11/2/2010

Dr. Muhammad Ali Shamim

ali.shamim@uettaxila.edu.pk
051
9047652; Internal 652
051-9047652;

Often it is not possible to determine all the

possible p
p
problems in fluid flow by
y theory
y
alone.
Therefore one has to rely on experiments.
The number of tests needed by a system can
be efficiently reduced by the knowledge of
dimensional analysis and similitude.

11/2/2010

This also helps us in applying the test data to

other studies as well.
As far as hydraulics is concerned, one can
obtain fruitful results at minimum possible
costs by the use of small scaled models to
analyse actual hydraulic problems.
Similitude helps us to understand and predict
the performance of a prototype from the test
made on a small scaled model.

Fields of application

Aerodynamics
Naval architecture
Flow machinery (pumps and turbines)
Hydraulic structures
Rivers, estuaries
Sediment transport

Data is derived from the experiments performed on

the model which is then used as an input to
empirical models to analyse to structures.

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Sediment Transport

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Construction of model

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`
`
`

Similitude consists of construction of a

y g out tests on the model
model,, then carrying
and transfer of the results of the tests to the
prototype.

Geometric similarity
Kinematic similarity
Dynamic similarity

11/2/2010

Most important feature of similitude analysis.

Means that the model and the prototype have
identical shapes but differ only in size.
Important thing to be kept in mind is that the
flow patterns must be geometrically similar.
If p and m denote the prototype and model
then

The length scale ratio is given by

Lr =
`

Lp
Lm

Or the ratio of the linear dimension of the

prototype
p
yp to that of the model.
areas vary as

2
r

and volumes as . Lr

11/2/2010

Attaining 100% geometric

perhaps
p
p impossible.
p

similarity

is

For example, we may not be able to reduce

the surface roughness of a small model in
proportion unless we can make its surface
very much smooth than that of the prototype.

The same can be said for sediment transport

studies.
It might not be possible to scale down the
bed material to such an extent that it
becomes fine and cohesive.
A cohesive material cannot exactly simulate
the behaviour of sand particles.

11/2/2010

Also, for river modelling, if we select a small

scale to represent the length of the river because
of space limitations.
Then the same scale cannot be used for
representing the vertical sides as this will lead to
a very shallow flow and the flow becomes
laminar.
So a distorted model is used in which the vertical
scale is larger than the horizontal scale.

So for this case, if the horizontal scale ratio is

Lr

The vertical scale ratio becomes

And the area ratio as

Lr ',

Lr Lr ',

11/2/2010

Kinematics similarity implies that, in addition

Given by

geometric similarity,
y, the ratio of the
to g
velocities at all corresponding points in the
flows are the same.

Vr =

Vm

Also time scale ratio is represented by

Tr =
`

Vp

Lr
Vr

Acceleration scale ratio is given by

Lr Vr2
ar = 2 =
Lr
Tr

11/2/2010

Two system have dynamic similarity if, in

y,
addition
to
kinematic
similarity,
corresponding forces are in the same ratio in
both of them.
The force scale ratio is

Fr =

Fp
Fm

Forces that may act on a fluid element

include

Force due to gravity FG

Pressure FP
Viscosity FV
Elasticity FE
Surface tension FT (in case the fluid is at liquid gas
interface)

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11/2/2010

If the summation of forces on a fluid element

p to zero,, then it must
does not add up
accelerate in accordance with Newtons law.
Such an unbalanced system can be
transformed into a balanced system with the
addition of inertial force.
So

F = F G + F P + FV + F E + FT = Resultant

Fi =

-Resultant

Thus

FG +FP +FV+FE +FT +FI =0

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11/2/2010

All these terms can also be explained as

Gravity

Pressure FP = (p ) A = (p ) L2

Viscosity

du
V
FV = A = L2 = VL
L
dy

Elasticity

FE = E A = E L2

Surface Tension

Inertia

FG = mg = L3 g

FT = L

FI = ma = L3

2
L
= L4T = V 2 L2
2
T

For most of the cases of flow in Hydraulics,

some of these forces might not exist or be
insignificant.

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11/2/2010

If we consider two geometrically similar flow

y
, both of which p
possess kinematic
systems,
similarity.
The forces acting on any fluid element are
FG , FP , FV and FI .
The dynamic similarity will then be achieved if
FG p
FG m

FP p
FP m

FV p
FV m

Fl p
Fl m

= Fr

where
subscripts p and m refer to a
prototype
p
yp and model as before.
(

FI
F
F
F
F
F
) p = ( I )m , ( I ) p = ( I )m , ( I ) p = ( I )m
FG
FG
FP
FP
FV
FV

With four forces,, there are three independent

p
expressions, for three forces, there will be
two expressions and so on.

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11/2/2010

For the case of a fluid flowing full through a

pipe,
p
p ,g
gravity
y does not effect the flow p
pattern.
Because of non existence of free liquid
surfaces, capillarity is of no practical
importance.
Therefore the significant forces are that of
inertia and fluid friction due to viscosity.

The ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces is

known as Reynolds
y
number (Osborne
Reynolds 1882) which was later modified by
Lord Rayleigh.
The ratio is given by

FI
L2V 2 LV LV
=
=
=
R=

FV
LV

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11/2/2010

R is actually a dimensionless number.

The linear dimension L may be any significant
length in the flow pattern.
For a fully filled pipe, it may either be the
radius or diameter.
If diameter is considered to be the linear
dimension,

R = DV / = DV /
`

If two system, such as a model and its

prototype or two pipeline with different fluid,
are to be dynamically equivalent so far as
inertia and viscous forces are concerned, they
must both have the same of R.
Thus, for such cases, we will have dynamic
similarity when

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11/2/2010

LV
LV

= Rm = R p =
m
p
`

So for a same fluid in model and prototype,

for the above equation to be true, we should
have a model of small dimensions with high
velocity.

Question:
If the Reynolds number in a model and
prototype are the same, find expression for
the scale ratios Vr , Tr and a r .

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11/2/2010

R=

LmVm

Vp

Vr =

Vm

Lm p
Lm p

L pV p

p
=

=
Lr L r

2
L2
Lr
L
Tr =
= Lr = a r = Vr = =
Vr
r r
Tr L r L2 r L3 r

The ratio of inertial forces to gravity forces is

known as Froudes number (William Froude).
He experimented with flat plates towed
lengthwise through water in order to estimate
the resistance of ships due to wave action.

L2V 2 V 2
=
3
gL
gL

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11/2/2010

F=
`

Systems involving gravity and inertia include

V
gL

the wave action set up by a ship

the flow of water in open channels
force of a stream on a bridge
g pier,
p ,
the flow over a spillway,
the flow of a jet from an orifice, and other cases
where gravity is the dominant factor.

Length L is a linear dimension that is

significant
g
in the flow p
pattern.
For a ship, it is taken as the length of the
water line.
For an open channel it is taken as the depth
of flow.

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11/2/2010

Dynamic similarity is achieved when

= Fm = F p = V
gL
gL

From the equation of Froude number, V

varies as g
gL, and if g is considered to be the
same in prototype and model then

Vr =

Vp
Vm

Lr
1

(for same F and g)

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11/2/2010

For time ratio, the ratio of time for prototype

to model is

Tr =

Tp
Tm

((for same F and g)

ar =

Lr
=
Vr

Vr
=1
Tr

Lr
1

(for same F and g)

Since the velocity varies as Lr and cross

2
sectional area as Lr then the discharge ratio

Qr =

Qp
Qm

L5r / 2
1

((for same F and g)

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11/2/2010

For the cases of fluid flow where

p
y is important,
p
, the ratio of
compressibility
inertia to elastic forces becomes important.
Mach number is the square root of this ratio.
Thus
1/ 2

V 2 L2

M =
2
E
L

V
V
=
E / c

where c is the sonic velocity (or celerity) in

the medium in question.
q
It can also be said that Mach number is the
ratio of fluid velocity (or the velocity of a
body through stationary fluid) to that of
sound wave in the same medium.
If M is less than 1, the flow is subsonic, 1 for
sonic and greater than 1 for supersonic.

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11/2/2010

For extremely high values of M, the flow is

yp
hypersonic.

In few cases, surface tension is also

important
p
but normally
y it is negligible
g g
The ratio of inertial forces to surface tension
is V 2 L2 / L, the square root of which is
known as Weber number.
V

/ L

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11/2/2010

Ratio of inertial forces to the pressure forces

is known as Euler number.

E=

V
V
=
2(p /
2 g (p / )

A submerged body is to move horizontally

through oil (= 52 lbft3, = 0.0006 lb.sec/ft2)
at a velocity
l i
off 45 fps.
f
T
To
study
d the
h
characteristics of this motion, an enlarged
model of the body is tested in 600 F water.
The model ratio is 8:1. Determine the
velocity at which this enlarged model should
travel through the water to achieve dynamic
similarity If the drag force on the model is
similarity.
0.80 lb, predict the drag force on the
prototype

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11/2/2010

The body is submerged; so there is no wave

, criterion must be satisfied
y
action. Reynolds

Table A.1 for water at 600F:

m = 12.17 10-6 ft2/sec.

0.0006
=
p = =
= 0.000372 ft2/
/sec

/
g
52
/
32
.
2
p
p

DV DV

p m

D p (45)
0.000372

Dm 8
=
Dp 1

(8D p )Vm
12.17 10

Vm = 0.1843 f / s

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11/2/2010

F V 2 L2
pV p 2 L p 2
(52 / 32.2)(45) 2 1
=
=
= 777
Fm mV 2 m L2 m 1.938(0.1843) 2 (8) 2
Fp

F p = 777 Fm = 777 (0.8) = 621 (lb)

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