Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
ON
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 CONCRETE AS STRUCTURAL MATERIAL:
At present concrete is one of the most widely used material in the world (12 billion ton per
year). Human consume no material in such a tremendous quantity except water. Due to its
ease of use and wide range of applicability in structural & nonstructural component, its
quantity & application area is growing more & more. Presently some of the areas of
application are listed below:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
x)
IX) Vacuum Concrete: As we know higher the W/C ratio higher the workability of
concrete but it results low strength concrete in harden concrete. In this concreting process,
concrete is initially placed with higher W/C ratio & immediately after placing, excess
water is removed through special equipment setup (through vacuum process).
XI) Self Compacted Concrete: This type of concrete is designed to flow under its own
weight with very high degree of workability. Max. aggregate size is limited to 20mm &
uses HRWR (High Range Water Reducing admixture). This type of concrete is
extensively used in many projects due to: it easiness & speed in placing, reduced
manpower, good surface finish and durability etc.
2.0 AGGREGATE
Aggregate is one of the main constituent of concrete which occupy around 70 80% of the
body of concrete. Variation in aggregate property also affects the property of concrete
(Strength, workability & durability).
2.1 SOURCE AND CLASSIFICATION:
I) Depending upon its Origin aggregate can be classified into:
a) Natural aggregate: Aggregate derived from natural source (eg, quarries or river) by
blasting, crushing or screening. Can be further classified into:
Igneous: Normally all type of aggregate from igneous rock source is considered
suitable for concreting.
Metamorphic: As aggregate from metamorphic rock source shows weak plane of
foliation is not considered very suitable but aggregate like quartzite & gneiss still
produce good concrete of its class.
Sedimentary: The quality of aggregate from sedimentary rock source varies
considerably depending upon the pressure in which original rock is compacted &
cementing material in it. Normally limestone, siliceous sandstone can produce good
quality concrete.
b) Artificial aggregate: Artificially made aggregate for special concrete or industrial
byproducts.
Clean broken bricks: Obtained by cleaning broken bricks. Not suitable for wear & tear
surface & can be used in low to medium strength concreting.
Blast furnace slag: This is the byproduct of pig iron in blast furnace.
Steel shots: Steel aggregate made for high density concrete. Used in nuclear plants.
II) Depending upon its Unit wt.:
a) Light wt.: Aggregate with sp. gravity< 2.5. Used to produce concrete with unit weight
upto 1200kg/m3.
b) Medium wt.: Aggregate with sp gr. 2.5-2.7. Commonly used in construction. Produce
concrete with unit wt. 2300-2600kg/m3.
c) Heavy wt.: Aggregate with sp gr. >2.7. Normally used in radiation shield. Eg, ferrophosphorus 5.8-6.8, magnetite 4.2-5.2, iron shots 6.2 - 7.8 sp gr.
III) According to its Size:
a) Fine Aggregate: Normally aggregate passing through 4.75mm sieve is considered as
fine aggregate. IS383:1970 further classified this into various zone depending upon its
fineness.
b) Coarse Aggregate: Normally aggregate retained on 4.75mm sieve is considered as
coarse aggregate. Coarse aggregate is normally represented by is nominal max size.
Class notes on Concrete Technology (P -5)
Single sized coarse aggregate may have its nominal size 63, 40, 20, 16, 12.5 and 10 mm.
While graded coarse aggregates are comprise of various size to have densely packed
system. Gradiation limit for single sized & graded aggregates are given below:
All in aggregate:
Aggregate having different fraction of fine & coarse aggregate to achive minimum void thus
max. compaction while concreting. Grading limit of all in aggregate as given by IS383:1970
is given below:
Due to bulking, aggregate shows very unrealistic volume which affects the proportioning of
aggregates. Fine aggregate may have volume increse upto 40% of its actual volume due to
bulking. So the extreme care needs to be taken while performing volumetric proportioning of
concrete.
3.0 CEMENT
As identification of major compound in cement largely based on RH Bogues work its also
called Bogues compound & equation to determine quantity of these compound from oxide
composition of raw material is called Bogues equation:
Set of Bogues equations:
%C3S
= 4.071 C 7.600 S 6.718 A 1.430 F 2.850
%C2S
= 2.867 S 0.754 C3S
%C3A
= 2.650 A 1.692 F
%C4AF
= 3.043 F
Here,
C CaO
S - SiO2
A Al2O3
F Fe2O3
SO3
Class notes on Concrete Technology (P -13)
C3A & C4AF in presence of gypsum hydrates to form calcium aluminate trisulphate hydrate
(C6AS3H32) also called ettringite & calcium aluminate monosulphate hydrate C4ASH18.
C-S-H gel
C-S-H gel
Ca(OH)2
C-S-H gel
Concrete as
3- Phase System
Paste phase: Paste phase is the most important phase of concrete as it influences the
overall behavior of harden concrete. Strength, durability, creep, shrinkage & elastic
property of concrete is greatly affected by paste structure of concrete. In microscopic
view it contains mainly dense network of fibrous C-S-H gel & hexagonal Ca(OH)2.
Aggregate phase: Aggregate phase is also one of the important phase of the concrete &
influence the overall strength of concrete but has less influence than paste phase in
property of concrete.
Transition zone phase: In micro level, between aggregate & paste phase another phase
can be visualized called transition zone phase. This is also called the plane of weakness &
greatly affects the mechanical behavior of concrete. Because of larger concentration of
crystalline compound like Ca(OH)2 & ettringite and also due to bleeding & water
accumulation along aggregate particles, these acts like a weak link in concrete. Due to
shrinkage & temperature variation transition zone develops micro crack and upon loading
the structure these cracks propagate causing failure of bond in concrete.
complementary. Total 38% (23%+15%) of water is required to complete the full hydration of
cement. If this quantity is not available complete hydration will not be possible. And also the
addition of water greater than this will cause unnecessary capillary pores in concrete.
Heat of hydration:
As we know the reaction of cement with water is
exothermic. It produce heat during its reaction, the rate
of hydration of various compound in cement is
different thus producing different amount of heat
during the way of reaction. The rapid initial rate of
heat liberation (Peak A in fig.) is due to the rapid
hydration of C3A/C3S while the reduction in heat
liberation occurs due to retardation of C3A cause by
gypsum. The next peak B is due to the reaction of C3S
/ formation of ettringite. While this rate of heat
evolution also decrese withtime.
Verbec & Foster had given the heat of hydration of
various compound after their extensive research &
tests as given below:
TypeIII: High early strength: This cement is similar to Type I, but ground finer. In some
case C3 S and C3 A content is also increased to achive early strength. This gives the concrete
using this type of cement a three day compressive strength equal to the seven day
compressive strength types I. It may be used in emergency construction and repairs and
precast concrete job.
Its typical compound composition is: 57% (C 3S), 19% (C2S), 10% (C 3A), 7% (C4 AF), 3.0%
MgO, 3.1% (SO3), 0.9% Ignition loss, and 1.3% free CaO.
TypeIV: Low heat of hydration: The percentages of (C2S) and (C4AF) are kept relatively
high and (C3S) and (C3A) are relatively low. This type of cement gives low heat of hydration
& rate of strength gain is also low. Suitable for mass concreting such as dam where low heat
of hydration is desirable.
Typical compound composition: 28% (C 3S), 49% (C 2S), 4% (C3A), 12% (C 4AF), 1.8% MgO,
1.9% (SO3), 0.9% Ignition loss, and 0.8% free CaO.
TypeV: High Sulphate Resistance: This cement is manufactured with very low (C3A). The
maximum content of (C3A) allowed is 5%. Normally used where sulphate & alkali content is
high which react with (C3A) causing detoriation of concrete.
Its typical compound composition is: 38% (C 3S), 43% (C2S), 4% (C3A), 9% (C 4AF), 1.9%
MgO, 1.8% (SO3), 0.9% Ignition loss, and 0.8% free CaO.
TypeIS: (Type I + Slag): Manufactured with (Type I cement + blast furnance slag). Slag
content may varies from 25-70%. This type of cement gives low heat of hydration & better
corrosion resistance. But its strength gain is also slower.
TypeIP: (Type I + Pozzolona): Manufactured with intimate blending of Type I cement &
fine pozzolona. Pozzolona content may varies from 15-40%. This type of cement gives low
heat of hydration & better corrosion resistance. But its strength gain is also slower. Flyash,
Silica fume is common pozzolona material used to produce this type of cement.
TypeIA/IIA/IIIA: (Types I or II or III + air-entraining agent): Have the same
composition as types I, II, and III + air-entraining agent is ground into the mix. They
introduce the fine air bubble in concrete & increase workability / improve resistance to
freezing under low temperatures.
Types II(MH) and II(MH)a: have recently been added with a similar composition as types
II and IIa but with a mild heat.
f) Super-sulphate Cement:
Manufactured with granulated slag (80-85%) + hard burnt gypsum (10-15%) + OPC
clinker (5%)
Used where high sulphate resistance is desirable.
Produce low heat of hydration.
Used where environment (groung water/soil ) is highly corrosive & sever sulphur
attack is present.
i) Coloured Cement
Manufactured with high quality limestone (96% CaCO3 & Fe2O3<0.07%) with very
low iron oxide content.
5-10% pigment is groung together with OPC clinker to produce colour cement.
To preserve colour due to environmental change pigment are selected accordingly.
j) Hydrophobic Cement:
Manufactured with OPC Clinker + water repellent film forming substance (Oleic acid
/ Stearic acid / Calcium Oleate).
Prevent the cement to react with environmental moisture thus can be used with long
storage & poor storage condition.
The preventive film broken out in mixing process of concreting, allowing cement
particle for hydration.
k) Mortar Cement
Manufactured to overcome the drawback of OPC interms of workability & water
retainability for masonry construction.
Air entraining agent and/or admixtures are mixed with cement to achive better
workability & water retainability.
Ideal for all type of mortar work.
l) Oil Well Cement
Used to fill gap between steel strainer & rock strata in oil well.
Manufactured to withstand the temp. of 175 deg C & pressure of 1300 Kg/cm2 inside
oil-well.
Rediset Cement:
Initially manufactured in USA as Regset, later in india from research.
Manufactured with high alumina & mixing CaCl2 /lignosulphonate/ Cellulose.
Very rapid hardening, can be used in rapid repair.
High heat & poor sulphate resistance.
Typical mix of 1:3 cement mortar shows 20Mpa in 4hrs & 42Mpa in 24hrs.
4.0 WATER
4.1 Quality of Water used in concrete for various purpose (IS 456:2000):
As given by IS456:2000
Water used for mixing & curing shall be free from any reactive substances that can harm the
concrete in any way. Normally potable water is considered satisfactory with maximum
permissible value as given:
Sea Water:
Mixing & curing of concrete with sea water is not recommended. But under unavoidable
condition sea water may be used in plain concrete without embedded steel, and taking due
consideration of negative effect of water & using suitable cement system.
4.2 W/C ratio, workability, segregation, bleeding & Other properties of fresh concrete:
Abrams rule W/C ratio:
Abrams W/C rule is taken as one of the most popular rule.
This explains the natural consequence of progressive weakening of concrete matrix by
porosity & W/C ratio.
fc = Strength of concrete.
K1 / K2 = Constants
W/C = Water Cement ratio
Although this rule explain the weakening of paste phase due to increase in W/C ratio thus
porosity but effect of W/C ratio in transition zone is not explained by this rule.
Workability:
Workability can be defined as the, ease by which concrete can be mixed, placed, compacted
& finished.
There is mainly two force acting against workability,
a) Internal friction between individual particles.
b) Friction between concrete & formwork / reinforcement surface.
Factor affecting workability,
a) W/C ratio W/C ratio greatly affects the workability of concrete. Higher the W/C
ratio higher will be the workability. But excessive W/C ratio induce unnecessary
voids/porosity in concrete thus reducing strength & durability of concrete.
b) Grading of aggregate With the proper grading good consistency / workability of
concrete mix can be achieved.
c) Fine Agg. to Coarse Agg. Ratio (FA/CA) Higher the fine aggregate, higher will be
the water requirement to moisten the surface area of aggregate, which ultimately
reduce the workability of concrete. So workability is inversely proportional to FA to
CA ratio.
d) Aggregate shape Round aggregate will have less surface area / friction also thus
producing more workability than crushed aggregate.
e) Aggregate texture Smooth texture aggregate will give less friction thus producing
more workability than rough aggregate.
f) Admixture / Additives Now a days various chemical & mineral admixtures are
available which can greatly enhance the workability of concrete by its physical
mechanisms.
Measurement of Workability:
There are various method of measurement of workability developed depending upon the mix
consistency. Some popular methods are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
2) Compaction Factor test: Measure the effect of standard amount of work on concrete
Suitable for very low to high workability mix (CF 0.68 to 0.92) , one of the popular test in
lab.
CF is not suitable for very high workability flow type mix.
3) Vee-bee test: Measures the amount of work require for compaction in terms of time.
Suitable for very low to low workability mix. Mainly used in lab.
Fill the slump cone in 2 layers with each layer with 25 tamping of 16mmdia rod.
Slowly & vertically remove the cone & allow the concrete to settle by its self weight.
Start the vibrator & note the time taken for the concrete surface to be horizontal the
time is the Vee-bee time.
Measurement of Bleeding: Place & consolidate the sample in mould with 250mm dia &
280mm height. Remove the bleed water @ 10 minute interval in first 40min. then at 30min
interval. The amount of water accumulated by total mixed water in % gives the amount of
bleeding.
4.3 Codal Provision of W/C ratio for durability:
IS456:200 has given the various W/C ratio for durability as given below:
Exposure
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Very severe
Extreme
PCC
Min.
Cement
Kg/m3
220
240
250
260
280
RCC
Max. free
W/C
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
Min.
Cement
Kg/m3
300
300
320
340
360
Max. free
W/C
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.45
0.4
Minimum Grade of
concrete
PCC
RCC
M15
M20
M20
M25
M20
M25
M30
M35
M40
5.0 ADMIXTURES
Admixture can be define as the ingredient other than cement/aggregate/water added to
concrete in order to achieve desired property of concrete as required. Can also be define as
the additives added to concrete so as to obtained the specific requirement of concrete.
Admixtures are mainly classified into two types:
i) Chemical admixture These are the admixture containing basic ingredient as various
chemicals. Normally available in liquid / powder form. Use relatively low dosage
normally 0.04% to 5% by wt. of cement. Normally used to increase the workability,
to retard or accelerate the setting time/hardening process, for air entraining & water
proofing etc.
ii) Mineral admixtures These are the admixture basically obtained from various natural
or artificial minerals. Normally available in finely divided power form. Its dose is
relatively higher than chemical admixture ranging from 10 80% by wt of cement.
Eg: Fly ash, blast furnance slag, silica fume, brick dust, stone dust etc. In many case
used as cement replacement ingredient due to its pozzolana property.
Ca(OH)2 in hydrated paste + POZZOLANA = C-S-H gel
4.1 Classification Of Admixtures:
ASTM Classification: ASTM C494 has specifies the various types of Chemical admixtures
as given below:
a) Type A: Water Reducing Admixture (Plasticizer)
Admixture which increase the workability of fresh concrete/mortar without increasing
water content or maintain workability with reduced water.
Can reduce water requirement by 5-12%
Dosage based on cement per 100kg (Eg, 200ml per 100kg {or 2bag} cement)
High dose may cause excessive retardation in setting time.
Eg: (Various lignosulphonate normally derived from wood product), (synthetic raw
materials), (polyglycol esters) etc.
b) Type B: Retarding Admixture.
Retarding Admixture delay the setting time of concrete / mortar.
Keep concrete workable for long period giving additional time for mixing, placing,
compacting & finishing.
Normally used to overcome unwanted effect of high temperature & to reduce slumploss.
Facilitates finishing in hot weather.
Eg: Calcium sulphate (gypsum), starch/sugar, cellulose, lignosulphonic-acid etc.
c) Type C: Accelerating Admixture.
Accelerating Admixture when added increase rate of hydration of hydraulic cement,
shorten setting time & increase hardening process.
d)
Normally used when fast setting & early strength gain is desirable (Eg, Urgent repair
work, road pavement construction etc)
Can be used in cold climate region for rapid strength gain.
Chloride is one of the economic/effective accelerating admixture but due to its action
on corrosion of steel its use is limited to 0.15% of Cement for RCC & 0.06% for
prestressed concrete.
Eg; Soluble carbonates, silicates & flurosilicates, Organic compound
triethenolamine etc.
Type D: (A+B): Water Reducing & Retarding admixture.
Admixture which increase the workability & delay the setting time of concrete also.
Normally used when both water reducing & retarding action is desirable.
Widely used by Ready mixed concrete to facilitate long duration transportation,
mixing, placing & finishing & also to reduce slump-loss.
Eg; normally produced adding retarders to plasticizers, normally used retarders are
starch, gluconate etc.
Admixture with both high range water reducing & retarding capability.
In addition to increase in workability, also prolong workability retention & retard
setting time.
Normally used when both high range water reducing & retarding action is desirable.
Widely used by Ready mixed concrete to facilitate long duration transportation,
mixing, placing & finishing & also to reduce slump-loss.
Eg; Produced by adding retarders to superplasticizers, normally used retarders are
starch, gluconate, cellulose, lignosulphonic acid etc.
BIS Classification:
IS9103:1999 has specifies the various types of Chemical admixtures as given below:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Accelerating admixture.
Retarding admixture.
Water reducing admixture.
Air-entraining admixture:
Induce micro-air bubble (5 to 80) to concrete.
Used to produce air entrained concrete.
Air entraining admixture induce millions of fine uniformly distributed air bubble to
concrete.
These micro-air bubble acts as flexible ball bearing thus increase workability, reduce
segregation & bleeding, also the harden concrete have better resistance to freezing &
thawing.
Eg; Natural wood resin. Water soluble soap of resin acid, hydrogen petroxide,
aluminium power, Animal & vegetable oil etc.
e) Super-plasticizing admixture.
IS2645 Specifies one more chemical admixture as:
f) Waterproofing Admixture.
Silica fume
Fly ash
Blast furnace slag
Various chemical admixtures.
Mineral admixture: Fly ash, Blast furnace Slag, Rice husk ash, Silica fume, Brick /
stone dust. (Refer class note for detail)
Concrete
Grade
M5
M7.5
M10
M15
M20
Water=32Kg
Coarse=2*330/(1+2)=220Kg
Water/Cement = 32/50 = 0.64
6.3 Mix Design of Concrete by DOE, ACI and Indian Standard Methods:
DOE Method
Developed by The Building Research Establishment Laboratory (BRE), Department of Environment
(DOE), U.K. DOE method outlines the procedure for design of concrete mix with 28 days cube
strength as high as 75Mpa.
The proportion of fine aggregate is determined depending upon the max. size of aggregate, degree
of workability, grading of fine aggregate & W/C ratio.
The degree of workability is indicated by specific value of slump & Vee-Bee time.
Design Steps:
Step1: Determine target mean strength (Fmean) from specified characteristic strength(Fck):
Fmean = Fck+ * K
= Standerd deviation (IS456:2000 page23 For M10/15=3.5, M20/25=4.0 M30-50=5.0)
K= Himsworth constant (1.64 for 95% confidence level)
Step2: Determine Minimum W/C ratio based on Target Strength and compare with W/C
requirement for Durability consideration.
1
2
Table 6.3: Minimum Cement Content & Max. W/C for Durability:
Exposure
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Very severe
Extreme
PCC
Min.
Cement
Kg/m3
220
240
250
260
280
RCC
Max. free
W/C
Min.
Cement
Kg/m3
300
300
320
340
360
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
Minimum Grade of
concrete
PCC
RCC
Max. free
W/C
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.45
0.4
M15
M20
M20
M25
M20
M25
M30
M35
M40
Step3: Determine free water content depending upon max size & type of aggregate and degree of
workability. Table 6.4: Approximate Water content (Kg/m3) for various degree of Workability:
Max. Size of
Aggregate
mm
10
20
40
Slump
Vee-Bee
Aggregate Type
Uncrushed
Crushed
Uncrushed
Crushed
Uncrushed
Crushed
0-10
>12
10-30
6-12
30-60
3-6
60-180
0-3
150
180
135
170
115
155
180
205
160
190
140
175
205
230
180
210
160
190
225
250
195
225
175
205
Step4: Calculate cement content from W/C ratio & water content of mix determined previously.
Compare value with min. / max. value of cement content of durability requirement (Table 6.3) &
modify if required.
Step5: Determine wet density of concrete depending upon free water content & relative density of
combine aggregate. Calculate Total aggregate content knowing the Wet density of concrete.
Fig: 6.4 Recommended % of fine aggregate in total aggregate vs W/C ratio. (Nominal max. size 20mm)
Fig: 6.5 Recommended % of fine aggregate in total aggregate vs W/C ratio. (Nominal max. size
40mm)
EXAMPLE DOE METHOD: Design concrete mix for RCC work for the moderate exposure
environment. The characteristic strength required is 30Mpa. Max aggregate size = 20mm crushed.
Sieve analysis of fine aggregate shows 50% passing through 600 sieve. Average Sp. gr. of aggregate
is 2.65. Slump required 30-60 mm. OPC Cement (Type1) will be used.
Step1: Fmean = Fck+ * K = 30 + 1.64*5 = 38.2Mpa (For M30, =5 Ref; IS456:2000 page23)
Step2: Minimum W/C ratio based on Tar]\get Strength (Fig6.2 / Table 6.2) = 0.6
Minimum W/C ratio based on durability (Table 6.3) = 0.5
Adopt minimum W/C = 0.5
Step3: Free water content (Table 6.4) = 210kg/m3
Step4: Cement content (Step 2&3) = 210/0.5 = 420kg/m3 > min cement 300kg/m3 from Table 6.3
(OK)
Step5: Wet density of concrete for 210kg free water content & sp gr aggregate 2.65 (Fig 6.3) =
2375kg/m3
Total aggregate content = Total Concrete Cement Water = 2375 420 -210 = 1745kg/m3
Step6: % of fine aggregate (Fig 6.4 for slump 30-60 & W/C = 0.5 & FA 50% passing 600 sieve.) = 35%
of total aggregate
F A = 0.35 * 1745 = 610.75kg/m3
C A = 1745 610.75 = 1134.25kg/m3
Cement : Fine : Coarse = 420 : 610.75 : 1134.25 = 1 : 1.454 : 2.701
ACI METHOD
The American Concrete Institute mix design method is suggested by the ACI Committee 211.
One method is based on the estimated weight of the concrete per unit volume & the other
method is based on calculation of the absolute volume occupied by concrete ingredient.
This method consider the requirement for workability, consistency, strength and durability of
concrete.
Design Steps:
Collect the data required for mix design first:
-
Fineness modulus of fine aggregate, Sp. Gravity of fine & coarse agg. , Unit wt. of dry rodded
coarse agg. & Sp. Gr. of cement.
Step1: Determine target mean strength (Fmean) from specified characteristic strength(Fck):
Fmean = Fck+ * K
= Standerd deviation (IS456:2000 page23 For M10/15=3.5, M20/25=4.0 M30-50=5.0)
K= Himsworth constant (1.64 for 95% confidence level)
Step2: Determine Minimum W/C ratio based on Target Strength and compare with W/C
requirement for Durability consideration.
Table 6.5: Relation between W/C ratio & Av. Compressive strength (ACI 211.1:91)
38.2
0.45
Table 6.6: Relation between W/C ratio & Exposure conditions (ACI 318-89)
Step3: Determine free water content depending upon max size & type of aggregate and degree of
workability.
Table 6.7: Water content determination depending upon slump & max. agg. size
Step4: Calculate cement content from W/C ratio & water content of mix determined previously.
Step5: Determine Bulk volume of dry rodded C A depending upon Max. Agg. size & Fineness
Modulus of fine aggregate (Table 6.8).
Calculate Wt. of C A = Bulk Volume * Bulk Density
Table: 6.8 Bulk Volume of Dry rodded Coarse Aggregate depending upon FM & Max Agg. size
OR
EXAMPLE ACI METHOD: Design concrete mix for RCC underground water tank. The characteristic
strength required is 30Mpa at 28days. Max aggregate size = 20mm crushed. Sieve analysis of fine
aggregate shows Fineness modulus 2.6. Dry rodded bulk density of CA = 1600kg/m3. Average Sp. gr.
of aggregate is 2.65. Slump required 30-60 mm. OPC Cement (Type1) will be used.
Step1: Fmean = Fck+ * K = 30 + 1.64*5 = 38.2Mpa (For M30, =5 Ref; IS456:2000 page23)
Step2: Minimum W/C ratio based on Target Strength (Table 6.5) = 0.45
Minimum W/C ratio based on durability (Table 6.6) = 0.5
Adopt minimum W/C = 0.45
Step3: Free water content (Table 6.4) = 185kg/m3
Step4: Cement content (Step 2&3) = 185/0.45 = 411kg/m3
Step5: Bulk volume of dry rodded C A = 0.64 {depending upon Max. Agg. Size 20mm & Fineness
Modulus of fine aggregate 2.6 (Table 6.8)}
Calculate Wt. of C A = Bulk Volume * Bulk Density = 0.64m3 * 1600kg/m3 = 1024 kg/m3
Step6: Wet density of concrete for Max 20mm aggregate & Normal Concrete (Table 6.9) =
2355kg/m3
Step7: Determine Wt of F A required:
F A required: = F. A. (wt.) = Total wt of concrete (step6) Cement (step4) Water (step3) C A
(step5)
= 2355 411 - 185 1024 = 735kg/m3
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Very severe
Extreme
PCC
Min.
Cement
Kg/m3
220
240
250
260
280
RCC
Max. free
W/C
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
Min.
Cement
Kg/m3
300
300
320
340
360
Max. free
W/C
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.45
0.4
Minimum Grade of
concrete
PCC
RCC
M15
M20
M20
M25
M20
M25
M30
M35
M40
Step3: Determine free water content & Fine to total Agg. ratio depending upon max size of
aggregate & concrete Strength for standard condition.
Make the adjustment depending upon Ingredient properties.
Table 6.11: Approximate Sand & Water content (Kg/m3) for Compaction Factor CF =0.8
(approximate slump 30mm), Angular coarse aggregate & Sand zone II as per IS383:1970
Upto M35
W/C - 0.6
CF =0.8
> M35
W/C 0.35
CF =0.8
Table 6.12: Adjustment table for water content & % sand in total aggregate.
Step4: Calculate cement content from W/C ratio & water content of mix determined previously.
Compare value with min. / max. value of cement content of durability requirement (Table 6.10) &
modify if required.
Step5: Calculate Aggregate content:
Step6: The mix proportion above obtained by the assumption that the aggregates are saturated &
surface dry if any deviation, make adjustment in water & aggregate content.
EXAMPLE IS METHOD: Design concrete mix for RCC Silo. The characteristic strength required is
30Mpa at 28days. Max aggregate size = 20mm crushed. Sieve analysis of fine aggregate shows Sand
zone III. Workability required compaction factor 0.9. Exposure condition moderate. Cement Type E 53Mpa will be used. Sp. gr. of CA = 2.7 / FA = 2.6 / Cement = 3.15.
Step1: Fmean = Fck+ 1.65*S = 30 + 1.65*5 = 38.25Mpa (For M30, =5 Ref; IS456:2000 page23)
Step2: Minimum W/C ratio based on Target Strength (Fig 6.7) = 0.45
Minimum W/C ratio based on durability (Table 6.10) = 0.5
Adopt minimum W/C = 0.45
Step3: Free water content (Table 6.11) = 186kg/m3 & F A = 35% of Total Agg.
Adjustments (Table 6.12):
Condition Change
+ 3%
(0.9-0.8) = 0.1
Decrease in W/C ratio (0.45-0.6)
0
-
= -0.15
Total
1.5%
(0.15/0.05)
= - 3%
+3%
-4.5%
Air content
425 .8
(1 0.02) = 191.6 +
+
3.15
.305 2.6
1
1000
fa = 518kg/m3
=
10.305
0.305
518
2.7
2.6
Ca= 1225.8kg/m3
Cement : Fine : Coarse = 425.8 : 518 : 1225.8 = 1 : 1.217 : 2.879 & W/C = 0.45
Abrams w/c law states that the strength of concrete depends on the w/c ratio only. This rule is
still taken as the fundamental tool for concrete mix design. This rule explains the weakening
of paste phase due to increase in W/C ratio thus porosity of concrete but effect of W/C ratio
in transition zone is not explained.
Also the effect of aggregate strength on concrete is not incorporated in the rule (assuming the
aggregates are stronger than paste & concrete failure takes place with bond failure only,
which may not be true always).
Feret has formulated the strength of concrete paste depending upon its constituents in 1897
as,
Strength S = K*[
(++)
]2
Equation given by Feret explain the strength change not only due to the effect on w/c ratio
but also the degree of compaction (a-air content).
Gel-Space ratio:
Many research has shown that the strength parameter can be related more accurately to the
gel-space ratio than the w/c ratio. Power & Brownyard presented that the gel-space ratio
(Ratio of solid product of hydration of cement to space available for product formation).
The gel-space ratio can also be defined as the ratio of volume of hydrated cement paste to
sum of volume of hydrated paste & capillary pores.
Strength S = 240*x3 Where x= gel space ratio.
Calculation of gel-space ratio:
C= wt. of cement in gm
Vc=Sp. Volume of cement = 0.319ml/gm
Wo = Volume of water
It was presented by various researches that 1gm cement produce nearly 2.06ml of gel.
Class notes on Concrete Technology (P -48)
(. %)
( %+)
(. %)
( %+/)
(. %)
( %+)
(. %)
( %+/)
( )
( )
Capillary porosity =
( )
( )
(/ . %)
(+/)
Capillary porosity =
(/ %)
(+/)
300
0.87
As cylinder specimen seems to have more uniform result than cube specimen, is being
popular in research laboratory. But due to easiness in casing & transportation cube specimen
are popular in construction site in country like Nepal, India, UK etc.
It is found that the cylinder specimen gives lower strength value than cube strength. Various
relations between cube & cylinder strength are given below:
BS 1881:1970 ;
Cylinder strength = (4/5)* Cube Strength
L Hermite;
Cylinder strength = 0.76+0.2*log(fcm/2840)
Typical test result:
Cube Strength (Mpa)
Cylinder Strength (Mpa)
9
7
20
17
30
27
45
42
49
45
ii) Tensile Strength: Being weak in tension, tensile strength of concrete is normally
neglected in design. Various test method / tensile strengths are given below:
a) Direct tension: If tensile strength of concrete is determined applying direct (Pure) tension
to concrete specimen.
Tensile Strength (fct) = Tensile Force (P)/Area
As perfect grip during loading is difficult & also due to induction of secondary
stress, the direct tensile test is not very popular. Normally tensile strength of
concrete can be taken as 10% of compressive strength (Fck).
IS456:2000 relates direct tensile strength to compressive strength as:
Tensile Strength () = .
b) Splitting tension: This is one of the popular indirect tensile test method also known as
Brazilian test. The test is carried out in cylinder specimen, placing it horizontally between
loading surface. Even the load applied is compressive; almost 5/6th of depth is subjected
to uniform tensile stress. Splitting tensile test gives slightly higher value than direct
tension.
Horizontal Tensile Stress = 2P/ LD
P = Compressive Load (N)
L= Length of Specimen (mm)
D= Diameter of Specimen (mm)
Vertical compressive Stress on cylinder = 2P/ LD [
D-x
c) Flexural tension: Flexural tension is the tensile force developed in concrete in bending.
As most of the concrete element has to resist bending tension instead of direct tension, the
flexural tension has also its own importance. Normally two types of flexural test is
performed to determine flexural tension:
i) Center point loading
ii) Three point loading
NA
Where,
= Stress at distance y from neutral axis (NA)
M= Moment at given section of beam for given loading.
I= Moment of Inertia of section (For rectangular section = bd3/12)
y= Distance at which stress is required (For rect. section at extreme fiber =d/2)
The standard test specimen size for above test is 15x15x70cm (Span L =60cm) alternatively
10x10x50cm (Span L=40cm) specimen is also used in some case. The flexural strength of
specimen is determined as modulus of rupture fb (= max) at ultimate loading.
Test result shows that center pt. loading gives slightly high value than 3 point loading;
following empirical relation is given by center of road research,
fb (Centre pt. loading) = fb (3 pt. loading) + 0.72
fb= flexural strength (in Mpa)
IS456:2000 relates modulus of rupture (Flexural tension) to compressive strength as:
Flexural tensile strength () = .
iii) Shear Strength: Shear can be defined as the action of equal & opposite parallel force
acting in plane short distance apart. Direct determination of shear force is difficult, can be
taken as 12% of compressive strength if test data is not available. In beam shear failure
can be seen as combine bending & shear, normally acting at 45 0 to shear.
IS456:2000 relates Shear strength to compressive strength as:
Compressive strength
M15
M20
M25
M30
Shear strength (N/mm2)
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.2
M35
2.3
M40
2.5
iv) Bond strength: In generalized form two types of bond strength can be discussed:
a. Bond between cement & aggregate: Bond between hydrated cement & aggregate affects
the overall strength of concrete. As for normal strength concrete aggregate is sufficiently
strong the strength of concrete depends entirely upon the bonding between cement &
aggregate. Lower W/C ratio & use of mineral admixture significantly enhance the bond
strength by reducing porosity & enhancing characteristics of transition zone.
b. Bond between steel & concrete: This bond is primarily due to the friction & adhesion
between steel & concrete surface. Mainly depends upon the strength of concrete &
surface and mechanical property of steel. Higher the compressive strength higher will be
the bond strength. Higher specific surface of gel also found to give higher bond strength
(C-S-H gel from C2S gives more sp. surface than from C3S compound). Also the
deformed bar has found to give higher bond strength than plain bar. The moisture content
(adversely affect) & stress condition (In tension low bond strength in compression high)
also affect the bond strength.
IS456:200 has given the bond strength of plain bar in tension as:
Compressive strength
M15
M20
M25
M30
Bond strength (N/mm2)
6
8
9
10
For deformed bar above value can be increased by 60%
Further increase in above value for bar in compression by 25%
M35
11
M40
12
v) Bearing strength: Concentrated loading on concrete surface tends to punch the surface
inside, resistance to which can be termed as bearing strength. Normally, bearing stress is
significant at the base of the steel/concrete column in foundation & in anchored area of
tendon in pre-stressed concrete. IS 456:2000 recommends,
Bearing Strength = 0.25*Fck for Working stress design method.
Bearing Strength = 0.45*Fck for Limit State design method.
7.5 Effect Of Time & Temperature On Concrete: As we know the hydration of cement
continues for long course of time, provided the moisture available for hydration process;
strength of concrete also increases in similar pattern with time. In general, strength of
concrete increases with time.
(+.)
) )]* fc28
Effect of Temperature: Depending upon the age & stage of concrete, temperature affects the
concrete in various ways. Lets take the three different case to have the detail knowledge:
Case I: Concrete cast & cure at same temperature.
Case II: Concrete cast at different temp.& cure at normal (standard) temperature.
Case III: Concrete cast at normal (standard) temp. & cure at different temp erature.
Case I: Concrete cast & cure at same
temperature.
Result shows that the increase in
temperature increases the rate of hydration
of cement thus rate of gain of strength also
increases with time.
This shows that the increase in temperature
has positive effect on strength gain.
The relation between max stress level & number of cycle for failure can be given as:
fmax / fc
Log N
=
.
(
)
(
)
(
=
Dynamic/Impact Loading: If concrete is applied with very short term loading can be termed
as impact loading. In other word, if the rate of loading applied is very high can be termed as
impact loading and strength under such loading condition is termed as impact strength. It is
interesting that the impact strength of concrete increases with rate of loading (i.e. Higher the
impact rate higher the strength of concrete).
Compare to the 0.25Mpa/sec of standard loading condition, the lower rate (0.007Mpa/sec)
shows 12% reduction in fck, while increased loading rate (6.9Mpa/sec) shows 12% increase
in fck. Due to the availability of time for the propagation of micro-crack (in transition zone)
at low rate of loading, high loading rate shows improved strength value.
Impact strength found to be increased with:
Increase in rate of loading.
Increase in surface roughness of aggregate.
Decrease in aggregate size.
Improved transition zone.
Increase in tensile strength of concrete.
Class notes on Concrete Technology (P -56)
The CEB-FIP Model Code (1990) recommends the following relation for compressive
strength due to impact:
,
= ( / 0 )
Where,
Experiment shows that stress strain curve of rich mix concrete shows less strain value for
particular stress level also the ultimate strain is less (ie low ductility behavior).
Behavior of concrete (in terms of Stress-strain curve & failure mechanism) at various stress
level can be expressed as given below.
At initial stage of loading upto 30% of ultimate stress level, concrete shows stable system of
micro-cracking. Micro crack exist in transition zone only & stress strain curve also shows its
linear behavior.
Upto 30-50% of ultimate stress level, increase in both length & width of micro-cracks occurs
in transition zone. Still the micro-crack system can be termed as stable & normally no crack
in paste phase but stress-strain curve begin to show its non linearity.
Upto 50-75% of ultimate loading crack start in paste phase also. Further propagation of crack
in both transition zone & paste matrix leads crack system to unstable stage. Stress strain
curve shows strong non-linearity.
Upto 75-100% of ultimate loading crack reach at its critical stage & with the increase in crack
spontaneous failure of specimen occur at its ultimate loading. Stress strain curve almost
become flat & moves down indicating failure.
= Density of concrete
L= Specimen length mm
n= Resonating frequency HZ
K= 4x10-15 (Gpa)
Factor affecting E:
Strength
of
concrete
(Directly
proportionalE=5000 : )
Moisture condition (Ewet > Edry)
Aggregate / Paste quality (1/E = Vol. of paste/E paste + Vol. of Agg/E Agg)
Poisson ratio :
Can be define as the ratio of lateral strain to corresponding longitudinal strain.
= 0.15 0.2 for most of the concrete.
Generally high for low strength concrete & low for high strength
For analysis & design of some typical structure its knowledge is required.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity method can be applied as alternative method to find out its value.
( /) =
( )
( + )( )
L= Specimen length mm
n= Resonating frequency HZ
V= Pulse velocity (mm/s)
For the durability of concrete permeability is treated as one of the key factor. Being small,
water molecules are capable of penetrating extremely fine pores / cavities. As a one of the
strong solvent it may dissolve acid/salt/alkalis/gas ions which ultimately cause the
deterioration of concrete. For the same reason less the permeability of concrete less the effect
of chemical deterioration to it.
Cause of deterioration:
Permeability to water, O2, CO2, Chloride, Sulphate, & other potentially deteriorating
substances.
W/C ratio.
Cement type.
Compaction & Curing .
Rate of hydration & hydration process.
Creep is partially reversible & partially irreversible phenomenon. The permanent deformation
due to creep is also called residual deformation.
Factors affecting creep:
Aggregate properties: Stronger the aggregate less the effect of creep. Aggregate with
higher E-value shows less creep.
Mix Proportion: Rich mix concrete with low W/C ratio shows low creep than poor
concrete mix.
Age/Time: Higher the age of concrete, more the formation of gel which ultimately
reduce creep phenomenon.
Shrinkage:
Change in volume of concrete by various phenomenon is called shrinkage. Shrinkage in
concrete is mainly due to the loss of moisture from concrete at its various stages. Various
types (as well as cause) of shrinkage can be listed as:
a) Plastic Shrinkage: Shrinkage due to the loss of moisture of concrete at its plastic stage
(green stage) is called plastic shrinkage. This type of shrinkage can be seen more in
large exposed surface concrete eg, road pavement, floor slab etc. Moisture loss due to
evaporation is main cause of this type of shrinkage.
b) Drying Shrinkage : Shrinkage due to the loss of moisture of harden concrete is called
drying shrinkage. Due to loss of moisture from concrete subjected to drying condition,
drying shrinkage occurs.
c) Autogeneous Shrinkage: Shrinkage due to without moisture movement from or to
concrete system can be termed as Autogeneous shrinkage. Very negligible compared
to other types of shrinkage.
d) Carbonation Shrinkage: CO2 present in environment react with Ca(OH)2 in concrete
producing CaCO3. This leads to the volume change in concrete, resulting carbonation
shrinkage.
M30
10
M35
11
M40
12
If bond is inadequate slipping of reinforcement will occur. In general bond strength can be
divided into two types:
a) Flexural bond: Arise in flexural member in account of variation in bending moment.
b) Anchorage bond: Arise over length of anchorage provided for bar over end or cutoff
point. This resists the pullout of bar due to external forces.
Development length required for anchorage or flexural bond can be given as:
Ld = * fs/ 4bd
Ld = Development Length
= Dia. Of steel bar.
fs = Stress in steel (=0.87*fy for max stress)
fy= Yield strength of steel.
bd = Bond strength as given by IS456: 2000.
by constituents of electrolyte & combine with H2O & O2 to form (OH) ions. These travel
through electrolyte & combine with ferrous ion to form ferric hydroxide which further
oxidize to rust.
Figure / reaction illustrated below gives more clear picture of corrosion of steel in
concrete.
9.3 Acceptable Criteria for Concrete Strength in Structure: Acceptance criteria given by
IS 456:2000 for sample cube test result is given below.
Minimum Sampling Frequency:
APPENDIX
1. Slump loss & its prevention:
Slump loss is the natural phenomenon in which plastic concrete gradually loses its slump
with time. The rate of slump loss is even high in plasticized concrete. Concreting with
delayed mixing & placing is more affected by slump loss.
Slump Prevention: