pH Scale

Introduction and Definitions:

Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe a chemical property chemicals. Mixing acids
and bases can cancel out or neutralize their extreme effects. A substance that is neither acidic
nor basic is neutral.
The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A
pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.
The pH scale is logarithmic and as a result, each whole pH value below 7 is ten times more
acidic than the next higher value. For example, pH 4 is ten times more acidic than pH 5 and 100
times (10 times 10) more acidic than pH 6. The same holds true for pH values above 7, each of
which is ten times more alkaline (another way to say basic) than the next lower whole value.
For example, pH 10 is ten times more alkaline than pH 9 and 100 times (10 times 10) more
alkaline than pH 8.
Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture can become either
acidic or basic. Examples of acidic substances are vinegar and lemon juice. Lye, milk of
magnesia, and ammonia are examples of basic substances.
Practice:
HNO3 + KOH -->
H3PO4 + 3 NaOH -->

+
Answ er

Answ er

+
Answ er

Answ er

Wave

This article is about waves in the scientific sense. For waves on the surface of the ocean or
lakes, see Wind wave. For other uses, see Wave (disambiguation).
In physics, a wave is an oscillation accompanied by a transfer of energy that travels through
medium (space or mass). Frequency refers to the addition of time. Wave
motion transfers energy from one point to another, which displace particles of the transmission
medium[disambiguation needed]that is, with little or no associated masstransport. Waves consist,
instead, of oscillations or vibrations (of a physical quantity), around almost fixed locations.
There are two main types of waves. Mechanical waves propagate through a medium, and the
substance of this medium is deformed. The deformation reverses itself owing to restoring
forces resulting from its deformation. For example, sound waves propagate via air molecules
colliding with their neighbors. When air molecules collide, they also bounce away from each
other (a restoring force). This keeps the molecules from continuing to travel in the direction of
the wave.
The second main type of wave, electromagnetic waves, do not require a medium. Instead, they
consist of periodic oscillations of electrical and magnetic fields originally generated by charged
particles, and can therefore travel through a vacuum. These types of waves vary in wavelength,
and include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, Xrays, and gamma rays.

Waves are described by a wave equation which sets out how the disturbance proceeds over
time. The mathematical form of this equation varies depending on the type of wave. Further, the
behavior of particles in quantum mechanics are described by waves. In addition, gravitational
waves also travel through space, which are a result of a vibration or movement in gravitational
fields.
A wave can be transverse or longitudinal. Transverse waves occur when a disturbance creates
oscillations that are perpendicular to the propagation of energy transfer. Longitudinal waves
occur when the oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy propagation. While mechanical
waves can be both transverse and longitudinal, all electromagnetic waves are transverse in free

A mechanical wave is a wave that is an oscillation of matter, and therefore transfers energy through
a medium.[1] While waves can move over long distances, the movement of the medium of
transmissionthe materialis limited. Therefore, oscillating material does not move far from its
initial equilibrium position. Mechanical waves transport energy. This energy propagates in the same
direction as the wave. Any kind of wave (mechanical or electromagnetic) has a certain energy.
Mechanical waves can be produced only in media which possess elasticity and inertia.
A mechanical wave requires an initial energy input. Once this initial energy is added, the wave
travels through the medium until all its energy is transferred. In contrast, electromagnetic
waves require no medium, but can still travel through one.
One important property of mechanical waves is that their amplitudes are measured in an unusual
way, displacement divided by(reduced) wavelength. When this gets comparable to unity,
significant nonlinear effects such as harmonic generation may occur, and, if large enough, may result
in chaotic effects. For example, waves on the surface of a body of water break when this
dimensionless amplitude exceeds 1, resulting in a foam on the surface and turbulent mixing. Some
of the most common examples of mechanical waves are water waves, sound waves, and seismic
waves.
There are three types of mechanical waves: transverse waves, longitudinal waves, and surface
waves.
Contents

1Transverse wave

2Longitudinal wave

3Surface waves

4Examples

5References

Transverse wave
Main article: Transverse wave
Transverse waves cause the medium to vibrate at a right angle to the direction of the wave or energy
being carried by the medium. Transverse waves have two partsthecrest and the trough. The crest
is the highest point of the wave and the trough is the lowest. The distance between a crest and a
trough is half of wavelength. The wavelength is the distance from crest to crest or from trough to
trough.
To see an example, move an end of a Slinky (whose other end is fixed) to the left-and-right of the
Slinky (as opposed to-and-fro the Slinky). Light also has properties of a transverse wave, although it
is an electromagnetic wave.

Longitudinal wave
Main article: Longitudinal wave
Longitudinal waves cause the medium to vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. It consists of
multiple compressions and rarefactions. The rarefaction is the farthest distance apart in the
longitudinal wave and the compression is the closest distance together. The speed of the
longitudinal wave is increased in higher index of refraction, due to the closer proximity of the atoms
in the medium that is being compressed. Sound is considered a longitudinal wave.

Surface waves
Main article: Surface wave
This type of wave travels along a surface that is between two media. An example of a surface wave
would be waves in a pool, or in an ocean, lake, or any other type of water body. There are two types
of surface waves, namely Rayleigh waves and Love waves.
Rayleigh waves, also known as ground roll, are waves that travel as ripples with motion similar to
those of waves on the surface of water. Rayleigh waves are much slower than body waves, roughly
90% of the velocity of body waves for a typical homogeneous elastic medium.

A Love wave is a surface waves having horizontal waves that are shear or transverse to the direction
of propagation. They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, about 90% of the body wave
velocity, and have the largest amplitude.

Examples

Ocean waves

Sound waves

References[
1. Jump up^ Giancoli, D. C. (2009) Physics for scientists & engineers with modern physics (4th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Sound
(Redirected from Sound wave)

This article is about audible acoustic waves. For other uses, see Sound (disambiguation).
A drum produces sound via a vibrating membrane.

In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical

wave of pressure and displacement, through a mediumsuch as air or water.
In physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves and their perception by the
brain.[1]