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FASHION BY DESIGN
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FASHION BY DESIGN
JANICE GREENBERG ELLINWOOD
FAIRCHILD BOOKS
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Olga T. Kontzias
Amanda Breccia
E D I TO R I AL DEVELOPMENT DIRECTOR:
D E V E LO PMENT EDITOR:
P RO D U C TION DIRECTOR:
Ginger Hillman
Jessica Rozler
P RO D U C TION EDITOR:
Joanne Slike
A N C I L L A RIES EDITOR:
COV E R D ESIGN:
Noah Schwartzberg
Carolyn Eckert
P H OTO R ESEARCHERS:
COV E R A RT:
Jennifer Crane
Rob Phelps
Carolyn Eckert
C R E AT I V E DIRECTOR:
CO PY E D I TOR:
Elizabeth Tighe
TK
A RT O N PAGE II:
T E X T D E SIGN:
Sara Stemen
PAG E CO MP OSITION:
Brian Normoyle
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FOR
my father,
Bennett Greenberg,
who said that nothing was more sensually pleasing
than the feeling of fine silk tied in a Windsor knot,
and for my mother,
Hilda Podnetsky Greenberg,
who reminisced about the New Look of .
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CONTENTS
Extended Contents
Preface
xv
Acknowledgments
CHAP TER 1
PA RT I
About Design
xix
T HE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
CHAP TER 2
Line
CHAP TER 3
CHAP TER 4
CHAP TER 5
Pattern
CHAP TER 6
CHAP TER 7
PA RT I I
T HE PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
CHAP TER 8
Balance
CHAP TER 9
Emphasis
CHAP TER 10
Rhythm
CHAP TER 11
Proportion
CHAP TER 12
Unity
Index
Glossary
vi
vii
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EXTENDED CONTENTS
Preface
xv
Acknowledgments
CHAP TER 1
xix
ABOUT DESIGN
Problem Identification
Research
Ideation
Constraint Identification
Selection
Implementation
Evaluation
Refinement
Presentation
AESTHETIC DESIGN
The Bauhaus
Workmanship
Silhouette
Fabric
Color
Looks
Details
vii
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KEY TERMS
PROJECTS
REFERENCES
CHAP TER 2
TYPES OF LINE
LINE IN FASHION
KEY TERMS
PROJECTS
REFERENCES
CHAP TER 3
viii
E X T E N D E D CO N T E N TS
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KEY TERMS
PROJECTS
REFERENCES
CHAP TER 4
Actual Texture
Simulated Texture
Non-Textile Clothing
Drape
Hand
Density
Luster
Surface Contour
Thermal Character
Listening to FabricLiterally
BOX 4.1: YVES ST. LAURENT
LIGHT
KEY TERMS
PROJECTS
REFERENCES
E X T E NDED CONTENTS
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PAT TERN
MOTIF
Imagination-Inspired Motifs
Symbolism as Source
Floral Patterns
Conversational Patterns
Traditional Patterns
Documentary Designs
PATTERNS IN FABRIC
CHAP TER 6
A Spectrum of Theories
Color Temperature
Simultaneous Contrast
COLOR INTERACTIONS
Successive Contrast
Orphism, or Simultaneism
EXT E N D E D CO N T E N TS
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KEY TERMS
PROJECTS
REFERENCES
CHAP TER 7
Color-Matching Systems
Color and the Consumer
CHAP TER 8
Symmetry
Approximate Symmetry
Asymmetry
PROJECTS
REFERENCES
KEY TERMS
E X T E NDED CONTENTS
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E MPHASIS
EMPHASIS DEFINED
The Face
IMPLEMENTING EMPHASIS
Isolation
Contrast
Placement
Repetition
Radiation
Structural Details
KEY TERMS
PROJECTS
CHAP TER 10
REFERENCES
R HYTHM
VISUAL PATHWAYS
Repetition
Progression
Sequencing
Parallelism
Alternation
The Grid
Broken Rhythm
Transition
All-Over Pattern
Radiation
KEY TERMS
PROJECTS
REFERENCES
xii
EX T E N D E D CO N T E N TS
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PROP ORTION
SCALE
KEY TERMS
PROJECTS
REFERENCES
CHAP TER 12
UNITY
Law of Simplicity
KEY TERMS
PROJECTS
REFERENCES
Index
Glossary
E X T E N DED CONTENTS
xiii
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PREFACE
xv
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defined from the Japanese perspective, by its importance in Western fashion history, and in terms of theater and dance costume. There is also discourse on the relationship between positive and negative space. Profiles
spotlight Christian Dior, Rei Kawakubo, and Issey Miyake.
Chapter , Texture and Light, is divided between these two subjects.
The topic of texture encompasses the kinds of texture, fabric structure,
fabric terminology, aesthetic properties of texture, and texture caused both
by construction techniques and by nontraditional materials. We look at
types of light as well as the ways that designers use light in their designs and
its purpose in fashion. Designer profiles include Yves Saint Laurent and
Mariano Fortuny.
Chapter covers Pattern. Topics include the sources and interpretations of motifs, common patterns used in fashion, patterns that result from
fabric structure, application to the fabric surface, and pattern that emerges
from threads and yarns applied through the fabric surface. This chapter
also includes an explanation of how to make a pattern, the types of layouts,
and how to prepare the pattern design. We also look at the relationship
between pattern, designing apparel, and industry trends. Gianni Versace is
the designer profiled.
Chapter examines Color and Value. Beginning with color as light,
the chapter includes the evolution of the Standard Color Wheel, color relationships, color temperature, and visual color interactions. The section on
value comprises value scale, contrast, and influences on perception. The
designer profile features Roberto Capucci.
Chapter focuses on Color and Industry. It covers color and dyes,
color forecasting, the consideration of color in designing mass fashion,
consumer concerns, color psychology, symbolism, and cultural meaning.
This chapter includes an overview of how designers choose colors for their
collections. Valentino and Vivienne Westwood are profiled.
Part II, The Principles of Design, includes Chapters through .
Chapter , Balance, explores kinds of balance, such as horizontal and
vertical balance, radial balance, balance of all-over pattern, and balance of
three-dimensional form. This chapter also covers symmetry, asymmetry,
and approximate symmetry. Hubert de Givenchy is the designer profiled.
Chapter is about Emphasis. This chapter summarizes James Lavers
theories regarding the purpose of clothing, with special emphasis on the
shifting of erogenous zones, supported by historic examples. The methods
to implement emphasis are listed, such as isolation, contrast, placement,
repetition, radiation, and construction techniques. The designer profiled is
Elsa Schiaparelli. The focus on one designer is purposeful, in order to
demonstrate how a talented eye can change at will the location of emphasis
on a range of designs.
xvi
PR E FAC E
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Chapter introduces Rhythm. The relationship between each element and rhythm is discussed, as well as how rhythm is implemented
through structural expression. The kinds of rhythm are enumerated. This
chapter includes a profile on Madame Grs.
Chapter centers on Proportion. Topics include the relationship of
proportion to the human figure, to science, and to mathematics, including
the golden mean and the Fibonacci series. This chapter also covers how
designers determine proportion, the comparative proportionate relationships for fashion, and proportions relationship to the design elements. The
highlighted designer is Yohji Yamamoto.
Chapter is on Unity. Here we define variety, harmony, and the
Gestalt Principles. Unity is discussed in relation to the garment, as well as to
mass fashion. Designer influences include ideals of beauty and sources of
inspiration. This chapter culminates with guidelines for maintaining unity
across a group of fashions. Jeanne Lanvin is the final designer profiled.
Fashion by Design is written and presented with admiration for the
great fashion designers who brought artistic inspiration to industry. They
added beauty to our world, stimulated our intellect, and tantalized our creativity. We are forever in their debt!
PREFACE
xvii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
riting Fashion by Design has been a wonderful opportunity to integrate my knowledge, teaching, and enthusiasm for fashion. However, I could
only complete the task with the support and ideas of my colleagues at Marymount University: Dr. Pamela Stoessell, professor of fine and applied arts;
Annette Ames, associate professor of fine and applied arts; the design expert
and painter Judy Bass, professor of fine and applied arts; and Dr. Bridget
May, furniture and interiors historian and professor of interior design. I also
thank Dr. Hyun Jung for sharing her doctoral research at Hong-Ik University on fashion design and light. Dr. Jung has since taught at Texas Tech University. In addition, I want to thank my acquisitions reviewers Doris
Treptow, Savannah College of Art and Design; Sass Brown, Fashion Institute
of Technology; Lorynn Divita, Baylor University; Hyunjoo Im, Cal Poly,
Pamona; Lombuso S. Khoza, University of Maryland, Eastern Shore; as well
as my development reviewers, Su-Jeong Hwang Shin, PhD, Texas Tech University; Julia F. Cooper, Ohio State University; and Theresa M. Winge, PhD,
Indiana University, for their contemplative feedback.
The team at Fairchild Books truly brought Fashion by Design to
fruition. My gratitude goes to Robert Phelps, development editor, my mentor and a gifted writer; Elizabeth Greenberg, photo editor (and fashion historian); Carolyn Eckert, creative director; Jennifer Crane, editorial
development director; Ginger Hillman, production director; Jessica Rozler,
production editor; Joanne Slike, copyeditor, Noah Schwartzberg, ancillaries
editor; and the incomparable executive editor Olga Kontzias, who embodies the vision of Fairchild Books.
Finally, I thank my family for their investment of a laptop in my efforts
and their wonderful support: my sister, Dr. Donna Greenberg of Harvard
Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, and my daughters
Amy Rosenthal, Lindsey Rosenthal, and Samantha Rosenthal, who also
generously lent both writing advice and technological expertise on command. Special love and appreciation go to my husband, Jamie Ellinwood,
for all of his patience and advocacy along this journey.
xix
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CHAP TER 6
O B J EC T I V E S
OPPOSITE
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Color is perceived in the presence of light. That is evident from the experience of moving about the bedroom in the middle of the night. Edges of
forms may present themselves in the darkness, but the colors of the blanket
or bedside lamp do not. When light is strong, colors appear more intense,
like they are under the sunlight in a tropical climate. A rainbow organizes
its colors in a particular order or spectrum, including red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, blue-violet, and violet. Indigo is often the term used for blueviolet in the spectrum.
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RIGHT
. Georgia OKeeffe is
considered a master colorist
as demonstrated in her iconic
flower paintings such as
Red Amaryllis (1937).
G EORGIA OKEEFFE MUSEUM,
SANTA FE/ART RESOURCE, NY
B E LOW
The recognition of this order is credited to the physicist and mathematician Sir Isaac Newton () and the experiments he conducted
in the seventeenth century. Newton placed a glass prism in front of a ray of
daylight as it entered a darkened room. The prism caused the white light to
bend, or refract, breaking it down into the spectrum of colors described
above ( .). Each of these is thought to distinguish itself to the
human eye, because of a different range of wavelengths of radiant energy.
Hence, it is considered the visible spectrum. A wavelength is the distance
between the crests in a wave of energy. Red, for instance, has the longest distance in wavelengths, while violet has the shortest.
TH E E L E M E N TS O F D E S I G N
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Both physicists and artists have developed theories regarding the combination of colors in light. These theories are particularly relevant to individuals who work as lighting designers, videographers, and Web site
designers. They are also meaningful to theater costumers, whose work is
seen under lighting, and to producers of fashion shows, for the same reason. They understand that the dynamic of working with colored light rays
is called additive color. That means the more they are mixed with other
colors, the lighter they become. The basic or primary colors of light, those
that cannot be mixed by combining any other colors, are red, green, and
blue. (That is also from where the computer screens term RGB originates.) When combined together in equal amounts, the result is white light.
However, when these colors of light overlap in varying amounts, other
interesting colors form, and these are called secondary colors. The overlapping of red and blue creates magenta. Red and green make yellow, while
green and blue produce cyan ( .).
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TH E E L E M E N TS O F D E S I G N
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are presumed to present harmony with each other and/or with another
color. As a result, they are prized for their versatility in a wardrobe, and they
are considered appropriate for a range of occasions. Neutrals are also discussed in Chapter , Color and Industry. As previously mentioned, primary colors are those that cannot be mixed by any others. In any method of
color organization, they combine to form secondary colors, which, in turn,
combine with one another to produce tertiary colors.
A SPECTRUM OF THEORIES
In addition to the work of Sir Isaac Newton, theories about color date back
to the Greek philosophers and to the Renaissance artist and scientist
Leonardo da Vinci. Many other theories developed from the eighteenth
century to the present. One of these is the system of color that is the most
relevant for fashion design. Several fashion books refer to it as the standard
color wheel. Most students are introduced to it at the elementary level of
education, so it is familiar. Bear in mind that it is built on the reasoning of
several theorists; that is why it is so user-friendly and reliable.
Sir David Brewster (), an English physicist who was the
inventor of the kaleidoscope, laid the groundwork for the system while
examining the work of Newton. He believed that the light spectrum was
actually composed of three individual types of lightred, blue, and yellowthat he called primary colors. Although this belief was not held in
high regard, Brewster is credited with the perception that three properly
chosen colors of light, when mixed in careful proportions, are all that are
necessary to reproduce all color sensation.
German painter Phillip Otto Runge () wrote a book on his
theory of color for pigments, which organized hues around what he
identified as three primary colors: red, blue, and yellow. He arranged them
in the form of a sphere, leading to the first three-dimensional color model.
Louis Prang () knew color from other perspectives. As a boy,
he learned to dye fabric. When he migrated from Germany to the United
States, he worked as a wood engraver, lithographer, color printer, and publisher. He is even acknowledged as the originator of the Christmas card.
Prang wrote extensively on color, and his teachings had a profound effect
on American art education. His color wheel featured hues, which
included primary, secondary, and intermediate colors, along with their
shades and tints.
Johannes Itten, the painter and originator of the preliminary course at
the Bauhaus who was discussed in Chapter , taught both color and design
and published books on color. He created a star of color for his preliminary
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TH E E L E M E N TS O F D E S I G N
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form of each hue at the outside edge. This system is used for dye manufacturing for yarn and fabric coloration, as well as industry production for
interior design and cosmetics ( .).
The ingenious function of a color system is that it offers a guide for discovering the color combinations, schemes, or relationships that should have
the greatest visual impact. The Standard Color Wheel does that for the
fashion designer. The placement of a hue on the color wheel indicates the
most workable color schemes. The fashion design student should remember, however, that each hue on the color wheel represents a color family,
and the success of that hue in combination with any other is true for any
shade, tint, or intensity of it. The dynamics of blue, in the purity of the way
in which it is perceived on the Standard Color Wheel, denotes the same presumptions for robins egg blue, deck blue, or navy blue.
The simplest is the monochromatic color scheme, where a garment
design rests on one hue ( .). It might be the color of the entire
garment, or one part of it, or the dominant color of a pattern, where the
others are achromatic or neutral. Or the design may combine different values of the same hue. One predominant color may seem boring, but the consumer finds it easy to wear.
The next simplest is called tone on tone and involves two hues that lie
next to each other on the color wheel ( .). These are harmonious because they have a portion of the same hue in common.
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T H E E L E M E N TS O F D E S I G N
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G
H
colleague Impressionist painters, Auguste Renoir (), Camille Pissarro (), and Alfred Sisley (), among others, omitted the
color black from their paint palettes. At the time, there was continuing
research in optics and the theory of complementary colors was new. They
reasoned that shadows were not black but had color, so they employed a
colors complement for them, because the complement offered the contrast
that best featured a colors brightness ( .). Conversely, the
. Split complementary
color scheme.
I L LUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS
. Double complementary
color scheme.
I L LUSTRATION BY ERIN FITZSIMMONS
. In The Greenhouse,
by Auguste Renoir, the color
palette omits black and
employs complementary colors
to provide contrast.
VISUAL ARTS LIBRARY/ART
RESOURCE, NY
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COLOR
INTERACTIONS
TH E E L E M E N TS O F D E S I G N
The experience of working with color teaches that its final form is not
always predictable. That is because there are both environmental and optical factors that affect the perception of it. A stylist, as a result, may try dif-
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ferent color accessories with a fashion in order to discover which make the
biggest impact in a photo shoot. A painter sometimes mixes a color on the
palette only to find it looks different on the canvas.
SIMULTANEOUS CONTRAST
B E LOW L E F T
B E LOW R I G H T
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BOX 6.1
ROBERTO
CAPUCCI
A B OV E
. Roberto
Capuccis unique sculptural
evening gown from his
autumnwinter collection of
19801981 features a monochromatic color scheme.
P H OTO BY MINO LA FRANCA
O P P O S I T E TO P
. Capucci chose
a complementary color
combination for this evening
gown from the autumnwinter
collection of 19821983.
P H OTO BY FIORENZO NICCOLI
OP P O S I T E B OT TO M
. Capucci uses
cool and warm colors on opposite
sides of the fabric structures to
add dimension to his design. The
gown was designed in 1989.
P H OTO BY MINO LA FRANCA
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T H E BEZOLD EFFECT
TH E E L E M E N TS O F D E S I G N
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ORPHISM, OR SIMULTANEISM
There was a movement in both painting and fashion that expanded upon
Chevreuls theory of simultaneous contrast. The movement originated
with the painter Robert Delaunay () and his wife Sonia Terk
Delaunay (), who was a painter, clothing designer, and textile
designer. It was called Orphism, but Robert preferred simultaneity (or
simultaneism). The former term was named for the Greek god Orpheus
and meant that movement, light, and rhythm are more important than the
presentation of an object. The reference to Orpheus was to music, because
his paintings encompassed so many colorful harmonies. Both Robert and
Sonia were influenced by the systematic placement of color practiced by the
Impressionist painters and the bold, saturated colors used by the PostImpressionist and Fauve painters. In addition, they were friends with the
prominent couturir Paul Poiret, discussed in Chapter , who freed women
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from the corset and originated the hobble skirt. In exploring colors and the
effect of those beside them, their paintings, clothing, and textile designs
demonstrated animation caused by simultaneous contrasts within a design,
attracting the eye in different directions and causing a sense of rhythm and
movement. In addition, the contrasting and juxtaposed colors in geometric
shapes suggested new and different shapes ( . ).
B E LOW L E F T
B E LOW R I G H T
TH E E L E M E N TS O F D E S I G N
Another variable that influences the perception of color is the size of the
colored area. A huge expanse of color appears brighter than a small one.
The smaller the area, the more the color dulls and the edges lose their
sharpness.
Colors change their appearance according to the lighting under which
they are perceived. Claude Monet changed the colors he used to paint La
Cathdral de Rouen, according to the time of day, as discussed in Chapter
( . ). That is because the angle of the suns rays
changes, while clouds and atmospheric particles cause light refraction.
Regarding the interior, incandescent lighting can look yellow, while florescent light has a blue cast. Artists, designers, and even consumers prefer natural light, in order to see colors in their purest form.
Color perception is also dependent on the
qualities of the surface from which it is reflected.
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VALUE AND
ITS PERCEPTION
HIGH KEY
LOW KEY
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Here are some of the influences that value has on perception: Light values
advance and enlarge, while dark values recede. That means they can be
manipulated to create the illusion of slimming or expanding the human
figure.
Value affects apparent density. Dark values have greater visual weight.
Because of our sense of gravity, there is greater visual comfort with darker
values placed close to the ground. A dark top over a light bottom may seem
top-heavy.
Light values juxtaposed with dark values push each other apart. A
white top over a dark skirt tends to break up the body and therefore is more
appropriate for a tall figure.
Extreme value contrast distracts from hues; they are more evident in
the presence of subtle contrast. As a result, consider using high contrast in
apparel with neutrals and low contrast with fashion colors.
The astute fashion designer has a command of both color and value.
That contributes to both the flattery of the figure and the success of each
design.
KEY TERMS
achromatic
additive color
afterimage
analogous
Bezold Effect
chroma
color
color constancy
color temperature
color wheel
complementary
contrast
cool
double complementary
double split-complement
dye
TH E E L E M E N TS O F D E S I G N
electromagnetic waves
high contrast
high-key values
hue
intensity
low contrast
low-key values
monochromatic
neutral
opponent theory
Orphism
pigment
primary colors
saturation
secondary colors
shade
simultaneity
simultaneous contrast
split complementary
spectrum
standard color wheel
subtractive color
tertiary colors
tetrad
tint
tone on tone
triad
value
value scale
visible spectrum
warm
wavelength
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PROJECTS
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1. COLOR EXERCISES.
A.
B.
Analogous color schemeChoose three to five colors that lie adjacent to one another on the Standard Color Wheel. Wrap the colors
of yarn around the index card or board in stripes of equal widths.
C.
D.
Split complementary color schemeChoose one hue on the Standard Color Wheel and the two on each side of the colors complement. Wrap the three hues of yarn around the index card or board
in stripes of equal width.
E.
Bezold EffectReturn to the product you made for a, b, or d. Create the same striped product, replacing one of the colors with a new
one. Compare the two products. Are they significantly different?
Consider whether this is also an example of simultaneous contrast.
Find a reproduction of a favorite master painting. Choose three to four colors in the painting and match them
with -inch squares of Color-aid paper, gouache paint, markers, or colored
pencil. Obtain an exact match. Mount the reproduction on white board,
leaving an adequate margin around the reproduction. Adhere the three or
four squares in the lower right margin, just below the reproduction. The colors identified represent the scheme chosen by the master painter.
Design a garment using the three to four colors that the master painter used in the
3. FA S H I O N F E AT U R I N G M A ST E R PA I N T E R S CO LO R S C H E M E .
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REFERENCES
TH E E L E M E N TS O F D E S I G N
Albers, J. (). Interaction of color. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Albritton, A. (). She has a body on her dress: Sonia Delaunay-Terks
first simultaneous dress, . Dress , .
Bauzano, G. (Ed.). (). Roberto Capucci: Timeless creativity. Milan: Skira.
Boker, S. M. Brewster. (, February ). Retrieved June , , from
http://people.virginia.edu/~smbu/ColorVision/node.html.
Capucci. DellModa. (, March ). Retrieved March , , from
http://dellamoda.it/fashion_dictionary/c/capucci.php.
Cunningham, R. (). The magic garment: Principles of costume design.
Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
Davis, M. L. (). Visual design in dress (rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Feisner, E. A. (). Color studies. New York: Fairchild Publications.
Louis Prang . Retrieved June , , from
www.emotionscards.com/museum/louisprang.htm.
Florida State University. Sir David Brewster. Science, optics and you: Pioneers in optics. Molecular Expressions. Retrieved June , , from
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/brewster.html.
Ocvirk, O. G., Stinson, R., Wigg, P., Bone, R., & Cayton, D. (). Art fundamentals (th ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Roberto Capucci. (n.d.) Fashion Encyclopedia. Retrieved March , ,
from http://www.fashion encyclopedia.com/Bo-Ch/CapucciRoberto.html.
Roberts, W. (). Brewsters kaleidoscope, op art, and interactive
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