our liberty again

And challenge to yourselves no sovereignty. (Stanza 11, lines 1-2)

This supports the argument that early modern texts engage with political culture through
reflection and contextualisation, because through expressing her own view through her
poetry, Lanyer engages with political culture by writing a piece influenced by her
surroundings and, perhaps most importantly, through challenging the political culture she
knew. Along with this, the important theme of gender politics is also supported.
But, while Lanyer pleas for the equality of both genders and presents the female sex
to be less authoritative politically, Queen Elizabeth Is poem Ah, Silly Pug, Wert Thou so
Sore Afraid, a response to a poem written by Sir Walter Ralegh to her, contrasts with this. To
put this into context, Elizabeths poem was a response to a poem Ralegh had written to her
about the misfortune of losing his love. He and the Queen had once enjoyed comradery in the
past, but by this time, their relationship with each other at the time of writing this poem was
decaying. Because of this, the language used by Elizabeth in Ah, Silly Pug, Wert Thou so
Sore Afraid is open to interpretation.

Lydia Harrison

(2015)

Indeed, though the argument of reflection is important, that alone cannot be attributed
solely to how texts engage with political culture. Indeed, Elizabeth engages with political
culture for the purpose of showing her strength as a woman, but it is mostly her use of
language that introduces a political element to the poem. Her use of affectionate nicknames
for Ralegh, such as Pug or Wat, appears to be a representation of the pairs close
relationship. However, her language is politically based. By calling him nicknames, Elizabeth
reaffirms her status as Queen because she almost emasculates him; these nicknames act as
possessive pronouns that present Elizabeth as a woman who is more authoritative than a male
counterpart.6 Indeed, she does directly address the male gender, contrasting what she believes
to be Raleghs fickle poem with her own strong character, as she writes:

No, no, my pug, though Fortune were not blind,

Assure thyself that she could not rule my mind.
Fortune, I know, sometimes doth conquer kings,
And rules and reigns on earth and earthly things.7 (Lines 7-10)

The contrasting lines here directly mention the male gender in kings, whilst Elizabeth also
tells Ralegh to be sure that although he may have succumbed, the Queen will not let her mind
be taken over by trivialities. It is, however, in the last line of this quote that provides the
greatest link between language, context and how texts engage with political culture. While
Elizabeth assures Ralegh her mind will not be tainted by fickle fortune, she goes onto write
that kings and earthly things would not be able to say the same. This suggests that the
6 Elizabeth I, Chapter Two: Women in Power, Ah, Silly Pug, Wert Thou so Sore Afraid, The
Norton Anthology of English Literature (London: Norton, 2012), p. 762, lines 1-2
7 Elizabeth I, Ah, Silly Pug, Wert Thou so Sore Afraid, The Norton Anthology of English Literature,
p. 762, line 13
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Queen was reaffirming her status as a divinely appointed monarch: she was chosen by God
and was above her subjects and these earthly things. Indeed, Lena Cowen Orlin writes:
[despite] her turbulent private history, [she] tended to emphasise the public role she
assumed by divine election.8 To put this into context, Elizabeth was reflecting on her status
as Queen, whilst simultaneously putting down the male gender through her use of political
language, such as kings, rules and reigns. In regards to how early modern texts engage
with political culture, this point shows that despite what Danielle Clarke describes as the
problematic notion of female authorship in the Renaissance period, females could use their
gender to their advantage.9 As shown here, Queen Elizabeth I engaged with political culture
through dismissing Raleghs fickle fantasies and presenting herself as a strong woman that
fortune could not control, that had to answer only to God; she used clever language to
reaffirm her status above Ralegh and indeed, the entire male gender.
This leads into the idea of literature being used as a political weapon and a way of gaining
political support in the early modern period. Though Elizabeth and Lanyers texts seemingly
contrast with each other, it is imperative to explore what links them together; this further
shows how early modern texts engage with political culture. Although they both give
different messages on the surface, both poems engage with political culture to show the
capability of the female gender. While Lanyer presents women as the victim, she does also
present the female gender as strong and equal to man; indeed, the narrator addresses the male
gender in stanza 11:

You came not in the world without our pain,

8 Lena Cowen Orlin, The Fictional Families of Elizabeth I, Political Rhetoric, Power, and Renaissance
Women, ed. by Carole Levin and Patricia A. Sullivan (1995), p. 102

9 Danielle Clarke, Chapter Two: The Renaissance Debate About Women, The Politics of Early
Modern Womens Writing (Harlow: Pearson, 2001) p. 51
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Make that a bar against your cruelty;

Your fault being greater, why should you disdain
Our being your equals, free from tyranny? (Stanza 11, lines 3-6).

Here, Lanyer is being accusative; the narrator is placing the blame so often attributed to
women onto the male gender and, not unlike Elizabeths assertion of authority over Ralegh,
dismissing the idea that Man is less troubled about frivolities. This link shows that both texts
are openly political, and so, the idea of the authors engaging in political culture through using
literature as weapon is further supported. Because Lanyers text directly accuses the male
gender, the poem therefore directly appeals and sympathises with the female gender: in a
way, she is almost founding a feminist movement in which she hopes others would follow.
Indeed, Wall writes: [Slave Deus Rex Judorum] is a proto-feminist polemic book...
intertwined in presenting female poetic authority.10 Jennifer Summit presents the idea that
with Elizabeth being Queen of England, her poetry would be of great interest; it is more than
likely that she would have known that her poem to Ralegh would be put under scrutiny.
Indeed, in her article The Arte afa Ladies Penne: Elizabeth I and the Poetics Queenship she
writes:

Elizabeths position as a female monarch not only was consistent with that of a poet,
it made her uniquely qualified for it. The Queen sanctioned and encouraged this
recognition of her poetic activity.11

10 Wendy Wall, Chapter Five: Dancing In a Net: The Problems of Female Authorship, The Imprint
of Gender (New York: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 326
11 Jennifer Summit, The Arte afa Ladies Penne: Elizabeth I and the Poetics Queenship, English
Literary Renaissance, 26:3 (1996), p. 398
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Because of this, the idea that she was using her poem to present herself as a strong monarch
to her people contributes to literature being used as a political weapon: she was attempting to
gain support by flattering her image.
Of course, no monarch is unanimously popular, and Raleghs The Discovery of the
Empire of Guiana is, upon closer exploration, a subtle link with Elizabeths rule of England.
While being openly political in regards to his exploration of a new conquest, his text
possesses a deeper subtext. Indeed, it is known that the Queen had replaced Ralegh as one of
her favourite courtiers and had quashed his idea of capturing Guiana. Throughout his text,
Ralegh attempts to undermine Elizabeth by implying that her nation, England, is undesirable
next to the large, rich, beautiful Empire of Guiana.12 He writes: All places [in Guiana] yield
abundance of cotton, of silk, of balsam, and of those kinds most excellent and never known in
Europe and the shining glory of this conquest will eclipse all those so far extended beams of
the Spanish nation, both of which indirectly undermine the Queen and her foreign policies. 13
England had defeated Spain in the Spanish Armada, but Elizabeths focus as Queen was not
with extending her foreign exploits. Of course, this links well with the idea that Ralegh was
writing a political piece because he was influenced to do so by the world around him. Perhaps
more importantly, however, it presents a new point: though the main subject of his piece is,
on the surface, political, it is possible to argue that Ralegh engaged with the political culture
of the early modern period through a response to an ongoing argument between the two
genders.
Throughout his text, Ralegh also makes constant reassurance over his own
trustworthiness. His use of phrases such as: I will promise that these things that follow,
12 Walter Ralegh, Chapter Three: Renaissance Love and Desire. The Discovery of the Empire of
Guiana, The Norton Anthology of English Literature (London: Norton, 2012), p. 1030
13 Walter Ralegh, The Discovery of the Empire of Guiana, The Norton Anthology of English
Literature, p. 1032
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which I know to be true and I am resolved it cannot be equalled represent this well; he
writes this as if his own word is unquestionable and that his reassurance should be
confirmation that what hes writing is entirely truthful. 14 This, when linked with the
aforementioned point of Ralegh undermining the Queen, presents the idea that by flattering
his own position and effectively snubbing Elizabeths foreign policy, he is engaging with the
political culture of the period through making himself seem more respectable than the Queen.
As well as the political undertones of Raleghs text (that he was using a seemingly
harmless piece to undermine the Queen of England), there is of course the overwhelmingly
fitting point of subject in his prose. The Discovery of the Empire of Guiana is largely political
because it represents not only Queen Elizabeths nation, but also a new nation: a new
conquest, that Ralegh hoped his Queen would capture. This fits into the argument mentioned
above: he was reflecting on the incredible things he had seen in Guiana and comparing them
to what he lived through in England. Indeed, he writes: There is no country which yieldith
more pleasure to the inhabitants, which means he is engaging in political culture through the
subject of his text as well as using clever undertones and persuasive language to incorporate
his political views into his work. 15 His implication that he has explored the world and found
the most incredible place, a country that hath yet her maidenhead, never sacked, turned, nor
wrought, presents himself as an adventurous, daring explorer and juxtaposes Elizabeths rule
in England. Once again, this point supports the idea that Ralegh was both reflecting on fact
and addressing gender politics.
The idea of Man vs. Woman is a reoccurring theme throughout the period, and so the
idea that writers were simply responding to an already political text cannot be overlooked.
14 Walter Ralegh, The Discovery of the Empire of Guiana, The Norton Anthology of English
Literature, p. 1031
15 Walter Ralegh, The Discovery of the Empire of Guiana, The Norton Anthology of English
Literature, p. 1031
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This can be supported by Aemelia Lanyers poem engaging with political culture to help the
female gender become more celebrated in authorship. One of the key themes in Eves
Apology in Defense of Women, that women are not credited enough for their work and that
men had an advantage in literature is, of course, far from unique. Indeed, even as recently as
the nineteenth century, women have fallen victim to a patriarchal society. The celebrated
Bront sisters had their books Jane Eyre, Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey published under
pseudonyms because they were weary that being women would invite more difficulty in
having their texts published:

Averse to personal publicity, we veiled our own names we did not like to declare
ourselves women, because we had a vague impression that authoresses are liable to
be looked on with prejudice.16

From this, an important point in answering the question of how early modern texts engage in
political culture is presented to us. If a writer is responding to an ongoing political argument,
then their work is automatically rendered political also.
To conclude, it must be taken into account that there is a metaphorical umbrella in
understanding early modern texts engage in political culture. That is to say that the recurring
theme of pitting the male and female genders against each other is a broad way of explaining
how authors engaged with political culture: both poems and Raleghs prose are responding to
an ongoing argument of equality between the sexes. However, in more specific terms, each
author employs different techniques to do this. It is the message of feminism from Lanyers
Eves Apology in Defense of Women that staples her text with the broader theme, whereas it is
Elizabeth Is use of language and imagery in her poem that puts down Ralegh and therefore
16 Emily Bront, Biographical Notice of Ellis and Acton Bell, Wuthering Heights, ed. by Charlotte
Bront (W. W. Norton & Company, 1847), p. 1
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links into the wider argument. Raleghs text links into this argument, too, through clever use
of fact and reflection; he uses the fact that Elizabeths foreign policy had achieved little to
bring her down from her divine status and therefore reaffirm the male genders status as more
clever and adventurous. However, the importance of the authors reflection on the world
around them cannot be overlooked. Lanyer, Queen Elizabeth and Ralegh all engage with
political culture through what was important to them at the time: Lanyer and the recognition
of the female sex, Elizabeth and the disintegrating relationship between herself and Walter
Ralegh, and Raleghs discontent with Englands foreign conquests. Overall, there is a web of
language, subject, context and authorship that make for a more thorough and clarified answer
to how early modern texts actually engage with political culture: it is, as presented
throughout, mostly through gender politics.

Word Count: 2740

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Bibliography
Primary sources
Lanyer, Aemelia, Chapter Four: The Early Seventeenth Century, Eves Apology in Defense
of Women in The Norton Anthology of English Literature (London: Norton, 2012), pp. 1341
1647.
Ralegh, Walter, Chapter Three: Renaissance Love and Desire, The Discovery of the Empire
of Guiana in The Norton Anthology of English Literature (London: Norton, 2012), pp. 1000
1340.
Tudor, Elizabeth, Chapter Two: Women in Power, Ah, Silly Pug, Wert Thou so Sore Afraid
in The Norton Anthology of English Literature (London: Norton, 2012), pp. 721 765.
Secondary sources
Bront, Emily, Biographical Notice of Ellis and Acton Bell, Wuthering Heights, ed. by
Charlotte Bront (W. W. Norton & Company, 1847), pp. 1 14.
Clarke, Danielle, Chapter Two: The Renaissance Debate About Women, The Politics of
Early Modern Womens Writing (Harlow: Pearson, 2001) pp. 49 79.
Cochrane, Eric, The End of the Renaissance in Florence, Bibliothque dHumanisme et
Renaissance, Vol. 1 (1965), pp. 7 29.
Senior, Oliver, Literature is political because we are political animals, The Guardian, 29
(2013)
Summit, Jennifer, The Arte afa Ladies Penne: Elizabeth I and the Poetics Queenship,
English Literary Renaissance, 26:3 (1996), pp. 395 422.
Orlin, Lena Cowen, The Fictional Families of Elizabeth I, Political Rhetoric, Power, and
Renaissance Women, ed. by Carole Levin and Patricia A. Sullivan (1995), pp. 85 112.

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Wall, Wendy, Chapter One: Turning Sonnet: The Politics and Poetics of Sonnet Circulation,
The Imprint of Gender (New York: Cornell University Press, 1993), pp. 23 167.
Wall, Wendy, Chapter Five: Dancing In a Net: The Problems of Female Authorship, The
Imprint of Gender (New York: Cornell University Press, 1993), pp. 279 340.
(2009) http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/162352?redirectedFrom=Renaissance#eid (last
accessed 7.01.2015)

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