11/18/2015

GuardianshipUnderHindu,Muslim,ChristianAndParsiLaws
LegalServiceIndiaGuardianshipUnderHindu,Muslim,ChristianAndParsiLaws
GuardianshipUnderHindu,Muslim,ChristianAndParsiLaws
Writtenby:RomitAgrawal&GorangVashisthaIVyearStudentsofGujaratNationalLawUniversity,
Gandhinagar

Chatwithus(2PM9PMIST)

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GuardianshipUnderHinduLaw
TheDharmashastrasdidnotdealwiththelawofguardianship.DuringtheBritishregimethelawofguardianshipwasdevelopedbythecourts.Itcametobe
establishedthatthefatheristhenaturalguardianofthechildrenandafterhisdeath,motheristhenaturalguardianofthechildrenandnoneelsecanbethe
naturalguardianofminorchildren.TestamentaryguardianswerealsointroducedinHindulaw:Itwasalsoacceptedthatthesupremeguardianshipoftheminor
childrenvestedintheStateasparenspatrieandwasexercisedbythecourts.TheHindulawofguardianshipofminorchildrenhasbeencodifiedandreformed
bytheHinduMinorityandGuardianshipAct,1956.Thesubjectmaybediscussedunderthefollowingheads:(i)Guardianshipofpersonofminors,(u)
Guardianshipofthepropertyofminors,and(iii)Defactoguardians,and(iv)guardiansbyaffinity.
Guardianshipoftheperson
MinorChildren
UndertheHinduMinorityandGuardianshipAct,1956,S.4(b),minormeansapersonwhohasnotcompletedtheageofeighteenyears.Aminorisconsidered
tobeapersonwhoisphysicallyandintellectuallyimperfectandimmatureandhenceneedssomeone'sprotection.Inthemodernlawofmostcountriesthe
childhoodisaccordedprotectioninmultifariousways.Guardianis"apersonhavingthecareofthepersonoftheminororofhispropertyorbothpersonand
property."Itmaybeemphasizedthatinthemodernlawguardiansexistessentiallyfortheprotectionandcareofthechildandtolookafteritswelfare.Thisis
expressedbysayingthatwelfareofthechildisparamountconsideration.Welfareincludesbothphysicalandmoralwellbeing.Guardiansmaybeofthe
followingtypes:1.Naturalguardians,2.Testamentaryguardians,and3.Guardiansappointedordeclaredbythecourt.Therearetwoothertypesofguardians,
existingunderHindulaw,defactoguardians,andguardiansbyaffinity.

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NaturalGuardians
InHindulawonlythreepersonsarerecognizedasnaturalguardiansfather,motherandhusband,Father.Fatheristhenaturalguardianofhisminorlegitimate
children,sonsanddaughters."Section19oftheGuardiansandWardsAct,1890,laysdownthatafathercannotbedeprivedofthenaturalguardianshipofhis
minorchildrenunlesshehasbeenfoundunfit.MeeffectofLh1sprovisionhasbeenconsiderablywhittleddownbyjudicialdecisionsandbySection13ofthe
HinduMinorityandGuardianshipActwhichlaysdownthatwelfareoftheminorisofparamountconsiderationandfather'srightofguardianshipis5ubordinate
tothewelfareofthechild.TheActdoesnotrecognizetheprincipleofjointguardians.Thepositionofadoptedchildrenisatparwithnaturalbornchildren.The
motheristhenaturalguardianoftheminorillegitimatechildrenevenifthefatherisalive.However,sheisthenaturalguardianofherminorlegitimatechildren
onlyifthefatherisdeadorotherwiseisincapableofactingasguardian.Provisotoclause(a)ofSection6,HinduMinorityandGuardianshipActlaysdownthat
thecustodyofaminorwhohasnotcompletedtheageoffiveyearsshallordinarilybewiththemother.Thus,motherisentitledtothecustodyofthechild
belowfiveyears,unlessthewelfareoftheminorrequiresotherwise.
InGitaHariharanv.ReserveBankofIndiaandVandanaShivav.JayantaBandhopadhaya,theSupremeCourthasheldthatundercertaincircumstances,
evenwhenthefatherisalivemothercanactasanaturalguardian.Theterm'after'usedinSection6(a)hasbeeninterpretedas'inabsenceof'instead'afterthe
lifetime'.
Rightsofguardianofperson.Thenaturalguardianhasthefollowingrightsinrespectofminorchildren:
(a)Righttocustody,.
(b)Righttodeterminethereligionofchildren,
(c)Righttoeducation,
(d)Righttocontrolmovement,and
(e)Righttoreasonablechastisement
Theserightsareconferredontheguardiansintheinterestoftheminorchildrenandthereforeofeachoftheserightsissubjecttothewelfareoftheminor
children.Thenaturalguardianshavealsotheobligationtomaintaintheirminorchildren.
TestamentaryGuardians
When,duringtheBritishperiod,testamentarypowerswereconferredonHindus,thetestamentaryguardiansalsocameintoexistence.Itwasfather's
prerogativetoappointtestamentaryguardians.Byappointingatestamentaryguardianthefathercouldexcludethemotherfromhernaturalguardianshipofthe
childrenafterhisdeath.UndertheHinduMinorityandGuardianshipAct,1956,testamentarypowerofappointingaguardianhasnowbeenconferredonboth
parents.'Thefathermayappointatestamentaryguardianbutifmothersurviveshim,histestamentaryappointmentwillbeineffectiveandthemotherwillbethe
naturalguardian.Ifmotherappointstestamentaryguardian,herappointeewillbecomethetestamentaryguardianandfather'sappointmentwillcontinuetobe
ineffective.Ifmotherdoesnotappoint,father'sappointeewillbecometheguardian.ItseemsthataHindufathercannotappointaguardian.ofhisminor
illegitimatechildrenevenwhenheisentitledtoactastheirnatural.guardian,asS.9(1)conferstestamentarypoweronhiminrespectoflegitimatechildren.In
respectofillegitimatechildren,Section9(4)conferssuchpoweronthemotheralone.
UnderSection9,HinduMinorityandGuardianshipAct,testamentaryguardiancanbeappointedonlybyawill.Theguardianofaminorgirlwillceasetobethe
guardianofherpersononhermarriage,andtheguardianshipcannotreviveevenifshebecomesawidowwhileaminor.Itisnecessaryforthetestamentary
guardiantoaccept'theguardianship.Acceptancemaybeexpressorimplied.Atestamentaryguardianmayrefusetoaccepttheappointmentormaydisclaim
it,butonceheaccepts,hecannotrefusetoactorresignexceptwiththepermissionofthecourt.

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GuardianshipUnderHindu,Muslim,ChristianAndParsiLaws
GuardiansAppointedbytheCourt
ThecourtsareempoweredtoappointguardiansundertheGuardiansandWardsAct,1890.TheHighCourtsalsohaveinherentjurisdictiontoappointguardians
butthispowerisexercisedsparingly.TheHinduMinorityandGuardianshipActissupplementarytoandnotinderogationtoGuardiansandWardsAct.Under
theGuardiansandWardsAct,1890,thejurisdictionisconferredontheDistrictCourt:TheDistrictCourtmayappointordeclareanypersonastheguardian
wheneveritconsidersitnecessaryinthewelfareofthechild.'Inappointing,,a"guardian,thecourttakesintoconsiderationvariousfactors,includingtheage,
sex,wishesoftheparentsandthepersonallawofthechild.Thewelfareofthechildrenisofparamountconsideration.
TheDistrictCourthasthepowertoappointordeclareaguardianinrespectofthepersonaswellasseparatepropertyoftheminor.ThecharteredHighCourts
haveinherentjurisdictiontoappointguardiansofthepersonaswellasthepropertyofminorchildren.Thispowerextendstotheundividedinterestofa
coparcener.
Theguardianappointedbythecourtisknownascertificatedguardian.PowersofCertificatedguardians.Powersofcertificatedguardiansarecontrolledbythe
GuardiansandWardsAct,1890.Thereareaveryfewactswhichhecanperformwithoutthepriorpermissionofthecourt.Intheultimateanalysishispowers
arecoextensivewiththepowersofthesovereignandhemaydoallthosethings(thoughwiththepermissionofthecourt)whichthesovereignhaspowerto
do.Acertificatedguardianfromthedateofhisappointmentisunderthesupervision,guidanceandcontrolofthecourt./
Guardianshipbyaffinity
Inpre1956Hindulawthereexistedaguardiancalledguardianbyaffinity.Theguardianbyaffinityistheguardianofaminorwidow.Maynesaidthat"the
husband'srelation,ifthereexistsany,withinthedegreeofsapinda,aretheguardiansofaminorwidowinpreferencetoherfatherandhisrelations."'The
judicial.pronouncementshavealsobeentothesameeffect[1].TheguardianshipbyaffinitywastakentoitslogicalendbytheHighCourtinParasRamv.
State[2]Inthiscasethefatherinlawofaminorwidowforciblytookawaythewidowfromhermother'shouseandmarriedherformoneytoanunsuitableperson
againstherwishes.Thequestionbeforethecourtwaswhetherthefatherinlawwasguiltyofremovingthegirlforcibly.TheAllahabadHighCourtheldthathe
wasnot,sincehewasthelawfulguardianofthewidow.
Aquestionhascomebeforeourcourts,whetherthenearestsapindaofthehusbandautomaticallybecomesaguardianoftheminorwidowonthedeathofher
husbandorwhetherheismerelypreferentiallyentitledtoguardianshipandthereforehecannotactasguardianunlessheisappointedassuch?ParasRam
seemstosubscribetotheformerview,andtheMadrasandtheNagpurhighCourtstothelatterview.UnderSection13,HinduMinorityandGuardianshipAct,
intheappointmentof'anypersonasguardian,thewelfareofthechildisparamountconsideration.ThefactthatunderHindulawfatherinlawhaspreferential
righttobeappointedasguardianisonlyamatterofsecondaryconsideration.
Inoursubmission,itwouldbeabetterlawiftheguardianshipoftheminorwife,bothofherpersonandproperty,continuestovestintheparents.Wedonot
havemuchoftextualguidanceorcaselawonthepowersoftheguardiansbyaffinity.Probablyhispowersmaybetakentobeatparwiththoseofthenatural
guardian.
DeFactoGuardian
Adefactoguardianisapersonwhotakescontinuousinterestinthewelfareoftheminor'spersonorinthemanagementandadministrationofhisproperty
withoutanyauthorityoflaw.Hindujurisprudencehasallalongrecognizedtheprinciplethatifliabilityisincurredbyoneonbehalfofanotherinacasewhereit
isjustified,thentheperson,onwhosebehalftheliabilityisincurredor,atleast,hisproperty,isliable,notwithstandingthefactthatnoauthorizationwasmade
forincurringtheliability.'
Theterm'defactoguardian'assuchisnotmentionedinanyofthetexts,buthisexistencehasneverbeendeniedinHindulaw.InSriramulu,Kanta[3].said
thatHindulawtriedtofindasolutionoutoftwodifficultsituations:one,whenaHinduchildhasnolegalguardian,therewouldbenoonewhowouldhandleand
managehisestateinlawandthuswithoutaguardianthechildwouldnotreceiveanyincomeforhispropertyandsecondly,apersonhavingnotitlecouldnot
bepermittedtointermeddlewiththechild'sestatesoastocauselosstohim.TheHindulawfoundasolutiontothisproblembyaccordinglegalstatustode
factoguardians.
Amereintermeddlerisnotadefactoguardian.Anisolatedorfugitiveactofapersoninregardtochild'spropertydoesnotmakehimadefactoguardian.To
makeapersonadefactoguardiansomecontinuouscourseofconductisnecessaryonhispart.Inotherwords,adefactoguardianisapersonwhoisnota
legalguardian,whohasnoauthorityinlawtoactassuchbutnonethelesshehimselfhasassumed,themanagementofthepropertyofthechildasthoughhe
wereaguardian.Defactoguardianshipisaconceptwherepastactsresultinpresentstatus.Thetermliterallymeans'fromthatwhichhasbeendone.'
ThedefactoguardianwasrecognisedinHindulawasearlyas1856.ThePrivyCouncilinHanumanPd.[4]saidthat'underHindulaw,therightofabonafide
incumbrancer,whohastakenadefactoguardianachargeofland,createdhonestly,forthepurposeofsavingtheestate,orforthebenefitoftheestate,isnot
affectedbythewantofunionofthedefactowiththedejuretitle.
GuardianshipUnderMuslimLaw:
ThesourceoflawofguardianshipandcustodyarecertainversesintheKoranandafewahadis.TheKoran,thealladisandotherauthoritiesonMuslimlaw
emphaticallyspeakoftheguardianshipofthepropertyoftheminor,theguardianshipofthepersonisamereinference.Wewoulddiscussthelawof
guardianshipofcustodyasunder:
(a)Guardianship,
(b)Custody,and
(c)Defactoguardian.
ClassificationofGuardianship
InMuslimlawguardiansfallunderthefollowingthreecategories:(i)Naturalguardians,
(ii)Testamentaryguardians,and
(iii)Guardiansappointedbythecourt.
NaturalGuardians
InallschoolsofboththeSunnisandtheShias,thefatherisrecognizedasguardianwhichterminthecontextisequivalenttonaturalguardianandthemother
inallschoolsofMuslimlawisnotrecognizedasaguardian,naturalorotherwise,evenafterthedeathofthefather.Thefather'srightofguardianshipexists
evenwhenthemother,oranyotherfemale,isentitledtothecustodyoftheminor.Thefatherhastherighttocontroltheeducationandreligionofminor
children,andtheirupbringingandtheirmovement.Solongasthefatherisalive,heisthesoleandsupremeguardianofhisminorchildren.[5]

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Thefather'srightofguardianshipextendsonlyoverhisminorlegitimatechildren.Heisnotentitledtoguardianshiportocustodyofhisminorillegitimate
children.
InMuslimlaw,themotherisnotanaturalguardianevenofherminorillegitimatechildren,butsheisentitledtotheircustody.[6]
AmongtheSunnis,thefatheristheonlynaturalguardianoftheminorchildren.Afterthedeathofthefather,theguardianshippassesontotheexecutor.
AmongtheShias,afterthefather,theguardianshipbelongstothegrandfather,evenifthefatherhasappointedanexecutor,theexecutorofthefather
becomestheguardianonlyintheabsenceofthegrandfather.Nootherpersoncanbenaturalguardian,noteventhebrother.Intheabsenceofthegrandfather,
theguardianshipbelongstothegrandfather'sexecutor,ifany.'
TestamentaryGuardian
AmongtheSunnis,thefatherhasfullpowerofmakingatestamentaryappointmentofguardian.Intheabsenceofthefatherandhisexecutor,thegrandfather
hasthepowerofappointingatestamentaryguardian.AmongtheShias,thefather'sappointmentoftestamentaryguardianisvalidonlyifthegrandfatherisnot
alive.Thegrandfather,too,hasthepowerofappointingatestamentaryguardian.Nootherpersonhasanysuchpower.AmongboththeShiasandtheSunnis,
themotherhasnopowerofappointingatestamentaryguardianofherchildren.Itisonlyintwocasesinwhichthemothercanappointatestamentaryguardian
ofherpropertyofherminorchildren:.first,whenshehasbeenappointedageneralexecutrixbythewillofthechild'sfather,shecanappointanexecutorbyher
willandsecondly,shecanappointanexecutorinrespectofherownproperty.whichwilldevolveafterherdeathonherchildren.
Themothercanbeappointedatestamentary.,guardianorexecutrixbythefather,orbythegrandfather,wheneverhecanexercisethispower.Amongthe
Sunnis,theappointmentofanonMuslimmotherastestamentaryguardianisvalid,butamongtheShiassuchanappointmentisnotvalid,astheyholdthe
viewthatanonMuslimcannotbeaguardianofthepersonaswellasof.thepropertyofaminor.Itseemsthattheappointmentofnon'Muslimfellowsubject
(iiinmi)isvalid,thoughitmaybesetasidebythekazi.AccordingtotheMalikisandtheShafiilaw,azimmicanbeavalidlyappointedtestamentaryguardian
ofthepropertyoftheminor,butnotofthepersonoftheminor.TheShiasalsotakethesameview.Itappearsthatwhentwopersonsareappointedas
guardians,andoneofthemisdisqualified,theothercanactasguardian.Aprofligate,i.e.,apersonwhobearsinpublicwalkoflifeanotoriouslybad,character,
cannotbeappointedasguardian:
Acceptanceoftheappointmentof...testamentaryguardianshipisnecessary,thoughacceptancemaybeexpressorimplied.Butoncetheguardianship.is
accepted,itcannotberenouncedsavewiththepermissionofthecourt.
Muslimlawdoesnotlaydownanyspecificformalitiesfortheappointmentoftestamentaryguardians.Appointmentmaybemadeinwritingororally.Inevery
casetheintentiontoappointatestamentaryguardianmustbeclearandunequivocal.Atestamentarydepositionmadebyatestatormaybeinvalid,but
appointmentoftheexecutormaybegeneralorparticular.Thetestatormusthavethecapacitytomakethewillatthetimewhenitwasexecuted.Thismeans
thatthefeslat8rghouldbemajorandofsoundmind,i.e.,atthetimeofexecutionofthewill,heshouldbeinfullpossessionofhissenses.
TheexecutorofthetestamentaryguardianisdesignatedvariouslybyMuslimlawgivers,indicatinghispositionandpowers.Heiscommonlycalled,walior
guardian.Heisalsocalledamin,i.e.,atrustee.Heisalsotermedaskaimmukam,i.e.,personalrepresentativeofthetestator.
GuardianappointedbytheCourt.Onthefailureofthenatural.guardiansandtestamentaryguardians,thekaziwasentrustedwiththepowerofappointment
ofguardianofaMuslimminor.NowthematterisgovernedbytheGuardiansandWardsAct,1890.ThisActappliestotheappointmentofguardiansofall
minorsbelongingtoanycommunity.TheHighCourtsalsohaveinherentpowersofappointmentofguardians,thoughthepowerisexercisedverysparingly.
UndertheGuardiansandWardsAct,1890,thepowerofappointing,ordeclaringanypersonasguardianisconferredontheDistrictCourt.TheDistrictCourt
mayappointordeclareanypersonasguardianofaminorchild'spersonaswellaspropertywheneveritconsidersitnecessaryforthewelfareoftheminor,
takingintoconsiderationtheage,sex,wishesofthechildaswell'asthewishesoftheparentsandthepersonallawoftheminor.
GuardianshipUnderChristianLaw
TheGuardiansandWardsAct,1890,whichresidesinthesecularrealmalso,mayberesortedto.Therelevantprovisionsarereproducedherein:
Accordingtosection17oftheabovesaidAct,themattersofthecaseshouldbeconsideredbythecourtinappointingguardian.Thesectionreads,(1)In
appointingordeclaringtheguardianofaminor,theCourtshall,subjecttotheprovisionsofthissection,beguidedbywhat,consistentlywiththelawtowhich
theminorissubject,appearsinthecircumstancestobeforthewelfareoftheminor
(2)Inconsideringwhatwillbethewelfareoftheminor,theCourtshallhaveregardtotheage,sexandreligionoftheminor,thecharacterandcapacityofthe
proposedguardianandhisnearnessofkintotheminor,thewishes,ifany,ofthedeceasedparent,andanyexistingorpreviousrelationsoftheproposed
guardianwiththeminororhisproperty.
(3)Iftheminorisoldenoughtoformanintelligentpreference,theCourtmayconsiderthatpreference.
Section19,whichprohibitstheCourtfromappointingguardiansincertaincases,reads:
S.19.GuardiansnottobeappointedbytheCourtincertaincases:NothinginthisChaptershallauthorizetheCourttoappointordeclareaguardianofthe
propertyofaminor,whosepropertyisunderthesuperintendenceofaCourtofWards,ortoappointordeclareaguardianoftheperson
(a)Ofaminorwhoisamarriedfemaleandwhosehusbandisnot,intheopinionoftheCourt,unfittobeguardianofherperson.Or
(b)Ofaminorwhosefatherislivingandisnot,intheopinionoftheCourt,unfittobeguardianofthepersonoftheminor,or
(c)OfaminorwhosepropertyisunderthesuperintendenceofaCourtofWardscompetenttoappointaguardianofthepersonoftheminor."
S.24.Dutiesofguardianoftheperson
Aguardianofthepersonofawardischargedwiththecustodyofthewardandmustlooktohissupport,healthandeducation,andsuchothermattersasthe
lawtowhichthewardissubjectrequires.
S.25.Titleofguardiantocustodyofward:
(1)Ifawardleavesorisremovedfromthecustodyofaguardianofhisperson,theCourt,ifitisofopinionthatitwillbeforthewelfareofthewardtoreturnto
thecustodyofhisguardian,maymakeanorderforhisreturn,andforthepurposeofenforcingtheordermaycausethewardtobearrestedandtobedelivered

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intothecustodyoftheguardian.
(2)Forthepurposeofarrestingtheward,theCourtmayexercisethepowerconferredonaMagistrateofthefirstclassbySection100oftheCodeofCriminal
Procedure,1882.
(3)Theresidenceofawardagainstthewillofhisguardianwithapersonwhoisnothisguardiandoesnotofitselfterminatetheguardianship."
InThrityHoshieDolikukav.HoshiamShavakshaDolikuka[7],theCourtheld
Theprinciplesoflawinrelationtothecustodyofaminorappeartobewellestablished.Itiswellsettledthatanymatterconcerningaminor,hastobe
consideredanddecidedonlyfromthepointofviewofthewelfareandinterestoftheminor,Indealingwithamatterconcerningaminor,theCourthasaspecial
responsibilityanditisthedutyoftheCourttoconsiderthewelfareoftheminorandtoprotecttheminor'sinterest.Inconsideringthequestionofcustodyofa
minor,theCourthastobeguidedbytheonlyconsiderationofthewelfareoftheminor.
Itis,however,noteworthythatunderIndianDivorceActthesonsofIndianfathersceasetobeminorsonattainingtheageof16yearsandtheirdaughters
ceasetobeminorsonattainingtheageof13years:S.3(5).TheCourtundertheDivorceActwouldthusbeincompetentnowtomakeanyorderunderSs.41
and42withrespecttotheeldersonandthedaughterinthepresentcase.Accordingtotherespondenthusbandunderthesecircumstanceshecannot
approachtheCourtunless,theDivorceActforreliefwithrespecttothecustodyofthesechildrenandnowthatthesechildrenhaveceasedtobeminorsunder
thatAct,theordersmadebythatCourthavealsolosttheirvitality.OnthisreasoningthehusbandclaimedtherighttoinvokeS.25oftheGuardiansand
WardsAct.

GuardianshipUnderParsiLaw
Althoughthereisnogenerallawofguardianship,yetitispermittedbyastatuteamongstHindusandbycustomamongstafewnumericallyinsignificant
categoriesofpersons.Sinceadoptionislegalaffiliationofachild,itformsthesubjectmatterofpersonallaw.Muslims,ChristiansandParsishavenoadoption
lawsandhavetoapproachcourtundertheGuardiansandWardsAct,1890.Muslims,ChristiansandParsiscantakeachildunderthesaidActonlyunder
fostercare.Onceachildunderfostercarebecomesmajor,heisfreetobreakawayallhisconnections.Besides,suchachilddoesnothavelegalrightof
inheritance.Foreigners,whowanttoadoptIndianchildrenhavetoapproachthecourtundertheaforesaidAct.Incasethecourthasgivenpermissionforthe
childtobetakenoutofthecountry,adoptionaccordingtoaforeignlaw,i.e.,lawapplicabletoguardiantakesplaceoutsidethecountry.
Endnotes
[1]ChinnavVinayaghathammal,AIR1929Mad110at112AslzwaniKumarvFulkurnari,77CWN349.
[2]AIR1960All479.
[3].EthiluluvPathakal,AIR1950Mad390Kusicbaiv.Chandrabtutga,AIR1918Nag100
[4](1856)6MIA393.
[5].Imambandiv.Mutsaddi,(1918)45Cal887.
[6]GoharBegumvSuggi,(1960)1SCR597
[7]AIR1982SUPREMECOURT1276
#GuardianshipUnderHindu,Muslim,ChristianAndParsiLaws
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Hindusuccessionlaw1956isnothingbuttokillsons&susequentlyIndiaaswhengirlgetsmarriedsheinheritsfrominlawsfamily
&whyfromparentalwhereasmanarenotallowedviceversa.Thisiswhatgenderneutrality?Marrieddaughtersshouldbebared
fromsuccedinglikeson.Thisisinjustice&notbalancingact.Sheshouldbegivenrighttomaintenanceifconditionsuneconomicin
herfamilyjustsupportnotfullownership.Thisleedstofregmentationoflandsmakingunviableforagriculturepractise
oftenGivingfrustrationtosons&causeofdrugadictionamongboysinsocietyviz:p... SeeMore
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