Chapter Five: Pore Pressure

Topics
Pressure Gradients Explained
Hydrostatic Pore Pressure
Stress Generated Pore Pressure
Geology Implications of
Overpressure
Pressure Calculation Methods

What is Pore Pressure?

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Absolute Pressure vs. Depth

Water
Table

Effective
Stress

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Equivalent Mud Weight Plot

Temsah Field, Nile Delta, Egypt

Mazzoni,T. et al., 1997

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Pressure Gradients
Pressure

Pressure

Saline

Water/
Brine

Fresh
Oil

Hydrocarbon
Gas 0.8-2.5ppg

8.3-10.4ppg

Gas

Oil 5.5-7.9ppg

Fresh 0.43 psi/ft

Oil 0.29-0.41 psi/ft

Saline up to 0.54 psi/ft

Gas 0.04-0.13 psi/ft

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Pressure Gradients for Different Fluid Types

0.04-0.13 psi/ft

How would the

pressures look if they
were replotted in
equivalent mud
weight?

GOC
0.29-0.41 psi/ft
OWC
0.43-0.54 psi/ft

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Overpressured
Seals and
Compartments

Nile Delta, Egypt

The model shown assumes that

adjacent seal (shale) and
compartment (sand) pressures are
in equilibrium. Is this correct?
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Lateral Pore Pressure Variations

c)

How could lateral seals develop as opposed to

vertical seal?

Norwegian North Sea

Grollimund et al., 2000

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Overpressure Generation Mechanisms

Stress Generated
Undercompaction
Tectonic compression
Thermally Generated
Aquathermal
Diagenetic
Fluid Redistribution in
Permeable Zones
Buoyancy
Centroid
Lateral transfer
Hydraulic head
Osmosis

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Underpressure
Generation
Mechanisms

Swarbrick, R.E. and Osborne, M.J., 1998

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Multiple Overpressure Generation Mechanisms

Bowers, G.L., 2001

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Pressure Redistributed within Permeable Zones

Mouchet, J.P. and Mitchell, A., 1989

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Pressure Redistributed within Permeable Zones

Normally
pressured
shales

10.0ppg

What is causing the

overpressure at the top
of the reservoir?

9.1ppg

8.6ppg
Fertl, W.H., 1976
Weeks Island, La

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A Dynamic Overpressure System

Pore pressures increase or decrease in response
to burial or tectonic stresses
Thermally induced diagenetic changes can lead
to over- or under-pressures at depth
Pressures are leaked and redistributed through
permeable zones at rates dependent on the
system permeability
Very Difficult to Model and Predict
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A Dynamic Overpressure System

What mechanism
could cause the
episodic breach & fluid
loss?

Holm, G.M., 1996

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Reservoir Depletion

What causes the

increase in pressure in
the lower Tor
formation?

Brown, 1987

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Hydrostatic (Normal)
Pore Pressures

Hydrostatic (Normal) Pore Pressure

A hydrostatic pressure is one in communication with
the surface free water level
Offshore Sea level
Onshore Water Table

Hydrostatic Pressures depend on fluid density

The density of formation water varies with the concentration of
dissolved solids, mostly salt
Salinity varies as a function of;

Original water history

Temperature
Diagenesis
Proximity to Salt bodies
Osmosis
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Stress Generated Pressures

Compaction

Mouchet, J.P. and Mitchell, A., 1989

Expulsion of Water in Response to Stress

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Typical Compaction Curves

These are
all shales
So why are the curves
so different?

Mouchet, J.P. and Mitchell, A., 1989

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Undercompaction
Undercompaction occurs when sediment dewatering is
inhibited during burial. This happens if either;
new sediments are deposited before fluid has had chance to
drain, i.e. rapid burial
or seals and barriers to fluid flow form

During undercompaction pore fluids are trapped,

porosity is retained, and further compaction is slowed
or prevented
As burial continues pore fluids support part of the
weight of the overlying sediments and the fluid
becomes overpressured
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Porosity and Depth

0

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.0

porosity

sands &
sandstones

mud

clay & shale,

normal line

clay

mudstone

effect of
overpressures
on porosity

shale

+T

depth

slate (deep)

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Compaction and Undercompaction

Swarbrick, 2001

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Tectonic Stress

Tectonic stress is a stress often higher than

the overburden. In these cases mean stress
should be considered for calculating pore
pressure

Overburden Stress

Sv

Mean Stress

(v + Hmax + hmin)/3

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Stress Relief (Unloading)

Moos & Gretchen, 1998

Loading and Unloading

Experiment
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Loading and Unloading Stress Paths

What geological or oilfield
processes could cause
stress relief ?

What geological or oilfield

processes could cause a
pore pressure increase in
situ?
Sayers,C.M. et al., 2001

Unloading can occur due to;

stress relief (with constant pore pressure)
In situ pore pressure increase (with constant
stress)
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Thermally Generated Mechanisms

Aquathermal expansion of fluids
PVT relationship
If Temperature increases and volume does
not change, then pressure will rise (pressure
cooker effect)

Requires a very good seal

May explain very high pressure in rafts
within Salt

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Hydrocarbon Generation
Generation and Cracking of Hydrocarbons
Phase changes from kerogen to oil to gas
Results in an in-situ increase in fluid or gas volume
Spatially, high overpressure is often associated
with sediments rich in organic matter actively
generating hydrocarbons, e.g., Kimmeridge Clay,
Bakken Shale

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Mineral Diagenesis
Mineral phase changes occur mainly in response
to increased temperature, e.g.
Gypsum to Anhydrite
Smectite to illite
Solution and precipitation
In response to increasing temperature
May also be controlled by pressure and
availability of ions
More common in permeable zones
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Comparison Thermal Mechanisms

Swarbrick et al , 2002

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Geological Implications of Overpressure

Artesian Pressures
Elevated formation pore pressure from increased hydrostatic head

Are these hydrostatic

(normal) pressures?

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Artesian Pressures
Lowered formation pore pressure from reduced hydrostatic head

Mouchet, J.P. and Mitchell, A., 1989

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Hydrocarbon Buoyancy Effects

Hydrocarbon Columns Create Local Overpressure

Bowers, G.L., 2001

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Hydrocarbon Buoyancy - Iran

If reservoir and shale

pressure can be so
different, what does
thissay about the methods
we typically use for pore
pressure prediction?

Fertl, W.H., 1976

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Centroid Effect
What happens if
hydrocarbons are added
to the reservoir?

How large is the centroid

effect if the reservoir is
normally pressured?

Bowers, G.L., 2001

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Centroid and Compartmentalisation

How could
you
determine
compartment
alization predrill?

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Lateral Transfer

Caillet,G. et al., 1998

Caillet,G. et al., 1997

N. Sea Chalk Fields

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Lateral Transfer

North Sea Viking Graben

z

Pressure communication
through many reservoirs
over a large area
Localized oil and/or gas
hydrostatic columns within
each reservoir
What would
the shale
pressures be
in this area?

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Pore Pressure Calculation Methods

Trend-line Methods
Require the establishment of a normal trend-line
Normally pressured compaction curve (NCT)
Applies only to clean shales
Many different methods
Early popular methods include Ratio, Equivalent
Depth, & Eaton
Many other methods, many proprietary
Applicable to many types of data
d-exponent, sonic, velocity, resistivity, density, etc
Regional overlays can be constructed and applied
to new wells and even new regions
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Normal Compaction Trend

1000

Normally compacted
(normally pressured)
down to 3000m
Normal compaction trend
(NCT) fitted in blue
A deviation from the trend
in the same rock type
indicates overpressure
Can be applied to any
formation porosity
information

1500

2000

TVD (m)

2500
Top
Overpressure
3000

NCT
3500

What pitfalls might you

expect plotting the NCT?

0.1

Dc Exponent

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Ratio Method
The difference between observed values and the normal
trend-line extrapolated to the same depth is proportional to
the increase in pressure.
for sonic logs =
for density logs =
for resistivity logs =
Where : Tn = the value of the normal trend-line at a given depth, P =
the pressure value to be calculated, Phyd = normal hydrostatic pore
pressure, T log = log-value value for each curve corresponding to the
required pressure value.

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Ratio Method

Very simple
calculation
Does not take into
effect overburden
stress differences

Mouchet, J.P. and Mitchell, A., 1989

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Equivalent Depth Method

Every point in and undercompacted clay (A) is
associated with a normally compacted point (B)
The compaction at point A and B is identical, but the
overburden stress has increased, so:

ZB
(GGB deqlB )
deqlA = GGA
ZA
Where : deqlA = equilibrium density at A, deqlB = equilibrium density
at B, ZB = equivalent depth, ZA = depth of undercompacted clay,
GGA= overburden gradient at A, GGB= overburden gradient at B

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Equivalent Depth Method

Calculates pressures from
the depth of an equivalent
value on normal
compaction trend-line
Very simple calculation
that takes into effect local
overburden stress
Only applies to
overpressures generated
by undercompaction
Mouchet, J.P. and Mitchell, A., 1989

In reality, what methods could the

engineer use to fudge the results using
this method?

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Eaton Method
Calculates a pore pressure based on the
relationship between the observed
parameter/normal trend-line ratio and the
overburden gradient
1.2

for resistivity

Rsh log

P = S (S Phyd )
Rsh n

for sonic

Tn

P = S (S Phyd )
T
log

Eaton
exponent

3.0

where : P = formation pressure, S = overburden, Rsh = resistivity of

shale, T = sonic transit times, log = observed values of the log at the
given depth, n = value of normal at the given depth, hyd = normal
hydrostatic pressure
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Comparing Trend-Line Method Results

g/cc

g/cc

Mouchet, J.P. and Mitchell, A., 1989

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Whats Wrong with Trend-Lines?

What else is wrong with a trend-line

approach?

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Swarbrick, R.E., 2001

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Whats Wrong with Trend-Lines?

Could there be a better and more

consistent way to generate a trend-line?

Bell, 2002

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Thermally Generated Overpressures

Bowers, G.L., 2001

Why do you think that undercompaction
was left relatively unchallanged for so
long?

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Thermally Generated Pressures

High pressures often associated with low
porosities are typical
Caused by thermally generated fluid
expansion that unloads the rock
The traditional undercompaction
(effective stress) porosity relationships
breakdown
We need to use effective stress
unloading relationship