UNIT V SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS AND SPECIAL MACHINES 9

Constructional details of single phase induction motor Double field revolving

theory and operation Equivalent circuit No load and blocked rotor test
Performance analysis Starting methods of single-phase induction motors
Capacitor-start capacitor run Induction motor- Shaded pole induction motor - Linear
induction motor Repulsion motor - Hysteresis motor - AC series motor- Servo
motors Stepper motors - introduction to magnetic levitation systems.

UNIT V SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS AND SPECIAL MACHINES 9

Constructional details of single phase induction motor

For general lighting purpose in shops, offices, houses, schools etc. Single phase a.c. supply is
commonly used. Hence instead of d.c. motors, the motors which work on single phase a.c. supply
are very popularly in use. These a.c. motors are called single phase induction motors. The
numerous domestic applications use single phase motors. The power rating of such motors is very
small. Some of them are even fractional horse power motors, which are used in applications like
small toys, small fans, hair dryers etc. This chapter explains the construction, working principle and
applications of various types of single phase induction motors.
Construction of Single Phase Induction Motors
Similar to a d.c. motor, single phase induction motor has basically two main parts.one rotating
and other stationary. The stationary part in single phase induction motors is called stator while the
rotating part is called rotor.
The stator has laminated construction, made up of stampings. The stampings are slotted on its
periphery to carry the winding called stator winding or main winding. This is excited by a single
phase a.c. supply. The laminated construction keeps iron losses to minimum. The stampings are
made up of material like silicon steel which minimises the hysteresis loss. The stator winding is
wound for certain definite number of poles means when excited by single phase a.c. supply, stator
produces the magnetic field which creates the effect of certain definite number of poles. The number
of poles for which stator winding is wound, decides the synchronous speed of the motor. The
synchronous speed is denoted as Ns and it has a fixed relation with supply frequency f and number
of poles P. The relation is given by,

The induction motor never rotates with the synchronous speed but rotates at a speed which is
slightly less than the synchronous speed.
The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type. In this type, rotor consists of uninsulated copper
or aluminium bars, placed in the slots. The bars are permanently shorted at both the ends with the

help of conducting rings called end rings. The entire structure looks like cage hence called squirrel
cage rotor. The construction and symbol is shown in the Fig..1

Fig. 1

As the bars are permanently shorted to each other, the resistance of the entire rotor is very very
small. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible. The main
feature of this rotor is that it automatically adjusts itself for same number of poles as that of the stator
winding.
The schematic representation of two pole single phase induction motor is shown in the Fig.2.

Double field revolving theory and operation

The double-field revolving theory is proposed to explain this dilemma of no

torque at start and yet torque once rotated. This theory is based on the fact that
an alternating sinusoidal flux ( = m cos t) can be represented by two
revolving fluxes, each equal to one-half of the maximum value of
alternating flux (i.e., m/2) and each rotating at synchronous speed (Ns = 120
f/P, = 2 f) in opposite directions.
The above statement will now be proved. The
instantaneous value of flux due to the stator current
of a single-phase induction motor is given by;
m

cos t

Consider two rotating magnetic fluxes 1 and 2

each of magnitude m/2 and rotating in opposite

directions with angular

velocity
[See Fig.

(9.2)]. Let the two fluxes start rotating from OX

axis at
Fig.(9.2)

t = 0. After time t seconds, the angle through which the flux vectors have rotated
is at. Resolving the flux vectors along-X-axis and Y-axis, we have,
Total X-component
Total Y-component
Resultant flux,

2
m

2
m

cos t

2
m

sin t
cos t

2
2

cos t
sin t
m

cos t

0
cos t

Thus the resultant flux vector is = m cos

t along X-axis. Therefore, an alternating
field can be replaced by two relating fields
of half its amplitude rotating in opposite
directions at synchronous speed. Note that
the resultant vector of two revolving flux
vectors is a stationary vector that oscillates
in length with time along X-axis. When the
Fig.(9.3)
rotating flux vectors are in phase [See Fig.
(9.3 (i))], the resultant vector is = m; when out of phase by 180 [See Fig. (9.3
(ii))], the resultant vector = 0.
Let us explain the operation of single-phase induction motor by double-field
revolving theory.

(i) Rotor at standstill

Consider the case that the rotor is stationary and the stator winding is connected
to a single-phase supply. The alternating flux produced by the stator winding
can be presented as the sum of two rotating fluxes 1 and 2, each equal to one
half of the maximum value of alternating flux and each rotating at synchronous
speed (Ns = 120 f/P) in opposite directions as shown in Fig. (9.4 (i)). Let the flux
1 rotate in anti clockwise direction and flux 2 in clockwise direction. The flux
1 will result in the production of torque T1 in the anti clockwise direction and
flux 2 will result in the production of torque T2 In the clockwise direction. At
standstill, these two torques are equal and opposite and the net torque developed
is zero. Therefore, single-phase induction motor is not self-starting. This fact is
illustrated in Fig. (9.4 (ii)).
Note that each rotating field tends to drive the rotor in the direction in which the
field rotates. Thus the point of zero slip for one field corresponds to 200% slip
for the other as explained later. The value of 100% slip (standstill condition) is
the same for both the fields.

Fig.(9.4)

(ii) Rotor running

Now assume that the rotor is started by spinning the rotor or by using auxiliary
circuit, in say clockwise direction. The flux rotating in the clockwise direction is
the forward rotating flux ( f) and that in the other direction is the backward
rotating flux ( b). The slip w.r.t. the forward flux will be
sf
where

Ns N
Ns

Ns = synchronous speed
N = speed of rotor in the direction of forward flux

The rotor rotates opposite to the rotation of the backward flux. Therefore, the
slip w.r.t. the backward flux will be
sb

Ns

( N)
Ns

2N s
Ns

Ns N
Ns

(N s N)
Ns

2N s

Ns
Ns

2 s

sb 2 s
Thus fur forward rotating flux, slip is s (less than unity) and for
backward rotating flux, the slip is 2
s (greater than unity). Since for usual
rotor resistance/reactance ratios, the torques at slips of less than unity arc
greater than those at slips of more than unity, the resultant torque will be in the
direction of the rotation of the forward flux. Thus if the motor is once started, it
will develop net torque in the direction in which it has been started and will
function as a motor.

Fig. (9.5) shows the rotor circuits for the forward and backward rotating fluxes.
Note that r2 = R2/2, where R2 is the standstill rotor resistance i.e., r2 is equal to
half the standstill rotor resistance. Similarly, x2 = X2/2 where X2 is the standstill
rotor reactance. At standstill, s = 1 so that impedances of the two circuits are
equal. Therefore, rotor currents are equal i.e., I2f = I2b. However, when the rotor
rotates, the impedances of the two rotor circuits are unequal and the rotor current
I2b is higher (and also at a lower power factor) than the rotor current I2f. Their
m.m.f.s, which oppose the stator m.m.f.s, will result in a reduction of the
backward rotating flux. Consequently, as speed increases, the forward flux
increases, increasing the driving torque while the backward flux decreases,
reducing the opposing torque. The motor-quickly accelerates to the final speed.

Fig.(9.5)
Equivalent circuit

It was stated earlier that when the stator of a single-phase induction motor is con
heeled to single-phase supply, the stator current produces a pulsating flux that is
equivalent to two-constant-amplitude fluxes revolving in opposite directions at
the synchronous speed (double-field revolving theory). Each of these fluxes
induces currents in the rotor circuit and produces induction motor action similar
to that in a 3-phase induction motor Therefore, a single-phase induction motor
can to imagined to be consisting of two motors, having a common stator
winding but with their respective rotors revolving in opposite directions. Each
rotor has resistance and reactance half the actual rotor values.
Let
R1 = resistance of stator winding
X1 = leakage reactance of stator winding
Xm = total magnetizing reactance
R'2 = resistance of the rotor referred to the stator
X'2 = leakage reactance of the rotor referred to the stator

(i)

revolving theory.
At standstill. At standstill, the motor is simply a transformer with its
secondary short-circuited. Therefore, the equivalent circuit of single-phase
motor at standstill will be as shown in Fig. The double-field revolving
theory suggests that characteristics associated with each revolving
field will be just one-half of the characteristics associated with the actual
total flux. Therefore, each rotor has resistance and reactance equal to
R'2/2 and X'2/2 respectively. Each rotor is associated with half the

total magnetizing reactance. Note that in the equivalent circuit, the core
loss has been neglected. However, core loss can be represented by an
equivalent resistance in parallel with the magnetizing reactance.
Now
At standstill,

b.

Ef = 4.44 f N f;

Eb = 4.44 f N

Therefore, Ef = Eb.

V1 ~ Ef + Eb = I1Zf + I1Zb
where

Zf = impedance of forward parallel branch

Zb = impedance of backward parallel branch

(ii) Rotor running. Now consider that the motor is pinning at some speed in
the direction of the forward revolving field, the slip being s. The rotor
current produced by the forward field will have a frequency sf where f is
the stator frequency. Also, the rotor current produced by the backward field
will have a frequency of (2 s)f. Fig. (9.19) shows the equivalent circuit of
a single-phase induction motor when the rotor is rotating at slip s. It is
clear, from the equivalent circuit that under running conditions, Ef becomes

much greater than Eb because the term R'2/2s increases very much as s
tends towards zero. Conversely, E^ falls because the term R'2/2(2
s)
decreases since (2
s) tends toward 2. Consequently, the forward field
increases, increasing the driving torque while the backward field decreases
reducing the opposing torque.

No load and blocked rotor test

he various tests can be performed on single phase induction motor. The results of these tests can be
used to obtain the equivalent circuit parameters of a single phase induction motor. The tests usually
conducted are :
1. No load test or open circuit test
2. Blocked rotor test or short circuit test
1. No load test
The test is conducted by rotating the motor without load. The input current, voltage and power
are measured by connecting the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter in the circuit. These readings are
denoted as Vo , Io and Wo .
Now

Wo = Vo Io cos

The motor speed on no load is almost equal to its synchronous speed hence for practical
purposes, the slip can be assumed zero. Hence r 2/s becomes and acts as open circuit in the
equivalent circuit. Hence for forward rotor circuit, the branch r2/s + j x2 gets eliminated.

While for a backward rotor circuit, the term r2/(2 - s) tends to r2/2. Thus xo is much higher then the
impedance r2/2 + j x2. Hence it can be assumed that no current can flow through and that branch can
be eliminated.
So circuit reduces to as shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1

Now the voltage across xo is VAB

But

VAB = Io xo
xo = VAB /Io

..
But

xo = Xo /2

Thus magnetising reactance Xo can be determined.

The no load power Wo is nothing but the rotational losses.
2. Blocked Rotor Test
In balanced rotor test, the rotor is held fixed so that it will not rotate. A reduced voltage is applied
to limit the short circuit current. This voltage is adjusted with the help of autotransformer so that the
rated current flows through main winding. The input voltage, current and power are measured by
connecting voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter respectively. These readings are denoted as V sc ,
Isc and Wsc.

Now as rotor is blocked, the slip s = 1 hence the magnetising reactance x o is much higher than
the rotor impedance and hence it can be neglected as connected in parallel with the rotor. Thus the
equivalent circuit for blocked rotor test is as shown in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2

Wsc = Vsc Isc cos sc

cos sc =Wsc /Vsc Isc
= blocked rotor power factor
Now

Zeq = Vsc/ Isc

Req = Wsc /( Isc)

But

Req = R1 + R2
R2 = Req - R1
= rotor resistance referred to stator

...

Xeq =(Zeq - Req )

X1 = X2 we get,

The stator resistance is measured by voltmeter-ammeter method, by disconnecting the auxiliary

winding and capacitors present if any. Due to skin effect, the a.c. resistance is 1.2 to 1.5 times more
than the d.c. resistance.
Key point : Thus with two tests, all the parameters of single phase induction motor can be
obtained.

Performance analysis

Starting methods of single-phase induction motors

The single phase induction motors are made self starting by providing an additional
flux by some additional means. Now depending upon these additional means
the single phase induction motors are classified as:

Split Phase Induction Motor

In addition to the main winding or running winding, the stator of single phase
induction motor carries another winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding.
A centrifugal switch is connected in series with auxiliary winding . The purpose of
this switch is to disconnect the auxiliary winding from the main circuit when the
motor attains a speed up to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed. We know that the
running winding is inductive in nature. Our aim is to create the phase difference
between the two winding and this is possible if the starting winding carries
high resistance. Let us say Irun is the current flowing through the main or running
winding, Istart is the current flowing in starting winding, & VT is the supply voltage.

We know that for highly resistive winding the current is almost in phase with
the voltage and for highly inductive winding the current lag behind the voltage by
large angle. The starting winding is highly resistive so, the current flowing in the
starting winding lags behind the applied voltage by very small angle and the
running winding is highly inductive in nature so, the current flowing in running
winding lags behind appliedvoltage by large angle. The resultant of these
two current is IT. The resultant of these two current produce rotating magnetic
field which rotates in one direction. In split phase induction motor the starting
and main current get splitted from each other by some angle so this motor got its
name as split phase induction motor.

Applications of Split Phase Induction Motor

Split phase induction motors have low starting current and moderate starting
torque. So these motors are used in fans, blowers, centrifugal pumps, washing
machine, grinder, lathes, air conditioning fans, etc. These motors are available in
the size ranging from 1 / 20 to 1 / 2 KW.

Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start

Capacitor Run IM

The
working principle and construction of Capacitor start inductor motors
and capacitor start capacitor run induction motors are almost the same. We already
know that single phase induction motor is not self starting because the magnetic
field produced is not rotating type. In order to produce rotating magnetic field there
must be some phase difference. In case of split phase induction motor we
use resistance for creating phase difference but here we use capacitor for this
purpose. We are familiar with this fact that thecurrent flowing through
the capacitor leads the voltage. So, in capacitor
start inductor motor andcapacitor start capacitor run induction motor we
are using two winding, the main winding and the starting winding. With starting
winding we connect a capacitor so the current flowing in the capacitor i.e Istleads
the applied voltage by some angle, st.

The running winding is inductive in nature so, the current flowing in running
winding lags behind applied voltage by an angle, m. Now there occur large
phase angle differences between these two currents which produce an
resultant current, I and this will produce a rotating magnetic field. Since the

torque produced by these motors depends upon the phase angle difference,
which is almost 90. So, these motors produce very high starting torque. In
case of capacitor start induction motor, the centrifugal switch is provided
so as to disconnect the starting winding when the motor attains a speed up
to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed but in case of capacitor start
capacitors run induction motor there is no centrifugal switch so, the
capacitor remains in the circuit and helps to improve the power factor and
the running conditions of single phase induction motor.

Application of Capacitor Start IM and Capacitor Start

Capacitor Run IM
These motors have high starting torque hence they are used in conveyors, grinder,
air conditioners, compressor, etc. They are available up to 6 KW.

Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) Motor

It has a cage rotor and stator. Stator has two windings main & auxiliary winding.
It has only one capacitor in series with starting winding. It has no starting switch.
Advantages and applications
No centrifugal switch is needed. It has higher efficiency and pull out torque. It finds
applications in fans and blowers in heaters and air conditioners. It is also used to
drive office machinery.

Shaded Pole Single Phase Induction Motors

The stator
of the shaded pole single phase induction motor has salient or projected poles.
These poles are shaded by copper band or ring which is inductive in nature. The

poles are divided into two unequal halves. The smaller portion carries the copper
band and is called as shaded portion of the pole.

ACTION: When a single phase supply is given to the stator of shaded pole
induction motor an alternating flux is produced . This change of flux induces
emf in the shaded coil. Since this shaded portion is short circuited, the
current is produced in it in such a direction to oppose the main flux. The flux
in shaded pole lags behind the flux in the unshaded pole. The phase
difference between these two fluxes produces resultant rotating flux.
We know that the stator winding current is alternating in nature and so is
the flux produced by the stator current. In order to clearly understand the
working of shaded pole induction motor consider three regions1.

When the flux changes its value from zero to nearly maximum
positive value.

2.

When the flux remains almost constant at its maximum value.

3.
When the flux decreases from maximum positive value to zero.
REGION 1: When the flux changes its value from zero to nearly maximum positive
value In this region the rate of rise of flux and hence current is very high.
According to Faraday's law whenever there is change in flux emf gets induced.
Since the copper band is short circuit the current starts flowing in the copper band
due to this induced emf. This current in copper band produces its own flux. Now
according to Lenz's law the direction of this current in copper band is such that it
opposes its own cause i.e rise in current. So the shaded ring flux opposes the main
flux, which leads to the crowding of flux in non shaded part of stator and the flux
weaken in shaded part. This non uniform distribution of flux causes magnetic axis
to shift in the middle of the non shaded part.

REGION 2: When the flux remains almost constant at its maximum value
In this region the rate of rise of current and hence flux remains almost
constant. Hence there is very little induced emf in the shaded portion. The
flux produced by this induced emf has no effect on the main flux and hence
distribution of flux remains uniform and the magnetic axis lies at the center
of the pole.
REGION 3: When the flux decreases from maximum positive value to zero In this region the rate of decrease in the flux and hence current is very high.
According to Faraday's law whenever there is change in flux emf gets
induced. Since the copper band is short circuit the current starts flowing in
the copper band due to this induced emf. This current in copper band
produces its own flux. Now according to Lenz's law the direction of the

current in copper band is such that it opposes its own cause i.e decrease in
current. So the shaded ring flux aids the main flux, which leads to the
crowding of flux in shaded part of stator and the flux weaken in non shaded
part. This non uniform distribution of flux causes magnetic axis to shift in the
middle of the shaded part of the pole.
This shifting of magnetic axis continues for negative cycle also and leads to
the production of rotating magnetic field. The direction of this field is from
non shaded part of the pole to the shaded part of the pole.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Shaded Pole Motor

The advantages of shaded pole induction motor are
1.

Very economical and reliable.

2.

Construction is simple and robust because there is no centrifugal

switch.
The disadvantages of shaded pole induction motor are
1.

Low power factor.

2.

The starting torque is very poor.

3.

The efficiency is very low as, the copper losses are high due to
presence of copper band.

4.

The speed reversal is also difficult and expensive as it requires

another set of copper rings.

Applications of Shaded Pole Motor

Applications of Shaded pole motors induction motor are-

Due to their low starting torques and reasonable cost these motors are
mostly employed in small instruments, hair dryers, toys, record players,
small fans, electric clocks etc. These motors are usually available in a range
of 1/300 to 1/20 KW.
Capacitor-start capacitor run Induction motor

Shaded pole induction motor

Linear induction motor

Repulsion motor

Hysteresis motor

AC series motor

Servo motors

Stepper motors

introduction to magnetic levitation systems