Writina an essay;

A aui5e far the perplexe5

Pete Smith

Asetafnatesfarthasestartinatawriteessays,reparts
artheses.
Let'sfaceit;itsterrifyina.
That'sanarmalreactian.Weallfeelit.Feelinaeitherfriahtene5araverwhelme5
isastan5ar5reactianwhenface5withanewtaskan5farmastyaunascientists,
pra5ucinaanexten5e5pieceafwritinaisacampletelynewtask.
Welcametathewarl5afavai5ancebehaviaurs.Asthe5ea5lineappraachesyau
willbesurprise5tafin5hawattractivewatchinaavi5ea,5ainathewashinaup,cleanina
yaurshaesarinfactanythinaatherthanactualwritinacanbecame.Thisistasay
nathinaabautyaurmabilearthepub.
5an'twarry;avai5ancebehaviaurisnarmal.Weall5ait(Ihavejusttakena
breaktarecar5theserialnumberafmyprinter!).Avai5inaactualwritinaispartafthe
writinapracess.Sayauhavetaacceptit.LaterIwillcamebacktathisissuean5araue
that'natwritina'isacriticallyimpartantactivitythatistatallynecessarytathepracessaf
pra5ucinaa5acument.

Thesenatesare5esiane5tahelpyauthrauahtherackyraa5tathepra5uctianaf
essays,repartsartheintra5uctianan55iscussiansectiansintheses.
Theyattempttameetthreebiaprablems.
Theyare5esiane5tahelpyauaetHIAHERMARKS
Inar5erta5athistheywillstartwithananalysisafwhatexaminers
actuallyawar5marksfar.
Thesecan5isthattheyshaul5makewritinaEASIER
They5ivi5ethejabafwritinaintatenseparateactivities
an5pravi5einstructiansanhawta5aeachtask.
Theyare5esiane5tahelpyauavai5thePERFECTIANTRAP

Theysuaaestyaushaul5alwaysrememberthatyauarewritina5rafts
yauinten5taimprave
.

CANTENTS
2

Perfectian
...............................................................................................................................
3
Whattheexaminerwillbemarkina.
...............................................................................................................................
4
Sequenceaftasksinwritinaanessay
...............................................................................................................................
7
Expansianaftasks
...............................................................................................................................
8
ARAUP1.Aettinastarte5
...................................................................................................................
8
1.1.Aeneralrea5ina
.......................................................................................................
8
1.2.Makebibliaaraphyentries
.......................................................................................................
10
1.3.Makeastructuralskeletan.
.......................................................................................................
10
ARAUP2Theactualwritina
...................................................................................................................
13

2.1Aaal5irecte5rea5ina
.......................................................................................................
13
2.2Fleshauttheskeletan
.......................................................................................................
13
ARAUP3.E5itina
...................................................................................................................
15
3.1.Pra5uceafirst5raftan5restructure.
.......................................................................................................
15
3.2.Checkcantentbyparaaraphan5subsectian.
.......................................................................................................
16
3.3.Checklinks
.......................................................................................................
16
3.4.Praafrea5
.......................................................................................................
16
3.5.Pra5ucefinal5acument.
.......................................................................................................
17
Appen5ix1Webbase5searchina18
Appen5ix2Usinaawar5pracessar21
Appen5ix3UsinatheNet
...............................................................................................................................
22
4

Perfectian
Perfectianisyaurbiaaestenemy.
Itisacunninafaethattrapsyauwithanumberafapparentlyreasanablephrases.

"I must 5a my best. The best is perfectian.

What I am writina is nat perfect.
Sa I wan't write anythina."
"I can't write anythina perfect until I am rea5y.
I'm nat rea5y yet.
Sa I wan't write anythina."
Thesenatesare5esiane5tahelpyauavercametheseaumptiantrapsbut,para5axically,
theymayalsapresentyauwithachanceta5evelapanewtrap.
" These nates tell me haw ta write, if I fallaw them I will pra5uce
perfectian.
But, the nates are averwhelmina, they autline taa much wark,
fallawina them waul5 be impassible.
As I can't fallaw them, I wan't be able ta pra5uce perfectian.
Sa I wan't write anythina."
5an'twarry,naba5yhaseverwrittenanythinaby5ainaeverythinathatisautline5
here.Thenatespravi5eaui5estapraaressnatrulesfarperfectian.Yau5an'thaveta
fallawthemslavishly,naba5ycaul5.Rea5them,thinkabautthem,butusethemanlyif
theyseemtamakesensetayau.
Justincaseyaumissit,let'srepeatthecentralthemeaftheappraachtakenin
thesenates.Alwaysbeawarethatyauarewritina5rafts.5raftsaren'tperfect;theyare
thinaswrittentabeimprave5,later.Theanlytimeyaustapwarkinaan5raftsisafterthe
finalstaaeafe5itina.Whattheaui5elinesrecammen5is;
"Write 5rafts, aet samethina, anythina 5awn. Yau can imprave it later
but yau can't imprave samethina that 5aesn't exist."

Whattheexaminerwillbemarkina.
Examinersarepeaple.Thisistrue,really.Eachexaminerhastheirawnpet
absessians,theirparticular5eman5san5theirparticularareasafknawle5ae.Always
respectthatwhenyaupreparewarkfaraparticularexaminer.Thissectian,hawever,
autlinessevenaeneralcriteriathatallexaminerswillusetaevaluateyaurwark.
Knawinathesecriteriawillhelpyaupra5ucewarkthatwillaetMARKS.
Presentatian
Presentatianisimpartanttatheexamineratbaththecansciausan5uncansciaus
levels.Atthecansciausleveltheexaminerwillbelaakinaattheextenttawhichyau
havepresente5yaurwarkinthefarmatthatwasrequeste5.Asinallexaminatiansitis,
therefare,essentialthat,befareyaustart,yaurea5whateverinstructiansareaiven.
5ifferentexaminershavetheirpethates.Samefacusanspellina,sameanpunctuatian,
sameanreferencinaan5bibliaaraphies.Asyauaften5anatknawthenatureafthe
examinersabsessiansina5vance,theanlythinayaucan5aispayattentiantathemall.
Allexaminersareuncansciauslyaffecte5bytheappearanceafapieceafwark.
Makethefinalpra5uctlaakaaa5.Itreallyiswarthmarks.
Quantity
Quantityreferstathelenathafthewrittenmaterialrelativetatheamaunt
requeste5.Yaushaul5alwaysfin5authawlanaanypieceafwarkisexpecte5tabe.Yau
haveariahttathisinfarmatian.Iftheessayistaasharttheexaminerwillassumethat
yauhaven'ttrie5aryau5an'thavetheability.Writinataamuchcanalsalaseyaumarks.
Theexaminersmayhavesetashartwar5limitinar5ertafarceyautathinkan5tawrite
cancisely.Writinacanciselyisaskillthatrequiresyautawarkautexactlywhatyau
thinkarenecessaryan5taeliminatematerialthatisnatreallyrelevant.Itsnataseasy
asitsaun5s.AsAscarWil5esai5"I'msarryfarthelenathafthisletterbutI5i5n'thave
timetawriteasharterane."
Relevance
Examinerswillcheckwhethereverythinayauhavewrittenisrelevanttayaur
tapic.5an'tramble.Theywillalsalaaktaseeifyauhaveleftautanythinathatthey
thinkisrelevant.Afurtheraspectafrelevanceisbalance.Balancereferstatherelative
amauntaftimeyauspen5aneachaspectafthetapic.
Ifyauareawarethatthereisanaspectthatyaucaul5havecavere5but5i5n't,ar
anethatyauspentlesstimeanthanitmiahtappeartahave5eserve5,alwaysaivean

explanatian,intheessay,whyyauma5eyaur5ecisian.Theexaminermaynataaree
withyaur5ecisianbutatleasthe/shewillknawthatyaurwereawareaftheissue.
Caherence
Thisisaneafthecentralthinasanexaminerisinfluence5by.Isthereanarrative
flaw?isthereastructure?Isitclearwhyanesectianfallawsanather?Cansameba5y
rea5thepiecewithautaettinalast?
Biarule;anexaminershaul5neveraetlast.
Iftheyaetlast,iftheyhavetakeepturninabacktaseewheretheyarearwhere
theyareaaina,theywillaetpisse5affan5theyassumeitisyaurfault.Alwayshavea
structure,telltherea5erwhatisaainaan,wheretheyareinthatstructure.Alwaysmake
surethatyaupravi5elinksframanesectiantaanather.Payrealattentiantahea5inasan5
titles.Ifexaminersfin5aaaa5structure,theywillalwaysassumethatthisimpliesthat
yauareincamman5afyaurmaterialthatyauun5erstan5it.Thisiswhattheywill
rewar5.
Lanauaae
Intermsafscientificwritina,lanauaaecanrefertaeitheraeneralarspecific
aspectsafthelanauaaeuse5.Here,aeneralreferstatheprinciplesafEnalishsyntaxan5
specificreferstatheparticularjaraanassaciate5withascientificarea.Anexaminer
willbeinfluence5bytheextenttawhichapieceafwritinaa5herestathecamman
stan5ar5safbaththeseaspectsaflanauaae.Baththeseaspectsaflanauaaeshaul5be
a55resse5atthee5itinastaae.
Creativity
Thisistheaneallexaminerslavetasee.Evi5encethattheyarelaakinaatamin5
thatiswarkinacreativelyaivesanexaminerpleasure,an5aivinaanexaminerpleasure
meanmaremarks,alatmaremarks.Alittlebitafcreativitycanevenearnyau
faraivenessfarmanyather5eficienciesinyaurwark.
Remember,markinaisalwaysbarinaan5aften5epressinafartheexaminer.The
siahtafapileafessaysarevenafabiafatthesis5aesnatbrinainstantthauahtsafjay.
Caminaacrassevi5enceafalittleariainalityislikethesunshininaanaclau5y5ay.Let
metellyauevi5enceafcreativityisrare.Itiswarthstrivinafar.
5epth
5epthhererefersbathtathetypeafreferencesyauhavecansulte5an5the5etail
afthearaumentsyauhave5escribe5.The5epthafanyessaymustbeapprapriatetathe

levelafthecaursefarwhichthewrittenmaterialhasbeenrequire5.Ifin5aubt,ASK.
Referencematerialis5ivi5e5upintaprimaryan5secan5arysaurces.
Primarysaurcesaretheactualpeerreviewe5papersinwhichariainalresults,
taaetherwiththemetha5suse5taabtainthem,arepresente5an55iscusse5
Secan5arysaurcesarereviewsarbaakwhichsummariesan55iscussthe
materialpresente5inprimarysaurces.
Examinerswillalwaysbepasitivelyinfluence5bytheuseafupta5ate,primary
references.Hawever,whetheryauuseprimaryarsecan5arysaurcesaften5epen5san
hawimpartanttheparticulararaumentyauarepresentinaistatheaverallstructureaf
yauressay.Themareimpartanttheissuethemareyaushaul5beusinaprimarysaurces.
Fara5vance5levelwarkyauareexpecte5tahaveuse5asianificantprapartianaf
primarysaurces.(SeeAPPEN5IX1Webbase5searchesan5APPEN5IX3UsinatheNet)
Ariainality
Althauahyauareexpecte5ta5erivemastafthefactsan5manyaftheapinians
yauwriteabautframthepublishe5literature,itwillbeexpecte5thatalltheactualwar5s
yauusewillbeyaurawn.Thismayseemalittleweir5atfirst.Ifaseniarresearcherhas
alrea5y5escribe5samethinawell,why5ayauhavetare5escribeitinyaurawnwar5s,
whynatusetheirs?Hawever,itisaverystranaruleafaca5emicwritinathatitisnat
acceptabletacapychunksautafatherpeaple'swark.Therearerulesfarquatinaather
peaple'swark.Ifyauinclu5emarethanasinalephraseafanatherauthar'swark,yau
mustacknawle5aethesaurcean5putthewar5syauhavebarrawe5ininverte5cammas.
Ifyau5an'tabeytheserules,YAUWILLLASEMARKS.
Capyinaatherpeapleswark,eithertheirwar5sari5eas,withaut
acknawle5aementiscalle5plaaiarismbuttheexaminermiahtcallitcheatina.5an'tbe
tempte5tatryit.Remember,eveniftheexaminerhasnatrea5thepapertheywill,
almastcertainly,recaanizeachanaeinstylean5useaflanauaae.
Apprapriatereferencina
Aneafthemajarrequirementsafaca5emicwritinaisthatyauareexpecte5ta
aivethesaurceafallthefactsyauincarparateinyauressay,repartarthesis.Thei5ea
hereisthattherea5ershaul5beaiventheinfarmatianthatwaul5allawthemtacheck
theariainals.Ifyauwanttaaetthehanaafthis,justlaakatthereferencinainanywell
writtenpublishe5paper.
Accasianally,inun5erara5uateessays,thestrictrulesafreferencinamiahtbe
relaxe5.Hawever,unlessthisisspecificallypartaftheinstructiansaiventayau,yau
willbeexpecte5taabeytherules.
Remember,mastexaminerswill5e5uctmarksframanessayifitispaarly
reference5
8

Sequenceaftasksinwritinaanessay
ARAUP1.AETTINASTARTE5
1.1.Aeneralrea5ina
Thisisthefirststep.Itiswhereyaucallectan5quicklyscanthepapers,reviewsan5
baaksyauwillbeusinaassaurcematerial.
1.2.Makebibliaaraphyentries(infinalfarm)
Makeacampletebibliaaraphicentryfareverysaurceyaurea5whenyaufirstrea5it.
1.3.Makeastructuralskeletan
Pra5uceapravisianalstructuralautlineaftheessaytathelevelafsectiansan5sub
sectians.
ARAUP2THEACTUALWRITINA
2.1.5etaile5,aaal5irecte5rea5ina
Thisiswhenyauaabacktayaursaurceswithspecificquestiansthathavebeen
aenerate5byyaurstructure.
2.2.Fleshauttheskeletan
Thisiswhatmastpeaplecallwritina.Fillintheskeletansubsectianbysubsectian,
alwaysstartinaattheaneyaufin5easiest.Remember,whatyauarewritinainthistask
isa5rafttextnatafinalpalishe55acument.
ARAUP3.E5ITINA
3.1.Pra5uceafirst5raftan5restructure.
Putallthebitsyauhavewrittentaaetherintheriahtar5eran5rethinkthestructural
skeletan
3.2.Checkcantentbyparaaraphan5subsectian.
Aathrauahthewarkcheckinathateachpartsayswhatitissuppase5tasayan55aesn't
cantainanythinaunnecessary.
3.3.Checklinks
Checkthatyauhavesentencesarshartparaaraphsthatexplicitlylinkthesectiansar
subsectianintaawhale.
3.4.Praafrea5
Eliminateerrarsinspellina,syntaxan5typina.Alsa5aafinalcheckfarmeaninaan5
caherence.
3.5.Pra5ucefinal5acument.
9

Checkfinallayautaaainstinstructian,an5beautify.

Expansianaftasks
ARAUP1.AETTINASTARTE5
1.1.Aeneralrea5ina
Thefirststepinwritinaisrea5ina.Therearevariausstylesafrea5inaan5itis
impartanttaun5erstan5,atanytime,whyyauarerea5ina.At5ifferentstaaesafthe
writinapracessyauwillberea5inafar5ifferentreasans.Inpra5ucinaanyseriauspiece
afwarkyaumiahtaswellacceptthatyauwillrea5thesamearticlesmarethanance,
eachtimefara5ifferentreasan.
Scientificwritinais5ense.Itisnatpassibletamakeallthenates
yauwillnee5atanerea5ina
Itmiahtappear5iliaentwhenyaufirstrea5apapertatake5etaile5natesbut
experiencesuaaeststhatitisnarmallyawasteaftime.Atthisstaaeyaurarelyknaw
what5etailsyauwillwantframthatpaperan5aften,ifyau5atake5etaile5nates,yau
willfin5that,intheen5,theycantainmuchthatyauwillneverusean5littleafwhatyau
willultimatelyreturntathatpapertafin5.
Yaucannattakeaaa55etaile5natesuntilyauhavewarke5autwhatquestianyauare
askina.
Thefirstrea5inaisprimarilyaime5at5evelapinaanun5erstan5inaaftheshape
aftheterritaryinfrantafyau.Whaaretheplayersan5whataretheyanabaut?An
impartantautcameafafirstrea5inaisalistafmarepaperstarea5.Anafirstrea5ina
anynateyautakeshaul5just5escribetheaeneralprapertiesafthatmaterial.
Whattarea5
Inaeneralrea5inayaualmastneverrea5apaperframbeainninataen5.Atthis
staae,themastimpartantpartafapapertarea5istheAbstract,afterallthisiswhatthe
autharthinksthepaperisallabaut.Thereferencesinthebibliaaraphyarealsa
impartant.Theymayin5icatewhatyaushaul5rea5next.Atthislevel,thesetwamiaht
beallyaurea5aryaumiahtalsahavealaakattheIntra5uctianaswell.Intra5uctians
sametimespravi5eshartan5cancisesummariesafthefiel5.

10

Hawtafin5stufftarea5
Ifyaucanfin5aaaa5,5etaile5an5recentreviewafthefiel5,Aa5lavesyau.It
willbeawan5erfulsaurceaf,an5intra5uctianta,theprimaryreferencesyauwillnee5
butbecarefulnattacapythisreviewintayaurawnwarkItisnearlycertainthatthe
examinerknawsthereviewaswell.

Wan5erinaupan55awnthelibraryshelvesisapaarwaytalaakfarinfarmatian.
Nearlycertainlyyauwillbeusinaelectranic5atabasestasearchtheavailableliterature.
Aaui5etatheuseaftheseisaiveninAppen5ix1.

Whentastap
Whenhaveyaurea5enauaharcallecte5enauahpapersarreprints?Thesimple
answerisnever.Thereneverwillbeanystaaeinyaurlifewhenyauhaverea5allthat
yaucaul5.Whatyaunee5hereisafunctianallimit.Twaaui5escanbeaffere5.The
firstiswhenyaufin5thatyaurecaanizethemajarityaftheautharscite5inthe
bibliaaraphyafapaperyaustarttarea5.Atthispaintyaucanbereasanablycertainthat
yauhaveaatsamewhere.Thesecan5iswhenyauyaurselfarebeainninataaet'afeel'far
thetapic.
1.2.Makebibliaaraphyentries
Themastimpartantnateyaucantake5urinaafirstrea5inaisthecarrect
bibliaaraphic5etailsafthepaperyauarerea5ina.Ifyauarewarkinaanacamputeryau
shaul5,atthefirstrea5inaafallpapers,enterthefullaccuratean5apprapriate
bibliaaraphical5etailseitherintaatext5acumentarintaabibliaaraphicsaftware
packaaelikeEn5nate.
Ifyauarewritinabyhan5,makeacar5filean5enterallthecarrect5etailsaf
everythinayaurea5.Keepeachcitatianananin5ivi5ualcar5.Itwillmakesartinathem
easier.
THISISIMPARTANT.
Theamauntaftimean5frustratianthatyauwillexperienceintryinatafin5a
reference5urinathefinale5itinaafatextisenarmaus.Havinataspen5,asa5ea5line
appraaches,thebestpartafa5aytryinatafin5thenumberafpaaesinabaakyaurea5
inalibrarytwamanthsaaa,isarapi5waytapanican5ma5ness.
The5etailsafthestylerequire5inanybibliaaraphyarenarmallyavailable
befareyaustarttawrite.Massivetimewillbespentifyaurecar5the5etailsinthis
farmatcarrectlythefirsttime.Treatthenitpickina,pe5antic5etailsthatareaiveninthe

11

instructiansveryseriausly.Aretheyearssuppase5tabeinbrackets?Aretheyfallawe5
byafullstap?Timetakentaaetthisriahtatthebeainninaistimewellspent.

1.3.Makeastructuralskeletan.
Thisisaneafthemastimpartantpartsafthepracessafwritina.
Nearlyallscientificwritinacanbebraken5awnintaanumberafsequential
sectians.Itispassibly,initsuseafclearly5elineate5sectians,thatscientificessays
5ifferframthaseessaysyaurEnalishteacherstrie5taaetyautawrite.Withanythina
thatisbetween550paaeslanatherewillbealimite5numberafthesesectians.
Samewherebetween4an56waul5becamman.
Whatisaskeletan?
Askeletanissimplythelayautafthemajarsectiansafyaurwarkan5the
5ivisiansafthesesectiansintatheirsubsectians.
Fiaure1aivesanexampleafpartafastructuralskeletan.Havealaakatit.The
majarsectiansuse5(Step1)inthisexample5anat,afcaurse,representtheanly
skeletanthatcaul5bearrive5at.Itmaynatevenbethefinalstructurethatwillbeuse5.
BUTITISASTART
Fiaure1

Exampleafaskeletan

Inanessayanvaccinatianaaainstinfluenzathefallawinapravisianal
structuralskeletanmiahtbea5apte5.
Step1
1.Thenatureafinfluenza
2.Thenatureafthevirus
3.Vaccinatianstrateaiesan5labaratarytrials
4.Vaccinatiansinthefiel5an5theircansequences.
5.Passiblefuturestrateaies.
Step2
Startsub5ivi5inaeachsectian,farexample,sectian1miahtcantainsubsectians
an;
1.1Thehistaryafthe5isease
1.2Thesymptamsafthe5isease,
1.3Thetransmissianafthe5isease
1.4Susceptibilitybyaae,aeneticsan5incame.

12

Anceyauhavethemajarsectiansafapravisianalskeletan(Step1)itisaaaa5
i5eatatakeacleansheetafpaperfareachsectian.Writethesectianhea5inaanthetap
afeachsheetan5pinthemupinfrantafyauwhereveryauarewarkina.Nawyaucan
pracee5tabreak5awneachmajarsectianintaitscampanentsectians(Step2).Naw
writethesubsectiansanyaurmastersheets.
THISISYAURPRAVISIANALSKELETAN
Whymakeaskeletan?
Skeletansan5theirmastersheetshavethreeareata5vantaaes.
1.Theyauaranteethatanythinayauwritewillhaveastructuralnarrative,itwill
flawan5itwillbeeasytarea5.
Iftherea5erfin5syaurwarkeasytarea5,theywillten5taassumethatyauare
intelliaentan5un5erstan5thematerialyauarewritinaabaut.
2.Theyhelpyauaetraun5theprablemafthefirstsentence.Anceyauhavethe
skeletanyaucanstartanywhere!
ALWAYSSTARTWITHTHEBITYAUFIN5EASIEST
3.Anceyauhaveaskeletanyaucanplanyaurwark.Yauwillalwaysknaw
whereyauarean5yauwillknawwherewhatyauarewritinaisaainatabeinthefinal
5acument.Itwillalsahelpyauseethat,5espiteallappearances,yauareactuallymakina
praaress.
4.Astructuralskeletanwillhelpyauavai5writinaaneafthewarsttypesaf
essayarreview.Thesearetheaneswheretheautharappearstahavema5eapileafthe
papershe/shewilluse.Theautharstartsbytakinaapaper,5iscussesitscantents,then
pracee5stathenextpaper,5iscussesthatan5thenpracee5sa5infinitum.Natanly5aes
thisappraachtawritinapra5uceaverybarinapra5uct,itwillalsafailtapravi5ean
examinerwithanyevi5encethatyauun5erstaa5thematerialyauwererea5ina.

Hawtaaetaskeletan

13

Havefaith.Yauareahumanbeinaan5humanbeinasarepatternmakers.A
structuralskeletanisapatternan5makinaaneisasnaturalasbreathina.Anumberaf
thinascan,hawever,aetintheway.Fearisthebiaay.Withitsfrien5s,anxietyan5self
5aubt,fear,inanyafitsmajar5isauises,istherealenemy.Sawhat'snew?
Theatherprablemisthatbecausepatternmakinaisanaturalan5aftenan
uncansciausactivityfewafusknawhawta5ait.I'llletyauintaasecret.Yaucan't5ait
bytryina.Itsnatlikestu5yinaarrea5inaarwarkina.Thestepstapatternmakinaare;

1.Laa5thesystem.
5ayauraeneralrea5ina.Aetthestuffslashinaaraun5insi5eyaurmin5.
Warkhar5atthisbutatthisstaaeyaushaul5natbetryinatawriteanythinamarethan
veryaeneralnatestayaurself.
2.Takeabreak;staptryina.
Thisstaaecantake5aysan5itcanfeelasifyauare5assina,natwarkina
an55efinitelynatwritina.Restassure5,ifyauhaveputalaa5afstuffintayaurmin5the
paarthinahasnaaptianbuttatrytamakesamethinaautafit.Thisisthetimewherenat
writinaisanessentialpartafwritina.Aaplayfaatball,fallinlave,aa5awnthepub
sayinatayaurselfallthetimethisishawIwrite,waw,hawweir5.5an'tfeelauilty.If
auiltturnsupuninvite5,warkansamethinaelse.5an'twarry;itwan'taetinthewayaf
patternina.Ifyau'rewarkinaanathesis,nawmiahtbeaaaa5timetawarkanpalishina
upthelayautafsametablesararaphs.
3.Makeyaurskeletan
Thereisanartinknawinawhentaaabackan5askyaurmin5faritsbest
shatatapattern.PersanallyIaftenfin5thataainafarawalkisaaaa5i5eaarsametimes
talkinataanatherpersancanversatianrequiresastructuretaa.Aneafthebesttimesis
themarninaafteryauhavespenttheniahtfailinatacameupwithapatternthatpleases
yau.Yaumiahtbeasleepbutthepaaral5patternmakinafunctianafyaurmin5aetsna
rest.Whatever,ane5aytry5aa5linaanapieceafpaper.
REMEMBERAVAI5THEPERFECTIANTRAP
Yauareanlytryinafarapravisianalskeletanyaucanalwayschanaeitlater(see
task3.1).

ARAUP2THEACTUALWRITINA

14

ThetwatasksinthisaraupAaal5irecte5rea5inaan5Fleshinaautthe
skeletanarenatreallyseparate.Yauwillfin5yaurselfswitchinabetweenrea5inafara
subsectianan5writinait.Aryaumiaht5athe5etaile5rea5inafarmarethananesub
sectianbefareyaustarttawrite.Aaainaawiththeflaw.Ifyaurhea5isrea5ytawrite,
5asamewritina.Ifyaufeellikerea5ina,rea5.Ifyau5an'tfeellike5ainaeither,aaback
an5rerea5an5e5itsamethinayauwraterecently.
Thereisanemastimpartantthinatabearinmin5whenyaustarttaputwar5s
5awnanpaperaranscreen.Yaurfirstversianisnatsuppase5tabethefinalversian.
YAUAREWRITINAA5RAFT
Alwaysrememberthatyauarenattryinataaetitriaht.Atthisstaaeyauarejust
tryinataaetsamethina5awn.Yaucanaaback,chanaeit,impraveit,areven5iscar5it.

WRITESAMETHINA,
ANYTHINAYAUWRITEISPRAARESS

2.1Aaal5irecte5rea5ina
Whenyauhaveyaurstructuralskeletannawisthetimetarea5aaain.Thistime
yauarerea5inafar5etail.Aaain,yauwillnatberea5inaallafapaperarafareview
article.Yauwillaaintaaetspecificallywhatyauwantfarthatsubsectianyauare
warkinaan.
Chaaseasubsectianthatyaufeelmastateasewithan5makeapileafthe
relevantpapers.Yauraeneralrea5inashaul5helpyauun5erstan5whichpapersar
reviewarticlesyaunee5tarea5an5yaurstructuralskeletanwilltellyauwhatyauwant
frameachafthem.
Anytimeyaurea5apaper,yaushaul5beabletaseewhereyauareaainatause
theinfarmatianitcantains.Rememberanysinalepapermayturnupinanumberaf
sectiansarsubsectiansan5yaumayhavetaaabackaaainan5aaaintafin5thespecific
bitsafinfarmatianyaunee5fareachafyaursubsectians.Itisaaaa5i5eatamakenates
anyaurmastersheetsafthereferencesthatyauwillbeusinaineachsubsectian.Thisis
acantinuinapracessan5paperscanbecantinuallya55e5artakenautasyaucarryan
writina.

15

2.2Fleshauttheskeletan
Anceyauhaveaskeletan,itisnawthetimetastartfillinaintheflesh.Thisis
thetaskthatmastpeaplethinkafaswritina.
Theimpartantthinahereistastartwiththesubsectianyauarehappiestwithar
thinkyauwillfin5easiest,cantinuean,alwayschaasinatawarkantheeasiestafthe
remaininasubsectians.Thiswaywhenyauaettathereally5ifficultbitsyauwillhave
thecanfi5enceafalaa5afwarkbehin5yau.
Rememberthisisa5raftnatthefinalversiansa5an'tbeperfectianist,
cancentrateanaettinastuff5awnanpaperaranthescreen.Anebiahelphereistabe
prepare5tawriteabitafaarbaaeintayaurtext.Itcanhappenthatwhen,atlast,abitaf
writinaisaainawell,asubsectianisreallyaettinafille5in,yaucametaabitthatstaps
yau.Itmiahtbethenameafanauthar,itmiahtbeaspecificnumberarsetafnumbersar
itmiahtjustbeawar5arphrasethatwan'tcameriaht.Atthispaint,5an'tinterruptyaur
flawbytryinatasalvetheprablemarlaakuptheinfarmatian,mamentswhenthe
writinaisflawinaaretaavaluable.JustwriteBLAHarsamethinaan5carryan.Ifyau
arewritinaanscreenputitinBAL5,ifyauarewritinabyhan5putitinCAPITALS.In
myfirst5raftsasurprisinanumberafpapersseemtahavebeenwrittenbyFre5(19XX)
an5alatafnumbersappearasXX.Lateryaucanaabackan5fillthese5etailsinlater.
Fillinainthesebal5bits5aesnattakethesamekin5afenerayaswritina.Yaucan5a
themaneatatimewhenthemaa5isriaht.Ifyauarewritina5irectlyantaacamputer
justscanfarBLAHarFre5arXXusinathefin5aptian.
Writinatakestimean5cancentratian.Impartantly,ineachsessianafactual
writinaittakestimetaaetintatheswinaafaettinawar5s5awnanpaper.Itisanal5
sayinathatifyauspen5anehauratyaur5eskyaupra5uce5minafactualwritina.If
yauspen5twahaursyauaet35minwritina5anean5ifyauspen5threehaursyauaetan
hauran5ahalf'spra5uctian.Sa,ifyauhaven'taatthetime5an'tstartananewsectianaf
writina.Yauwillanlyen5upfeelinafrustrate5an55efeate5.5asamethinathatcanbe
fitte5intasmallertimeslatslikee5itinaarrea5ina.Sharttimeperia5scanbe
pra5uctivelyuse5taaabackan5checkallthebitsyauhaveleftinBAL5ar
CAPITALS.
Animpartantpaintabautthistaskisthatyauneverthrawanythinaaway.Aften
yauwillfin5yauhavewrittensamethinathatyau5an'tlike.5an'tscrapit.Ifyauare
warkinaanscreen,apena'rejects'filean5putitthere.Itissurprisinahawaftenyauwill
aabacktathisfilean5recycleabitafthisrejecte5writinainanatherpartaftheessay.

ARAUP3.E5ITINA

16

Nawisthetimetaseewhatyauhaveaat.Framnawanyauwillbeinvalve5in
whatcanaenerallybeterme5e5itinayaurtext.Ifyauhavenever5anethisjabbefare,
thenthereisaneenarmauslyimpartantfactyaunee5taknaw,
E5ITINATAKEMUCHMARETIMETHANYAUEVERIMAAINE5
anatherwayafstatinathisis
E5ITINATAKESLANAERTHANWRITINA
E5itinais,hawever,veryimpartant.Intheen5thequalityafyaure5itinawill
havearealinfluenceanhawtheexaminerfeelsabauthavinatarea5yaurwark.Rea5ina
paarly5esiane5warkwithaclumsylayautthatcantainstypaaraphicalerrarsan5ba5
spellinawillputanyexaminerinaba5maa5.Theywillstartlaakinafarerrarsin
cantentan5willbepreparinathemselvestaaivealawmark.Awellpra5uce5pieceaf
warkautamaticallyaivestheimpressianafcampetencean5ability.Theexaminerwill
preparehimselftabeimpresse5bythecantentan5willberea5ytaawar5hiahmarks.
Itisjustlikeaettinarea5yfara5ate.Firstimpressiansmatter.Yaumaybea
verynicepersanbutifyauclathesare5irty,yaurfinaernailsfilthyan5yauhaveba5
breathan5BAyauarere5ucinayaurchancesthatanyba5ywillnaticehawattractive
yaureallyareun5erneath.

3.1.Pra5uceafirst5raftan5restructure.
Printautyaurtext,callectallyaursheetsafpaperan5putthemintheriahtar5er.
Thisisyaurfirst5raft.Atthisstaaeyau5anathavetahavefinishe5fillinainallthe
subsectiansbutitisbetternattastartthistaskuntilyauhavesamethinawritteninthe
majarityafthem.
Anceyauhaveafirst5raftitistimetarelaakatthestructuralskeletanyauhave
beenusina.Thei5eahereistamakesurethateachsectianan5eachsubsectianisinthe
riahtplace.Thisiswhenyaucan5eci5etachanaetheaverallskeletan.
Itispracticallyimpassibleta5athiskin5afe5itinaanscreenan5fewpeaple
havethekin5afmin5thatallawsthemtalaakatthestructureinaverticalpileafsheets
afpaper.Atrickhereistafin5alaraeflatsurfacean5talaythewarkautharizantally.
Yaucanthenwalkupan55awnyauressaythinkinaabautthestructurean5mavinabits
araun5.Tryusinascissarsan5Sellatape.

17

3.2.Checkcantentbyparaaraphan5subsectian.
Thereareuniquesetsaferrarsthatareassaciate5withe5itinaanacamputer.I
callthenarphansan5ahasts.Theyaretheresi5uesleftbehin5afterusinathecutan5
pastefunctians.Arphansaresentences,araccasianallyaaraupafsentences,thatare
meaninafulinthemselvesbutarenawinthecampletelywranapartafthe5acument.
Ahastarepartsafsentencesarsametimesjustsinalewar5sthataatleftbehin5.An
impartanttypeafahastistheinvisibleahast.Themastcammanfarmafinvisibleahastis
thepresenceafa5aublespace,ratherthanasinalespace,betweenwar5s.These5auble
spaces5etractframtheappearanceafyaurwarkan5shaul5beeliminate5.Luckilythis
iseasy.Justaatathereplacefunctianinthewar5pracessinapackaaean5askitta
replaceall5aublespaceswithsinalespaces.Heypresta,allinvisibleahastaaneina
secan5.
Thereisareallyaaa5techniquefaraettinari5afmaresubstantialahastsan5
arphansthatalsahasthea5vantaaeafseriauslyimpravinathequalityafyaurwritina.
Thistimeitiswisetastartataplacewhereyauha5realprablemswritinabecausethisis
whereyauwillhavebeenmastinvalve5incuttinaan5pastina.Facusanaparaaraph.
Rea5itquicklytaseewhatitistryinatasay.Anaseparatesheetwrite5awn,innate
farm,thepaintsyauaretryinatamakeinthatparaaraph.Returntathe5acumentan5see
ifeachsentenceiscansistentwiththeaimsaftheparaaraph.Cutautthasethatarenat
necessaryar5an'tfit.Carryanwitheachsuccessiveparaaraphuntilyauhavecamplete5
awhalesectianarsubsectian.
Iknawthissaun5slabariausbutifyau5aitpraperlyitwillbewarthwhile.Yaur
writinawillflawan5rea5inaitwillbeeasy.Rememberyaurmainjabistakeepthe
examinerinapasitiveframeafmin5.Iftherea5inaiseasy,becauseeachsentenceisin
theriahtplace,theexaminerwillenjayhis/herwark,willassumeyauareincampete
camman5afyaurmaterialan5willawar5yauHIAHMARKS.
Ifyaucannatfacethepraspectafcheckinaeachparaaraphinyaurwark,yau
shaul5,asaminimum,checkthasepartswhereyauknawyau5i5alatafcuttinaan5
pastina.

3.3.Checklinks
Whenyauwriteinsectiansan5subsectians,asisrecammen5e5here,theane
5isa5vantaaeisthatyaucanen5upwithasliahtly5isjainte5text.A5isjainte5textwill
leavetherea5er/examinerlastasyaufarcethemtajumpframtapictatapic.Nawisthe
timetaputinasentenceartwatalea5therea5eraentlyframanesectiantathenextar
framanesubsectiantathenext.Theselinkscaneitherbeattheen5afasectianarmare
cammanlyatthebeainninaafthenewane.

18

3.4.Praafrea5
Thefirststephereistausethefacilitiespravi5e5byyaurwar5pracessina
saftware.Always5aaspellcheckan5aarammarcheckbefareaettina5awntaseriaus
praafrea5ina.Hawever,yaushaul5rememberthatcamputersaremaransan5can
accasianallybecamecarrupte5marans.Custam5ictianariesareparticularlysusceptible
tacarruptian.Asaresultaspellcheckmayacceptincarrectlyspeltwar5sar,mareaften,
war5sthatarecarrectlyspeltbutthatarenattheanesthatyauinten5e5tawrite.
Nathinawillreplaceacarefulrea5inaafthetext.Thisiswhereyaunee5yaur
frien5s.
NABA5YCANPRAAFREA5HISARHERAWNWARK
Thereisanaverwhelminaten5encytarea5whatyaumeanttawriteratherthan
thewar5sthatareactuallyanthepaaeinfrantafyau.Itisaaaa5i5eatausemarethan
anepraafrea5er,eachpersanhastheerrarstheyseewellan5theerrarsthey5an'tseeat
all.
3.5.Pra5ucefinal5acument.
Rea5theinstructianstaauthars.Takeeverythinatheysayseriausly.Checkyaur
layaut.Aaaa5layautshaul5natanlymakeyaurwarklaakattractivebutitcanalsabe
use5tahelptherea5erknawwheretheyareinthetext.Aaainitisaaaa5i5eatalay
yaurwarkautharizantallyanalaraetablewhenyauareexamininaitslayaut.
Arethepaaebreaksintheriahtplaces?Yaucanusepaaebreakstahelpthe
rea5er.5an't,farexample,startanewsectianatthebattamafthelastpaaeafapreviaus
sectian.Ifyaustartanewsectianatthetapafanewpaaeyauaretellinatherea5erthat
yauhavechanae5thetapicun5er5iscussian.
Arethehea5inasallinthecarrecttypeface,Farexample,ifyauareusina14pt
bal5farsectianhea5inasan512ptitalicfarsubsectianhea5inas,areallthehea5inasin
thisfarmat?
Whenyauthinkyauhavefinishe5,5aafinalspellchuck.
Remembere5itinaisneverfinishe5.Thebesttimefarseeinaseriausmistakesin
yaurmanuscriptisfiveminutesafteryauhavesubmitte5it!
PERFECTIANISANIMPASSIBLEAAAL

19

Appen5ix1Webbasesearchina
NBThisinfarmatianisalsaanthe5epartmentalWebsite.Remeberthehar5capy
willanlybeup5ate5everyyearbuttheWebversianwillbecantinuallyup5ate5.
Therearethreebasicstrateaiesfarwebbase5searchina.
1.StartattheCalleaeLibraryhamepaaewww.library.nuiaalway.ie/
2.Startatthe5epartmentalWebsitewww.nuiaalway.ie/micrabialaay
3.Aa5irecttaaparticularsiteantheWeb

1.IFYAUSTARTATTHELIBRARYHAMEPAAE
YaucanstraiahttaScience5irect.www.science5irect.cam
Cavers1,200jaurnalswithlinksta10,000jaurnaltitles,an5,atanyanetime,1.5
millianarticles.Elsevierjaurnalsanly.Fulltextavailablewitharticlesavailablefram
400jaurnalsasP5Ffiles.Searchusinasubjectkeywar5s,authar,titleafjaurnaletc.
5emanstratianavailableanline.
AR
Aatathe5ialaabaxalefthan5si5eaflibraryhamepaaean5picka5atabase
framthere.
AR
ClickanScienceicanantapafthehamepaae.Thisaivesyaufurtheraptiansta
clickan.
Baaks:linkaiveslacatianafsciencetextbaaksan5linkstaatheruniversity
libraries
Jaurnals:linktalistafanlinejaurnalsavailableinlibrary.Thefull
textafsamejaurnalsareavailableanline,butanlyifthelibrary
subscribestathem.
5atabases:Thisaivesyaulinkstasameafthemastcammanlyuse55atabases
these5atabasescanalsabeaccesse5framthelibraryhamepaae,fram
the5ialaauebaxcalle5resaurcein5exanleftsi5eafscreen.Themast
useful5atabasesavailablehereare;
WebafScience

20

Allawsaccessta5,700jaurnalsin1505isciplines.Up5ate55aily.Aivescitatian
an5abstractanly.5aesnatpravi5efulltextafarticles.Canperfarmcite5
referencesearchina.Searchusinasubjectkeywar5s,authar,titleafjaurnaletc.
Tutarialavailableanline,aralternativelycantactsciencelibrarianRasie5unne
whaaraanisestraininasessiansatthebeainninaafaca5emicterm.
Me5line.Bibliaaraphican5abstractcaveraaeafbiame5ical,5ental,an5me5ical
literature.Accessta3,900jaurnals,butabstractavailableanly.5atabasecavers
articlesfram1966anwar5s.

2.IFYAUWANTTAAAVIATHE5EPARTMENTALWEBSITE
FramtheNUI,AalwayhamepaaeclickanFacultiesan55epartmentsfaun5anthe
naviaatianbaratthelefthan5si5eafthepaae.ThenclickanMicrabialaaywhichwill
appearanthemainpartafthepaaeun5erthe5epartmentshea5ina.TheMicrabialaay
5ept.websitewillthenappear.Anthefrantpaae,riahthan5si5e,clickanthelinkthat
rea5sMicrabialaayAnline.Thiswilltakeyau5irectlytathepaaewhichcantainslinks
taawi5evarietyafusefulsites.
3.IFYAUWANTTAAA5IRECTLYTAAUSEFUL5ATABASE
Herearealistafsamethatarefrequentlyuse5bypastara5sinthe5epartment.
2.1Farfin5inapeerreviewe5papers.
Science5irect(usearaupwi5elaain)
http://www.science5irect.cam/
WebafScience
http://was.heanet.ie/
Me5line/PubMe5
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.aav/PubMe5Al5/
AmericanSacietyfarMicrabialaay.AccesstaallASMjaurnals,mainlyabstracts.
www.jaurnals.asm.ara

2.25atabasesfarmalecularbialaay
TheNatianalCenterfarBiatechnalaayInfarmatian(NCBI)hamepaae
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.aav/
21

Clicktheentrezlink.NCBIhamepaaepravi5esaliteraturesearchenaine,Pubme5,an5
theEntrezbrawserwhichsearchestheAenBank5NA5atabase.Anatherusefultaalis
theBLAST(BasicLacalAlianmentSearchTaal)praaramwhichcamparesuserinputte5
5NAsequencestatheAenBank5atabase.
EurapeanBiainfarmaticsInstitute(EBI)hamepaae
http;//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.aac/
TheEBIistheEurapeancentrefaraenamicsan5biainfarmaticsservicesan5isbase5in
theUK.Itslacatianmeansitisafteneasieran5fastertaaccessthanitsamerican
caunterpart,theNCBI(especiallyafterlunchtime).Inparticular,theTaalsan55atabases
linksarecamprehensivean5userfrien5ly.
TheRibasamal5atabasePraject
http://r5p.cme.msu.e5u/html/
Thisisaspecialist5atabasefarsmallan5laraesubunitribasamalRNAanalysis.
Allawsusertaperfarmanline5NAsequencesimilaritysearches,sequencealianment
an5basicphylaaeneticanalysis
Pe5rasBiamalecularResearchTaals.
http://www.public.iastate.e5u/~pe5ra/research_taals.html.
Thiswebsitecantainslinkstaahastafresaurcescaverinaawi5eranaeaftapicsin
malecularbialaay.Alsacantainslinkstamanymajarjaurnalsinbialaay.
2.3Reputableaaencies
UKPublicHealthLabarataryServiceThewebsitefarthepublichealthlabaratary
serviceintheUK.Facts,news,publicatiansan5infarmatiananvariausnatifiable
pathaaens.
www.phls.ca.uk
Centersfar5iseaseCantral,US.Areatsitefarinfarmatianantheepi5emialaayaf
5iseases
http://www.c5c.aav/
USFaa5an55ruaA5ministratian.Areatsitefarrepartsan5iseasean5faa5safety
issues.
http://www.f5a.aav/.
Warl5HealthAraanisatian.Fun5afinfarmatianabautcurrentstateaf5iseasesan5
epi5emicsallaverthewarl5.Same5ataisalittlepaliticallytainte5
http://www.wha.int/hamepaae/

22

Ban5alier.AUK5atabaseanevi5encebase5me5icine.Reviewstheevi5encethat
therapies5aar5anat,wark.
http://www.jr2.ax.ac.uk/ban5alier

Appen5ix2Usinaawar5pracessar.
Ifyauarenatfluentintheuseafawar5pracessinapackaaeyauwillfin5that
yauwanttawriteyaurfirst5raftsbyhan5.Ifthisiswhatiseasiestfaryauthenmaybeit
istheriahtthinata5a.Writinaanscreenislikesen5inaaratherlaraetextmessaaean5
mastpeaplemastertheartaftextinatheirfrien5squitequickly.Writina5raftsbyhan5
isanlypastpaninathemamentwhenyauhavetacametatermswiththecamputer.In
makinayaur5ecisianastawhentastartwarkinaanscreenyaushaul5remember;
1.
Inthebia,ba5warl5autsi5e,everyba5y,excepttheveryal5,campases5irectly
anscreen.Inemplaymentitisaskillyauwillbeexpecte5tahave.Yaurcalleaauesat
warkwillseewritinafirstbyhan5an5thencapyinathewar5sintaacamputerasrather
likeusinayaurfinaerstacauntan.
2.
Yaur5acumentwillhavetabeprinte5an5sayauwillhavetaaetitintaa
camputersametime.
3.
Haweveryauwriteyaurfirst5rafts,itiscertainthat,befareyaupra5uceyaur
finalcapy,yauwillhavetaaetinvalve5ine5itinaa5acument,whichisinacamputer.
E5itinaisaninherentlyfinicky,nitpickinaan5frustratinaactivity.Tryinatalearnhaw
tae5itan5hawtauseawar5pracessinapackaaeatthesametimewillnarmallyresultin
yauraivinauptaaearly.Theresultwillbepaare5itina,paarlayautan5lawermarks
thanyau5eservefartheeffartyauputintatherea5inaan5writina.
4.
Asthe5ea5lineappraachesyauwill,ifyauarenarmal,starttapanic.Mil5panic
makeslearninavery5ifficult.Fullblaw,seriaus,the5ea5lineiscaminapanicmakes
learninaimpassible.
Mya5vicetayauistaaetuse5tawar5pracessinaassaanaspassiblean5
5efinitelybefarethepressureisreallyan.Whenyau5astarttawarkanscreenthereare
twawar5syaunee5taknaw;
BACKUP,BACKUP,BACKUP,BACKUP,BACKUP,BACKUP,

23

Ifyauwishtaavai5thesuici5alpanicthecanbeenaen5ere5bythesimplephrase;
Unrecaverable5iscerrar
BACKUP,BACKUP,BACKUP,BACKUP,BACKUP,BACKUP,

Appen5ix3UsinatheNet
TheNetwas5esiane5ta5isseminateinfarmatian.Whenappraachinaanewtapic
ithasabviausattractians.Itisfastan5araanize5bykeywar5s.Nafrustratinasearches
farjaurnalsthelibrary5aesn'thave,arfarissuesthatare'missina'.Nawaitinafar
expensiveinterlibrarylaans.TheNetcan,hawever,beuse5intwaways.Thefirstista
use5atabasestasearchthepublishe5literature.Thisistatallyleaitimatean5naba5yhas
anyprablemswithit.Thesecan5istauseasearchenainetafin5anyinfarmatianthatis
'autthere'anaparticulartapic.Thisiswheretheprablemsreallyliean5itisthisuseaf
theNetthatwillbe5iscusse5here.
Asaaeneralruleexaminersreactba5ly(i.e.aivelawmarks)iftheythinkapiece
afwritinais"just5awnlaa5e5framtheNet".Thisisnatjustbecauseexaminersare
aeriatricstickinthemu5swhaarejustnatabletakeepupwithpraaress.Therearereal
reasansfarcancernabautthequalityaftheinfarmatianthatisavailableantheNet.As
anyba5ywhahascarrie5autakeywar5searchknaws,themajarityafthesitesthatturn
uparerubbish.Theprablemisthatinamanastthe5rassaresamevaluableaems.Haw
5awe5iscriminate?Whataretherulesaraui5elineshere?
Whatthisnatewillattemptta5aistaautlinethemainaraumentabauttheuseaf
theNet,5iscusssameafthetheareticalbackaraun5tathesearaumentsan5thenta
suaaestsameaui5elinesfartheuseaftheNetasaninfarmatiansaurceinscientific
writina.
Befareweattempttaillustratewheretherulesmiahtlie,hawever,itisprabably
valuabletaremin5aurselvesafwhatexaminersarelaakinafarwhentheymarkany
pieceafwritina.Whatliesbehin5that5ismissivecamment"just5awnlaa5e5framthe
Net"?Afprimaryimpartancetatheexamineristhatanywritinayausubmitismeantta
beyaurs.Itismeanttabetheresultafyaurthinkinaabautmaterialyauhaverea5.Itis
meanttabeacriticalevaluatianan5synthesisafmany5ifferentsaurcesafinfarmatian
(hawmany5epen5santhelevelaftheexambutinaeneralthemaresaurcesthehiaher
themarks).Atanelevel,the5isparaainacamment"just5awnlaa5e5framtheNet",
refersnattathequalityaftheinfarmatiansaurcesbuttatheabsenceafcriticalthauahtin
thewritina.

24

Here,hawever,wearenatcancerne5withthe5eareeafcriticalthauahtinyaur
writina,whichhasbeen5ealtwithelsewhere,butratherwiththeleaitimacyaftheuseaf
theNetasasaurceaftheinfarmatian.Theissuessurraun5inatheleaitimacyaftheuse,
inscientificwritina,afinfarmatiancallecte5framtheNetisstillunresalve5an5
unfartunatelynafirman5absaluterulescanbeaiven.Whatwecan5aistaautlinethe
araumentsan5suaaestsameaui5elines.

Thearauments
Tra5itianallytheissueafleaitimacyaf5atahasbeenestablishe5byreferenceta
peerreviewe5jaurnals.Simplystate5thepasitianwasthat,ifinfarmatianappeare5in
anarticleinapeerreviewe5jaurnal,itwas,thereby,cansi5ere5leaitimate.Infarmatian
thatwas5isseminate5byanyathermeans,ifitha5natariainallyappeare5inapeer
reviewe5jaurnal,wascansi5ere5suspect.
Thasewha5efen5thisrelianceanpeerreviewe5jaurnalsaenerallyrelyanthree
mainarauments.
1.Anyarticleinsuchajaurnalhasbeensubjecttacriticalreviewbyatleastane
an5narmallymare,lea5inascientistsinthefiel5befarebeinaaccepte5bythee5itarfar
publicatian.This,itisaraue5,maintainsstan5ar5san5eliminatescrap.
2.Thestan5ar5afthesejaurnalsensuresthat5ataareneverpresente5withaut
thefull5etailsafthemetha5suse5taabtaintheman5thecan5itiansun5erwhichthey
wereabtaine5.
3.Thesejaurnalsareinthepublic5amainan5are,therefare,atleastintheary,
availabletaeveryba5y.
Antheatherhan5,thasewhaa5vacatetheuseaftheNetwaul5araue;
1.Tra5itianaljaurnalsareveryslaw.Itcantakeayeararmaretaaetapaper
publishe5thisway.IncantrasttheNetrepresentsinstantcammunicatianthatcanbe
rapi5lyup5ate5.
2.Jaurnalsareexpensivean5manyhaveanlyasmallcirculatianan5are
virtuallyinaccessible.Incantrast,anyba5ycanaetantheNetan5accessamuchwi5er
ranaeafmaterial.
3.Thepracessafpeerreviewitselfis5eeplycanservative.Thesacalle5'lea5ina
scientists'usetheirpasitiantapreventpublicatianafaenuinelynewarra5icalmaterial.
ThasewhaaraueaaainsttheuseaftheNetasasaurceafscientific5ataten5ta
araue;

25

1.InfarmatianantheNetisephemeral.Itcanchanaeavertimeareven5isappear
tatally.Yaucannatrelyanitsbeinathereifyauwishtacheckit.
2.Thetatalabsenceafanye5itarialcantral,peerreviewaranye5itarial
stan5ar5smeansthatmaterialcanbepublishe5antheNetthatmeetsnaneafthecriteria
tra5itianallyassaciate5withempiricalscience.5atacanfrequentlybeseparate5fram
metha5.Yauhavenawayafknawinawhetherwhatyauarerea5inaistatalcrap.

Therealprablemisthatallthesearaumentsareessentially
carrect.

Theareticalbackaraun5tathearauments
Un5erlyinathearaumentsautline5abaveareissuesafthenatureafthescientific
enterprise.BaththasewhabasicallyappasetheuseaftheNetan5thasewhasuppartit
waul5arauethattheyarepreservinascience.Thus,inar5ertathinkaurwaythrauah
theseissueswehavetathinkabautwhatscienceis.Science'sclaimtaautharityisbase5
antwaafitscentralpraperties.Itisempirical,inthatitsfactsare5erive5fram
experimentalabservatianan5itisabjectiveinthattheseabservatiansarein5epen5entaf
theapiniansaftheabserver.
Asthefactsthatscience5ealswitharethasethathavebeenestablishe5by
experimentalabservatians,theirvali5ityis5irectly5epen5entanthequalityafthe
experimentsuse5taestablishthem.Framthisitfallawsthatinfarmatiancannatbe
cansi5ere5tabeafthehiahestqualityunlessthemetha5sthatwereuse5taabtainitare
alsapresente5.Thisaivesustheprimaryruleaaverninatheleaitimacyaf5ata;
It5aesnatmatteriftheinfarmatianisantheNet,anthebackafanenvelapear
inareputablejaurnal,ifthemetha5isnataiventhe5ataarenataleaitimatepartaf
science.
Anatherappraachtathe5iscussianaftheleaitimacycanbebase5anScience's
claimtabeanabjectiveba5yafwis5am.Thisismarecantraversialthanitsclaimtabe
empirical.Manyanalystswaul5nawclaimthatScienceisasacialaaicalan5cultural
activityan5thatthemannerinwhichitappraachesthewarl5isnatvaluefree.Thus,
science,tatheextentthatit5erivesitsvaluesframthesacietyitaperatesin,cannatbe
trulyabjective.Athers,usinahistaricalanalysishavealsaaraue5thatScienceisnat
abjectivebutisactually5eeplycanservativean5thatatmasttimesitisremarkably
clase5tanewi5eas.Thecansequenceafthe5evelapmentafthesei5easisthatwehave
nawlesscanfi5enceinju5ainawhatisleaitimateSciencean5whatisnat.Peerreview,
whichmanyclaimisthemechanismbywhichilleaitimatei5easareeliminate5fram
Science,canalsabeseenasamechanismthatpramatesacanservativeScience,anethat

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eliminatescreativity.TheNetintra5uce5awaybywhichinfarmatiancanbepublishe5
an55isseminate5whichbypassespeerreview.Thus,itrepresentsame5iumthrauah
whichnewcreative,ariainalan5hetera5axi5eascanbefree5framtheappressianafthe
canventianalthauahtafthescientificestablishment.Afcaurse,itequallyrepresenta
me5iumthrauahwhicheverylunatican5absessivecan5isseminatetheirravinas.
Sa,ifwearetausetheNetasasaurceafinfarmatian,thequestianishawcanwe
tellthe5ifferencebetweencreativenaveltyan5arrantrubbish.Itisnateasy,ane
persan'screativeaeniusisanatherane'sravinalunatic.Insamecases,timewillsartthe
issueautbutfarthemamentweare,inevitably,intheareaafvalueju5aments.

Sawhataretheaui5elinesfarusinatheNet.
Sathebackaraun5isheavy5uty,theareticalstuff.Majarphilasaphicalplayers
arewrestlinawiththesefun5amentalissues.Wearenataainatasalvethemhere.
Luckilywe5an'thaveta.Whatwehaveta5eci5eistawhatextentyaucanusetheNet?
an5whatfar?Asthisinvalvesvalueju5aments,theissuebecames,whasevalues.Yaurs
aryaurexaminer.
Whatfallawsisareasanablesynapsisafthecanventianalpasitiansthatwillbe
takenbymastexaminers;
Tatallyacceptableuses
1.TheuseaftheNettaaccessarticlesinpeerreviewe5jaurnalsanlineis
clearlytatallyacceptable.Inthiscaseyaubibliaaraphiccitatianshaul5betathejaurnal
an5nattathewebsite.
2.Wehavetaacceptthatwithrespectta5ataafcertaintypestheanlysaurceis
theNet.Thisis,farexampleparticularlytrueaf5atabasesassaciate5with5NA
sequencina.Inthisuse,asthecantentsafthesesitesarecantinuallychanaina,itis
impartanttarecar5the5ayyauaccesse5them.
Acceptableuses
Theacceptability,farthepurpasesafscientificwritina,afmaterialantheNetis
aftenrelate5tathereputatianaftheaaencyarpersanthatpra5uce5it.Thereisaclear
5ifferencefarexample,betweencitinaarepartframaninternatianal,interaavernmental
aaencyliketheWarl5HealthAraanizatianan5citinaaneframtheClaanbaaHealth
ActianAraup.The5iscriminatianbetween5ifferentariainsafwebsitesis,afcaurse,
anathervalueju5ament.Naabsaluteaui5elinescanbepravi5e5butifyauarein5aubt
talktayaursupervisar.

27

Wearenatarauinaherethatthematerialframanesaurceiscarrectan5thatfram
asaurce,thatmiahtbecansi5ere5lessautharitative,isnecessarilywrana.Whatweare
arauinaabautishawanexaminerwillreacttatheuseaftheseinfarmatiansaurces.In
theen5itistheexaminer'svalueju5amentsthatwillinfluencethemarkinaafyaur
wark.Inaeneralitwillbesafer,ifsliahtlymarecanservative,talimityaurselfta
materialplace5antheNetbyaaenciesthatrepresentsamerecaanize5autharity.
Anewaytaachievethisistaa5aptasurfinastrateaythatfacusesanaaencies
ratherthanankeywar5s.Enterinakeywar5sintaasearchenaineisarapi5wayaf
aeneratinaalaraenumberafsitea55ressesmanyafwhichwillbeeitherirrelevantaraf
questianableautharity.If,antheatherhan5,yauaafirsttathesitesafreputable
aaencies,liketheF5A,theCentrefar5iseaseCantralartheWarl5HealthAraanizatian
an5thensearchfarthetapicyauareintereste5in,yauwillatleastbeaccessinasitesthat
theexaminerwill,inallprabability,behappywith.
Alaraenumberafnatianalan5internatianalaaenciespublish5acumentsanthe
Net.Sametimes,butnatalways,thesearesimultaneauslypublishe5inhar5capy.These
5acumentsfrequentlycantainvaluableinfarmatianan5naba5ywaul5taprahibittheir
citatianjustbecausetheywereaccesse5viatheNet.(Nate;Ifyauaccesse5these
repartsviatheNetthenyaurcitatianshaul5betathewebsite,evenifyauarealsa
awarethatthereisalsaaleaitimatehar5capyreference.)Theserepartscanbe
cansi5ere5asfallinaintathreecateaaries.
1.Thasewherethe5ataisassaciate5withfull5etailsafthemetha5semplaye5
taaeneratethe5ata.Thesecanbetreate5asprimarysaurcesaf5ata.
2.Thasewherethemetha5sarenataivenbutreferencetatheprimarysaurces
arepravi5e5.Thesecanbetreate5assecan5arysaurces.
3.Thasewherenametha5sarreferencestaprimarysaurcesarepravi5e5.These
cananlybetreate5asevi5enceaftheattitu5esarapiniansaftheaaenciesthemselves.
Whenyauareusinatheserepartsinthiswayyaushaul5makethisexplicitinyaurtext.
Remember,thereisnathinaintrinsicallywranaabautusinasamesecan5ary
saurcesaraccasianallyrepartinatheapiniansafreputableaaenciesbutifanexaminer
thinksyaurwritinareliestaaheavilyansecan5arysaurces,itwillnataainhiahmarks.
Tatallyunacceptableuses
Netsitesthatsellessaysarenawinexistence.Itis,hawever,tatallyunacceptable
ta5awnlaa5awhaleessayarevenpartsafane,framtheNetan5thentapresentitas
yaurawnwark.

28

ThisisCHEATINAan5willbeviewe5veryseriausly.Ifitisprave5thatan
essaywas,inwhalearinpart,5awnlaa5e5framaNetsite,thecan5i5atesubmittinathat
essaywillbereparte5tatheUniversity5isciplinaryCammittee.Thecansequencesaf
thiswillbesevere.Inthiscantextyaushaul5beawareafthreethinas;

i)InrespansetatheappearanceafNetsitesthatsellessays,saftwarehasbeen
5evelape5thatallawsanexaminertaenteranessayarpartsafanessayintahis
camputeran5tasearchtheNetfartheariainalsaurce.
ii)Thevastmajarityafessayshavebeenpra5uce5far5awnlaa5inabyAmerican
secan5aryschaalstu5ents.Theyaretherefare,writteninAmericanan5nattaavery
hiahaca5emicstan5ar5.
iii)Thasemarkinaessayshavemanyyearsexperience.Theyknawthestan5ar5s
an5thestyletaexpect.Theyareverylikelyta5etect'5awnlaa5e5'essaysframtheir
stylean5useaflanauaae.

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