FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH SECOND LANGUAGE ANXIETY IN

ADOLESCENTS FROM DIFFERENT CULTURAL BACKGROUNDS

by
Emi Kojima
__________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the

FACULTY OF THE ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2007

Copyright 2007

Emi Kojima

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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated with deepest thanks to
my mother, Harumi Kojima;
and to my brother, Taro Kojima
for their love and support.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This dissertation could not have been written without my chairperson Dr. Eugenia MoraFlores who encouraged and guided me throughout my dissertation process and my
dissertation committee members Dr. Gisele Ragusa and Dr. Michael Genzuk who
provided me valuable insights. I give my heartfelt appreciation for their support and
guidance.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication

ii

Acknowledgements

iii

Table of Contents

iv

List of Tables

vii

List of Figures

viii

Abstract

ix

Chapter One: Introduction

Overview of the Study
Purpose of the Study
Research Questions
Significant of the Study
Limitations of the Study
Definitions of Terms

1
1
10
10
12
13
15

Chapter Two: Literature Review

Introduction
Theoretical Perspectives
Cultural Factors
Linguistic Factors
Psychological Factors
Pedagogical Factors
Implementations and Instructional Strategies to Reduce Anxiety
Conclusion

20
20
21
26
32
36
40
44
45

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Chapter Three: Methodology
Introduction
Design of Study
The Sample and Population
Instrumentation and Data Collection Procedures
Data Analysis
Validating the Findings
Ethical Considerations
Conclusion

48
48
50
52
55
57
59
61
62

Chapter Four: Findings

Main Research Questions and Hypotheses
Cultural Anxiety Factors
Linguistic Anxiety Factors
Psychological Anxiety Factors
Pedagogical Anxiety Factors
Classroom Anxiety
Research Question One
Research Question Two
Classroom Participations
Teachers
Fear of Failure
Group vs lecture
Conclusion

63
63
65
71
75
80
88
89
94
94
96
98
99
101

Chapter Five: Discussion

General Findings
Implications
Multicultural Education
Primary Language Support
Differentiated Instruction
Positive Classroom Environment
Recommendations for Practice
Newcomer Programs
Pre-Service and Ongoing In-Service Teaching Programs
Recommendations for Research
Conclusion

103
103
106
106
108
110
111
112
112
116
117
118

References

119

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Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letters
English
Spanish
Chinese

130
130
132
134

Appendix B: Parental Consent Forms

English
Spanish
Chinese

136
136
141
145

Appendix C: Student Assent Forms

English
Spanish
Chinese

149
149
151
153

Appendix D: Questionnaire
English
Spanish
Chinese

155
155
158
163

Appendix E: Interview Questions

English
Spanish
Chinese

169
169
170
171

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: EL High School Students by Grades

54

Table 4.1: Cultural Anxiety Factors for Spanish-Speaking Students

65

Table 4.2: Cultural Anxiety Factors for Chinese-Speaking Students

67

Table 4.3: Linguistic Anxiety Factors for Spanish-Speaking Students

72

Table 4.4: Linguistic Anxiety Factors for Chinese-Speaking Students

73

Table 4.5: Psychological Anxiety Factors for Spanish-Speaking Students

75

Table 4.6: Psychological Anxiety Factors for Chinese-Speaking Students

77

Table 4.7: Pedagogical Anxiety Factors for Spanish-Speaking Students

81

Table 4.8: Pedagogical Anxiety Factors for Chinese-Speaking Students

83

viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Intercorrelations of Second Language Anxiety Factors

43

Figure 4.1: The Means of Four Key Anxiety Factors for Spanish and Chinese
Speaking Students

86

Figure 4.2: Frequency of the Means of Speaking, Listening, Reading, and

Writing Anxiety for Spanish and Chinese Speaking Students

94

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ABSTRACT
Anxiety has long been a crucial factor affecting second language acquisition
(Spielmann & Radnofsky, 2001). Many immigrant students are reported to carry with
them insecurity and anxiety because of their low level of English language proficiency
(Krashen, 1985). With feelings of discomfort and insecurity, English Learners find it
difficult to share their opinions and participate in class discussions. The purpose of this
study was to understand to what extent Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school
students feel anxiety when they are participating in ESL classrooms. This research was an
attempt to get inside the lived experiences of second language learners from different
cultural backgrounds to try and better understand how, why and in what ways they
experience anxiety when learning English as a second language. Questionnaires were
administered to 20 Spanish-speaking and 20 Chinese-speaking students in two different
ESL classes. Interviews were further conducted with nine students from each class whose
overall anxiety levels were highest, medium, and lowest. The results of this study
demonstrated that there are differences in anxiety factors depending on students' cultural
backgrounds based on four key anxiety factors (Cultural, Psychological, Pedagogical, and
Linguistic). However, similarities were found mainly in the impact of cultural differences
on second language anxiety for both Spanish and Chinese speaking English learners. In
all other areas, there were significant difference between Spanish and Chinese speaking
ELs. This research concluded that EL teachers must have a better understanding of the
importance of learning about the cultural differences of their students to avoid causing

x
students' second language anxiety. It is important for teachers of English learners to
establish a positive learning environment with attention to students varied cultural needs
to ensure that all students have an opportunity to learn.

1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the Study
Immigration levels have increased dramatically from 19.8 million in 1990 to 31.1
million a decade later (Dougherty, 2004). The Federation for American Immigration
Reform (FAIR) states 1.1 million immigrants will enter the U.S. this year alone.
According to the Census Bureaus 2000 report, Mexico accounted for about 9.2 million
immigrants, or 30 percent of the total foreign-born population in the U.S. Next were
China and the Philippines, with 1.5 million and 1.4 million. As the immigrant population
grows, so has the community of Limited English Proficient (LEP) students, currently
referred to as English Learners (EL), needing access to a variety of important public and
social services, including access to a quality public education. Schools across the country
are facing diverse challenges in attending to the needs of EL students. Approximately 5.7
percent of K-12 students are EL immigrant students (Crawford, 2004), and more than
one-quarter of the nations high school dropouts are EL immigrant students. This dropout
rate is fairly high compared to the dropout rate of 8 percent for native-born teenagers
(Gerson, 2005). Further, the dropout rate for Mexican English Learners (EL) aged 15-17
is a disheartening 28 percent (Schwarz, 2002). In addition, Hispanics from Puerto Rico,
Cuba and the Dominican Republic are twice as likely to quit school as native-born
Americans.

2
Duffy (2004) found that EL students who arrived as beginners in English are those
most likely to drop out of school in America. He further concluded that refugees
suffering from significant gaps in their education due to turmoil in their homelands are
the most likely to leave school. Many immigrant students are reported to carry with them
insecurity and anxiety because of their low level of English language proficiency
(Krashen, 1985). In mainstream classrooms, they often sit in class lost or unmotivated to
participate because they do not understand what teachers and classmates are saying in
English. At school, they need help to learn the new culture. They need to learn how to be
active participants in the classroom rather than passive recipients of information. Without
opportunities for students to engage in their learning, it is difficult to tell if learning is
indeed occurring.
Adding to the challenge faced by immigrant English learners is the implementation
of Structured English Immersion (SEI) as the prevalent instructional setting across the
state of California. When Proposition 227 passed in California in June of 1998, a series of
mandates was enacted whose intent was to directly affect classroom experiences for
language minority children statewide by enforcing greater emphasis on the acquisition of
English (Palmer & Garcia, 2000). SEI requires students to be instructed in English
without the support of their primary language. SEI attempts to provide instruction in
English at a level appropriate to the class of English learners and teachers are oriented
toward maximizing instruction in English (Ramirez, 1994).

3
According to SEI, content and English can be taught together by teaching content through
learner-appropriate English.
The debate over the effectiveness of SEI programs continues based on research that
demonstrates effective gains for ELs in both SEI and bilingual settings. For example,
Gersten and his colleagues (1995) found SEI superior to bilingual education. They
studied Hispanic high school immigrants in Texas and found that SEI programs improve
high school graduation rates and decrease retention throughout the grades. On the other
hand, Palmer and Garcia (2000) demonstrated a different view. They held a conference
and gathered over 5,000 professionals in the field of bilingual education. They asked
participants their views on what has happened to schools and districts with the passage of
Proposition 227 and the implementation of the new laws. Bilingual teachers expressed
feelings of threat with the passage of the new law. One teacher expressed the fear that
children will fall behind in academic subjects without the support they previously had
received in their primary language (Palmer and Garcia, 2000). It is suggested that the lack
of primary language support in SEI settings may add to ELs feelings of distress and
discomfort. In turn high levels of anxiety may inhibit the language learning process.
With feelings of discomfort and insecurity, EL students find it difficult to share
their opinions and participate in class discussions. They prefer to remain silent for fear of
losing face by giving the wrong answer (Shoebottom, 2001). Students who used to be
good students in their countries become frustrated when they cannot participate in
English. Haynes (1997) refers to this stage as Culture Shock, when many immigrant

4
students feel anxiety and fear in a new environment. Culture Shock is a term used to
describe the feelings when one has when he/she moves to an unfamiliar culture. Haynes
explains that there are four stages of Culture Shock. The first stage is called the Euphoric
or Honeymoon stage. During this stage, new arrivals are excited about their new lives.
They are having a wonderful time learning about their environment. The second stage is
called the Culture Shock stage. At this stage, students feel overwhelmed because there
are so many new and unfamiliar things around them. They are frustrated and depressed
because they cannot decipher unreadable social signals. At this stage students who are
torn between two cultures feel anxiety about losing their identity (Shoebottom, 2001).
Some students become aggressive and act out their frustrations.
The third stage is called the Integration stage. New arrivals learn to integrate their
beliefs with the new culture. Some will start to replace the old culture with the new one.
Others will maintain both cultures. The fourth stage is called the Acceptance stage.
Newcomers accept both cultures and combine them into their lives while others chose to
forget their native language and reject their culture. The common physical reactions
during the first and second stages are sleeplessness or oversleeping, headaches,
stomachaches and susceptibility to illness. The emotional reactions include anxiety,
irritability, aggressiveness or depression (Shoebottom, 2001).
Many immigrant students develop performance anxiety and depression due to the
fear of being unable to succeed or perform in a new country (Lin, 1997). Students feel
disconnected in a classroom because they have difficulties in understanding native

5
English speakers. They feel anxious being in a classroom where they cannot
communicate with anybody. Some feel left out and disconnected from the new culture.
Cultural Differences
American culture is often thought of as being individualistic. Lewis (1955)
described American individualism as an individual standing alone and self-propelling,
ready to confront whatever awaits him with the aid of his own unique and inherent
resources. Individualism stems from the history of the society as a frontier colony of
immigrants in search of a better life with independence, freedom, and the opportunity for
advancement through personal achievement. American children are taught to become
progressively independent, both emotionally and economically from their family. They
learn to help themselves at an early age (Sponsel, 1993). In comparison, Asian society is
more collectivist (Stata, 1992). For example, in Thailand, there are strong bonds within
the extended family. Older siblings regularly help their parents to care for younger ones.
When parents bring a new baby home from the hospital, it shares the parents' bedroom
for two to three years (Sponsel, 1993). The Thai family emphasizes the interdependence
of its members. Individualism holds that the individual is the unit of achievement; and
Collectivism, on the other hand, holds that achievement is a product of society. Similarly,
in Japanese society, people often do not value individuality in the way that Westerners
do. In fact they find it impolite to name unique qualities or to have different opinions
from others (Umeda, 1998). These cultural differences can have a large impact on
students participation in American classrooms.

6
For example, in a self esteem activity presented by Raymond Bean (1992) called I
Am Unique. American students are asked to name one characteristic that is unique about
themselves. According to Bean, American students are enthusiastic about this activity
and enjoy discovering a unique personal quality. But the same can not be said for many
Japanese students. Japanese students find it disrespectful to demonstrate a sense of pride
in oneself and therefore, may struggle in completing the activity. Beans study is just one
example of the effect of variations in cultural norms, values and beliefs on student
performance in school. However, it demonstrates the importance of truly getting to know
students and their families to make informed, instructional decisions.
There are a myriad of cultural differences that can impact students' experiences in
school. They include variations in communicative behaviors such as making eye contact,
answering questions and punctuality. For Japanese students it is considered disrespectful
and impolite to look directly into the eyes of the teacher. (Shoebottom, 2005).
Specifically, Japanese females are taught to look at the other persons neck area.
Whereas, Mexican students may feel that the teacher is not accepting them if he/she
avoids eye contact and physical closeness (Buriel, 1983; Losey, 1997). When answering
simple questions, in the United States, saying yes or no clearly is expected, while in
Japanese culture, one has to figure out from the context whether the speaker is saying yes
or no. Sometimes no means yes. For example, when Japanese people say no when
somebody offers something, they usually mean that they would like to be offered
something without asking for it (Umeda, 1986). Mexican students have been found to
listen quietly, not speaking out, asking for the teachers attention, volunteering, or calling

7
out answers. These behaviors may lead to a negative misrepresentation of their abilities
by American teachers (Valdes, 1996). One final example is that in the United States and
in Japan, being on time is expected; however, in Chinese culture, being late is expected
(Umeda, 1986). These cultural differences are just a few examples of factors that may
lead to second language anxiety. Since values and beliefs are part of these students
identity, it makes it difficult for immigrant students to adjust to a culture that is different
from their own.
Language Differences
Many school districts across the United States are enrolling increasing numbers of EL
students with low-level English skills. Aida (2000) stated that the difficulty of learning
language depends on how different the new language is from the language that the learner
already knows. Thompson (2000) stated that the more similar two languages are, the
more possible it is to translate between them. Koba, Ogawa, and Wilkinson (2000) found
that Japanese students of English often experience high anxiety because English is far
different from Japanese. The English and Japanese languages are grammatically very
different (Yoneyama, 2003). For example, in Japanese, a verb comes at the end of the
sentence and the indication of tense (past, present or future) follows the verb. However in
English, a verb comes right after a subject in most cases.
Upon entering U.S. schools, immigrant students start feeling ashamed of their own
language and have hostility toward English (Cummins, 2001) because English-speaking
students ridicule their strong accent and incorrect grammar. Those who are not proficient

8
in English usually find themselves feeling incompetent and may lead to lowered
self-esteem. Few teenage immigrants who enter U.S. schools with poor academic
preparation ever make the transition to full-time English language instruction, and
many leave school without diplomas and are several years below grade level
(McDonnell & Hill, 1993).
Many immigrant students came to the United States with high hopes and dreams of
a better life and a good education. They hope to learn English, adjust to a new culture and
live comfortable lives like most Americans. However, the longer they stay in this
country, the more difficult their lives become. They realize that no matter how hard they
try, they will always be treated as foreigners because they cannot hide their face or
their accents (Haynes, 1997). Cummins refers to this as bicultural ambivalence, that is,
they experience a sense of shame about their first culture and language compounded by
hostility toward their native culture and language (Crawford, 2004). This results in a
tendency for immigrant students to befriend only students of the same ethnicity as a form
of comfort.
Krashen (1985) revealed that language anxiety impedes the learners foreign
language production and achievement. Students who are anxious may learn less and not
be able to demonstrate what they have learned. Language anxiety may cause problems
such as low self-esteem and low self-confidence (Crookall & Oxford, 1991). When
students experience failure in the mainstream classrooms, it may escalate their anxiety
(Worde, 2003). Ogbu (1992) argues that it is not the content of the school that is difficult

9
for immigrant students, but differences in cognitive, interaction, and learning styles. For
example, Mexican students are more accustomed to a cooperative classroom structure
(Delgado-Gaitan, 1992; Engelbrecht, 1983; Losey, 1997) because classrooms in Mexico
have a familial relationship between the students and their teacher (Losey, 1997).
Cooperative learning has been found to be one of many successful teaching strategies
used in American EL classrooms for students who have difficulties adjusting to a new
language and culture (Luebbe, 1992). However, students who are from countries with a
more traditional, teacher-centered educational system may find it difficult to participate
in group work (Shoebottom, 2001).
In a teacher-centered educational system, instructors control the class and students often
are passive receivers of information (Weimer, 2002). For example, many Chinese,
Korean, and Japanese students who are from very competitive educational systems feel
more comfortable studying in a teacher-centered classroom and doing individual work
rather than studying in a learner-centered classroom and doing group work (Umeda,
1998). Specifically, Chinese-speaking students are accustomed to a teacher-centered
educational system (Shoebottom, 2001) where instructors control the class and students
often are passive receivers of information (Weimer, 2002). Chinese teachers are less
personally involved with students (Xiao, 2000) and students are accustomed to working
individually in a competitive classroom environment.
It is important for EL teachers to know that cultural difference is one of the key
anxiety factors inhibiting students English language learning and communication skills.
The more teachers know about what kinds of experiences and expectations their students

10
may bring with them to their classrooms, the better informed teachers will be to make
effective instructional decisions (Nelson, Lutenbacher, & Lopez, 2001).
Therefore, it is believed that this study is necessary in order to identify factors that may
contribute to students anxiety affecting their language learning process, and find
effective strategies to help reduce language anxiety.
The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to understand to what extent immigrant high school EL
students feel anxiety when they are participating in ESL classrooms and if there is a
relationship between their cultural backgrounds and anxiety. Many studies examine
anxiety; however, learner anxiety about target language (TL) use is seldom taken into
consideration (Levine, 2003). More research is needed to investigate causes for the
anxiety that affects second language learning and how second language anxiety can be
mitigated. This study specifically looked at Spanish-speaking and Chinese-speaking EL
high school students who are the two largest immigrant groups (U.S. Census Bureau,
2000).
Research Questions
This study is undertaken in an effort to investigate the relationship between the cultural
backgrounds of EL high school students and their second language anxiety. This research
is an attempt to get inside the lived experience of second language learners from

11
different cultural backgrounds to try to better understand how, why and in what ways
they experience anxiety. The main research question for this dissertation is:
What are the factors associated with second language anxiety for Spanish and
Chinese speaking English learners?
The sub-research questions and hypothesis that will guide this study are as follows:
1. What are the salient features of second language anxiety?
2. What do English learners attribute to feelings of anxiety in classrooms?
The following hypotheses were developed based on a review of the literature pertaining
to second language anxiety for Spanish and Chinese speaking immigrant EL students.
Hypothesis 1 (H1): Cultural Anxiety Factors are the most anxiety causing factors for
Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students.
Hypothesis 2 (H2): Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students feel the most
anxiety when listening and speaking in English.
Hypothesis 3 (H3): Spanish speaking ELs feel the most anxiety when working
independently in classroom settings.
Hypothesis 4 (H4): Chinese speaking ELs feel the most anxiety when working in
cooperative groups in classrooms settings.
This study sought to test the above hypotheses to understand the effect of four key
anxiety factors, Cultural, Psychological, Linguistic and Pedagogical on second language
anxiety. In addition, four classroom language learning behaviors, listening, speaking,
reading and writing were further analyzed.

12
Significance of the study
Upon the completion of this study, it is expected to learn that EL students from
different cultural and linguistic backgrounds experience second language anxiety in
different ways. Since second language learners experience the affective filter and a
certain amount of anxiety in the learning process (Krashen, 1985), cultural factors may
also be important contributing factors to the amount and the types of anxiety that
learners experience. Therefore second language classrooms require a different
conception of curricula, a different approach to materials, and different motivational
strategies to reduce individual students anxiety problems from different cultural
backgrounds.
It is strongly believed that this study will help EL teachers have a better
understanding of the importance of learning about the cultural differences of their
students. Without this knowledge, teachers might inadvertently cause or exacerbate
students second language anxiety. They may mistakenly utilize teaching strategies and
approaches that do not facilitate learning for all EL students from different cultural
backgrounds. Classroom activities and teaching materials must be planned carefully with
cultural sensitivity to ensure that all students have an opportunity to learn. The researcher
hopes that this study will be a guide for EL teachers to reflect and evaluate their teaching
in a way that accounts for students diversity. It is important for educators working with
diverse student populations to learn more about the students cultural backgrounds and

13
carefully create curriculum that contain a variety of lessons and activities that are suitable
for all students from different cultural backgrounds.
Limitations of the study
There were three noteworthy limitations of this study: limited sample size, time
and budget limitations, and limitations of my understanding of cultures of Spanish and
Chinese-speaking students' culture. First, the sample size was limited because interviews
and a survey were conducted of EL students at only two public high schools. One school
was located where the majority students were Spanish-speaking students and the second
schools population was predominantly Chinese-speaking students. It would have been
ideal to have a larger sample size in order for the study to be generalized.
Another limitation of the study was in generalizing EL students from similar cultural and
linguistic backgrounds. EL students are not a monolithic group and as a researcher I was
careful not to over-generalize my findings to all Spanish and Chinese-speaking EL
students.
Time and budget limitations made the research a short-term study. Long-term
research including student observations both at school and home would have been ideal
to study how their cultural and linguistic differences affect second language anxiety.
Future studies might consider longitudinal observations in different settings with a
variety of ethnic groups.
The survey instrument may have overgeneralized indicators of anxiety-related
behaviors. A more in-depth content and item validity would help strengthen findings.

14
In this study, purposeful sampling was used. In purposeful sampling, subjects were
selected because of some characteristic (Patton, 1990). Twenty students from each school
were selected by the principals to participate in the questionnaire. After the questionnaire,
the researcher selected nine students from each school to participate in the interviews,
three high anxious students, three middle anxious students, and three low anxious
students based on the results from the questionnaire. The downside of purposeful
sampling was that what to be learned was limited because of the critical attributes of the
targeted group. Random sampling may have developed the broader probability
distribution without involving any real population.

15
Definition of Terms
Affective Filter The affective filter is a composite of a number of psychological, social,
political, cultural, and economic factors that would cause a second language student to
resist language acquisition (Brown, 1994). Krashen (1985) defines the affective filter as a
psychological construct impeding language acquisition.
Anxiety Anxiety is a feeling of tension associated with a sense of threat of danger when
the source of the danger is not known (Miller, 2000). Anxiety is defined as a state of
uneasiness and apprehension or fear caused by the anticipation of something threatening.
Language anxiety has been said by many researchers to influence language learning. A
certain amount of anxiety produces positive effects on learners' performance, but too
much anxiety may cause a poor performance (Scovel, 1991). Anxiety contributes to the
creation of the affective filter, which prevents students from receiving input, and then
language acquisition fails to progress (Krashen, 1981).
BICS / CALP - BICS and CALP refer to a distinction introduced by Cummins (1979)
between Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills and Cognitive Academic Language
Proficiency. Haynes (1997) defines Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) as
language skills needed in social situations. It is the day-to-day language needed to
interact socially with other people. English learners (EL) employ BICS skills when they
are on the playground, in the lunchroom, on the school bus, at parties, playing sports and
talking on the telephone. CALP refers to formal academic learning. This includes
listening, speaking, reading, and writing about subject area content material. This level of

16
language learning is essential for students to succeed in school. Students need time
and support to become proficient in academic areas. This usually takes from five to
seven years (Haynes, 1997). CALP reflects an autonomous perspective on language
that ignores its location in social practices and power relations (Edelsky et al., 1983;
Wiley, 1996).
Culture Culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns (ONeil, 2005).
ONeil defines Culture as a powerful but fragile human tool for survival. It is constantly
changing and easily lost because it exists only in our minds.
Culture Shock Culture Shock is the term used to describe the feelings that people have
when they move to an unfamiliar culture. The more different the new culture is, the
greater the shock is. Immigrant children become withdrawn and passive or aggressive
when they feel Culture Shock (Haynes, 1997).
English Learners (EL) English Learners (EL) is defined as language minority students
whose difficulty comprehending, speaking, reading or writing English affects their school
performance in English. (Linquanti, 1999).
Fossilization - Some false rules become more firmly imprinted on the interlanguage
(integrating their first language to target language) than others, and the false rules become
harder for learners to overcome. Fossilization results when a strong affective filter
becomes permanent features of a learners use of the language (Krashen 1997). .
Individualism Individualism is a moral, political, and social philosophy, which
emphasizes individual liberty, the primary importance of the individual. It claims the

17
ability of oppose Collectivism which consider the individuals rapport to the society
(Stata, 1992). In this dissertation, individualism is mentioned to describe Western culture
and collectivism to describe Eastern culture.
Language Anxiety According to Krashen (1985), Language Anxiety inhibits the
learners ability to process incoming language and short-circuits the process of
acquisition. If anxiety impairs cognitive function, students who are anxious may learn
less and also may not be able to demonstrate what they have learned.
Limited English proficient (LEP) - The Title VII statutory definition is that the terms
Limited English Proficiency when used with reference to an individual, mean an
individual who (a) was not born in the United States or whose native language is a
language other than English and comes from an environment where a language other than
English is dominant; (b) is a Native American or Alaska Native or who is a native
resident of the outlying areas and comes from an environment where a language other
than English has had a significant impact on such individual's level of English language
proficiency; or (c) is migratory and whose native language is other than English and
comes from an environment where a language other than English is dominant.
LEP also refers to one who has sufficient difficulty speaking, reading, writing, or
understanding the English language and whose difficulties may deny such individual the
opportunity to learn successfully in classrooms where the language of instruction is
English or to participate fully in our society [P.L. 103-382, Sec. 7501], as cited in
Crawford (1997).

18
Structured English Immersion programs (SEI) - When California voters passed
Proposition 227 in June of 1998; they passed into law a series of mandates the intent of
English only instruction for EL students (Palmer & Garcia, 2000).
Second Language (L2) - Second language is a learned language after the first language.
Lenneberg (1964) uses second language to mean a language consciously learned or used
by its speaker after puberty.
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) Krashen (1981) defined language acquisition as
subconscious, and intuitive process of mentally constructing the system of that language.
Krashen's input hypothesis defined students' current level of comprehension as i and the
input that would increase linguistic competency as i+1, a bit beyond the students' current
level, but within the students' developmental capabilities. Students internalize the i+1 by
subconsciously comparing it with their previous mental model of the language.
Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE) - Teaching of gradelevel subject matter in English in ways that are comprehensible and engage students
academically, while also promoting English language development. SDAIE is designed
for English learners who have reached at least intermediate proficiency and who possess
basic literacy skills. It is often used as a bridge between primary language instruction and
placement in mainstream classroom (Linquanti, 1999).

19
Willing To Communicate (WTC) - Willingness to communicate is defined as the
probability of initiating communication, specifically talking, when the opportunity arises
(McCroskey, 1992; McCroskey & Baer, 1985). McCroskey and Richmond (1987, 1990)
provide evidence that related variables, such as communication apprehension, are not
isomorphic with WTC. WTC expresses an individual's global, personality-based
orientation toward talking.

20
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Anxiety has long been a crucial factor affecting second language acquisition
(Spielmann & Radnofsky, 2001). Anxiety may cause people to suffer from intense, longlasting fear or worry, and interferes with their ability to function normally on a daily basis
(Lyness, 2001). In particular, educational psychologists define language anxiety as a
stable personality trait that causes an individual to react in a nervous manner when
speaking, listening, reading, or writing in a foreign language (Kempf, 1995). Researchers
have reported a negative correlation between school achievement and anxiety measures
(Covington & Omelich, 1987, p. 393). Anxiety seems to have both a cognitive and
affective impact. Cognitive anxiety includes worry and negative thoughts such as failure.
Affective anxiety involves physiological and emotional reactions such as fear and upset
stomach (Schunk, 2000; Zeidner, 1995). Anxiety is heightened when there is intense
pressure to perform, severe consequences for failure, and competitive comparisons
among students (Wigfield & Eccles, 1989). Many EL students in the United States are
struggling experiencing anxiety in their school settings. Their anxiety levels increase
when they make mistakes using English in the mainstream and ESL classrooms. This can
have a negative effect on students ability to develop their English language and perform
well academically. To try and understand what causes second language anxiety, the
literature reviews in this chapter are organized into four sections.

21
The first section frames the theoretical perspectives of second language anxiety. In
the second section, key anxiety factors that affect second language learners will be
discussed in the cultural, linguistic, psychological, and pedagogical contexts. In the third
section, implementation and instructional strategies to reduce anxiety will be examined.
In the concluding section, gaps found in this review of the literature will be discussed.
Theoretical Perspectives
Second language anxiety is characterized by derogatory self-related cognitions,
feelings of apprehension, and physiological responses (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993). It
plays a major role in directly and indirectly influencing language learning and
acquisition. (Ely, 1986; MacIntyre, 1995; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991; Young, 1991).
Researchers assume that language anxiety or foreign language anxiety exists and that it
has a detrimental impact on language learning and performance (Horwitz & Young,
1991). For the past twenty years, anxiety has been found to be one of the best predictors
of second language achievement (Daley, 1997). Worde (2003) found that students who
have anxiety tend to learn less and experience more failure in second language
acquisition. In the next section, Krashen's (1985), Gardner and MacIntyre's (1993), and
Horwitzs (2000) second language anxiety hypotheses will be discussed.
Krashens Affective Filter Hypothesis
Many immigrant students experience anxiety in speaking English in the mainstream
and ESL classrooms. They stay quiet in class to avoid making mistakes. Students

22
experience anxiety in a new environment because their communicative and cultural
values are hindered in the second language learning process. Krashen (1982) claims that
second language anxiety is caused by the affective filter. The affective filter is an
imaginary wall that is placed between the language and language input. It is a screening
device in the internal processing system, governed by the acquirers' motives, needs,
attitudes, and emotional states that allows or prohibits the acceptance of new input
(Dulay, Burt, & Krashen, 1982). The affective filter is activated in situations of high
anxiety. When the filter is turned on, the learner blocks out input due to anxiety, selfconsciousness, low self-esteem, or low motivation. Krashen maintains that a lowered
affective filter leads to an open attitude, while a raised affective filter leads to rapid
fossilization (1997). Fossilization means that false rules and grammatical mistakes
become so firmly imprinted that learners cannot overcome them (Krashen 1997).
Fossilization results when a strong affective filter becomes a permanent feature of a
learners use of the language. Krashen (1985a, 1985b) maintains that anxiety inhibits the
learner's ability to process incoming language and short-circuits the process of
acquisition. Students who are anxious may learn less and also may not be able to
demonstrate what they have learned. Therefore, they may experience even more failure,
which in turn escalates their anxiety (Worde, 2003). Students who are anxious learn less
because anxiety impairs cognitive function. Krashen noted that the best way to reduce
anxiety is to make the content of the lesson so interesting that the students forget they are
in a language class. According to Krashen, the best teaching method is to create a

23
comfortable and risk free classroom atmosphere, provide students with communicative
and comprehensible input, and avoid perfectionism allowing students to make mistakes.
Gardner and MacIntyres Language Anxiety Theory
Foreign language anxiety can have a negative effect on the language learning
process. Anxious students have more difficulty expressing themselves and tend to
underestimate their level of ability compared with more relaxed students (MacIntyre &
Gardner 1994). MacIntyre and Gardner (1991a) discussed the sociolinguistic aspects of
second language and foreign language anxiety. Situation-specific anxiety is the anxiety
that arises from the social context with emotionality and worry as its major components.
Test anxiety is most often defined as a situation-specific anxiety. Trait anxiety is a
permanent characteristic and is defined as the likelihood of becoming anxious in a wide
range of situations. On the other hand, state anxiety is a mixture of trait and situationspecific anxieties experienced at a particular moment in time. MacIntyre and Gardner
also noted that listening and speaking produce high levels of anxiety termed
communication apprehension. Speaking in the second language can be especially anxiety
provoking (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991b). This may result with individuals repeatedly
requesting the same information even in a conversational situation (MacIntyre &
Gardner, 1991b; Young, 1991).
Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) proposed that high levels of anxiety inhibit
motivation and high levels of motivation abate anxiety. They found that language anxiety

24
demonstrated the strongest correlations with second language achievement among
attitudes, motivation, and anxiety. Gardners (1985) socio-educational model of language
learning and MacIntyres (1994) model of willingness to communicate are two streams of
research that predict second language communication levels. The socioeducational model
(Gardener, 1985) contributes two levels of motivation integrativeness and attitudes
toward the learning situation. Integrative motivation refers to the desire to learn a second
language to communicate with members of the target language community. Attitudes
toward the learning situation refer to the evaluation of the language teacher and the
course. MacIntyres willingness to communicate (WTC) is defined as the probability of
initiating communication, specifically talking, when the opportunity arises (McCroskey
& Baer, 1985). The reasons that people are not willing to communicate are anxiety,
introversion, alienation, or a lack of communicative competence (McCroskey &
Richmond, 1987).
Communicative competence is a concept introduced by Hymes (1964) where
speakers of a language have more than grammatical competence in order to be able
communicate effectively in a language; they also need to know how language is used by
members of a speech community to accomplish their purposes. MacIntyre (1994)
proposed two key communication variables, communication apprehension and perceived
competence. Willingness to communicate is based on a combination of perceived
communicative competence and a lack of communication apprehension (MacIntyre,
1994). Communication apprehension refers to the anxiety that people experience in

25
association with real communication (McCroskey, 1977). Perceived competence refers to
the self-evaluation of ones ability to communicate (McCroskey, 1982).
Horwitzs Foreign Language Anxiety Theory
Horwitz (1986) focused her studies in individual differences in the development of
second language communicative competence including foreign language anxiety, student
belief systems, and conceptual development of minority language learners.
Horwitz and Cope (1986) indicated that language anxiety correlates negatively with
second language acquisition. Horwitz (1986) defines anxiety as a subjective feeling of
tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the
autonomic nervous system. Horwitz (1986) defines foreign language anxiety as a
distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings and behaviors related to classroom
language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process (p. 128).
Horwitzs Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) has been used widely in
language anxiety studies. The FLCAS is based on three related anxieties communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation (1986).
Horwitz and Cope (1986) collected letters and phone calls from anxious language
learners and their teachers in the study of FLCAS. In the study, students wrote of their
anxious feelings, difficulties, and physical reactions in language classes, and teachers
described how they tried to help these anxious students. People feel that they are
presenting a less positive, intelligent, and sensitive version of themselves to the world
when they speak a second language. Horwitz (2000) called this disparity between how

26
people see themselves and how they think others see them, language learners anxiety
(2000). The various theories of anxiety in second language acquisition have been
reviewed in this section of the literature review. These theories support the view that
anxiety plays an important role in second language acquisition. MacIntyre (1995) stated
that anxiety increases when students reach a point where the affective demands on
cognitive processing become high.
In the next section, important anxiety factors that affect second language learners
will be discussed. Ehrman (1998) indicates that the two important interpersonal factors
are social factors and psychological factors. Diaz-Rico and Weed (2004) proposed that
sociolinguistics factors, sociocultural factors, and cognitive factors are closely related to
second language acquisition. The key anxiety factors will be studied in the cultural,
linguistic, psychological, and pedagogical contexts.
Cultural Factors
Culture is defined as the full range of learned human behavior patterns (ONeil, 2005).
ONeil identified three levels of culture. The first layer is the body of cultural traditions
that include shared language, traditions, and beliefs. Next is the subculture. When people
come from many different parts of the world, their original cultural traditions become
part of an identifiable subculture in their new society. Members of the same subculture
share a common identity, food tradition, and dialect or language from their common

27
ancestral background. ONeil maintains that ethnic groups such as Asian Americans,
African Americans, and Mexican Americans tend to remain in their subcultures while the
subcultures of Anglo-Americans, such as German and Irish Americans, eventually
disappear as the cultural differences between members of a subculture and the dominant
national culture blur. Most of these individuals identify themselves as American first. The
third layer of culture is cultural universals. Regardless of their origins, people share
universal traits such as 1) communicating with a verbal language, 2) using age and
gender to classify people, 3) distinguishing between good and bad behavior, 4) making
jokes, and 5) producing art. It can be hypothesized from ONeils theory that immigrant
students who remain in their subcultures may experience confusion and conflict between
their traditional cultures and subcultures (new culture in the United States) that will cause
anxiety and higher rates of dropping out of school. Cultural knowledge and second
language knowledge interact to make communication successful or unsuccessful
(Thomson, 2000). If a second language learners cultural life experience bears little
relationship with their previous cultural experiences, they are likely to have great
difficulty understanding others even if they have a good understanding of the words
which are being spoken. Clement et al. (as cited in MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991) found
that Canadian Francophone students saw speaking English as a threat to their cultural
identity while Canadian Anglophone students did not have similar fears about speaking
French. Radin (as cited in Young, 1991) used the term existential anxiety to describe the
Francophones' fears of cultural assimilation. By changing their cultural patterns, the
Francophones would lose their current identity. Aida (2000) stated that students whose

28
first language has a low status compared to the second language might feel that they have
to give up their own linguistic and cultural background to join the more prestigious
society associated with the second language. Cuomo and Parasharami (2003) mention
that an immigrant youth from the Dominican Republic said to her mentor that she had
lost her sense of language, culture, and self-identity by moving to the United States.
Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1991) indicated that members of certain language groups
tend to fear cultural assimilation more than members of other language groups.
Pappamihiels study found that gender differences also cause second language
anxiety (2001). Pappamihiel conducted a study of 178 middle school students (91 boys
and 87 girls) from Mexico living in the southwestern part of the United States who
moved from the EL classroom into mainstream classrooms. Participants responded to
statements based on English Language Anxiety Scale (ELAS) concerning their feelings
using the English language ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. There were
significant gender differences for students using English in mainstream classes. Female
students scored almost 10 points higher than male students. This finding occurred in
mainstream (English only) classrooms but did not occur in the EL classes. The study
exemplified that Mexican girls are significantly more anxious about using English in their
mainstream classes. When they move from EL classes to mainstream classes, their
English language anxieties shift from academic types of worry to concerns of peer
interactions. They feel anxious about interacting with native speakers of English in
mainstream classes. The researchers hypothesized that girls tend to have closer

29
interpersonal relationships with teachers (Bracken & Crain, 1994). Pappamihiel (2001)
concluded that Mexican girls have higher English anxiety levels in mainstream
classrooms since they have not fully developed successful coping strategies with their
peers. Mexican girls might be taking advantage of the closer interpersonal relationships
with teachers to reduce second language anxiety in the EL classroom. When they move to
mainstream classrooms, their anxiety levels increase due to more peer-related anxiety,
more English performance anxiety, and less interpersonal relationships with teachers.
Two studies indicated that identity and social-cultural distance significantly relate to
language acquisition. Lee (1999) states that non-verbal factors are considered important
in Japanese culture, and that the Japanese tend to avoid direct confrontations in
conversation. Lee claims that some communicative teaching methods in American EL
classrooms do not work in Japanese contexts for this reason. Hinenoya and Gatbonton
(1998) argue that ethnocentrism plays an important role in Japanese learners poor
achievement in English. Ethnocentrism is defined as thinking one's own group's ways
are superior or inferior to others or judging other groups from our own cultural point of
view (Barger, 2004). Lee (1998) administered a questionnaire to six hundred and thirty
freshmen to investigate the interrelationships between ethnocentrism and anxiety. The
results showed that high anxiety level was measured from variables such as I tend to be
nervous when asked questions in the classroom or I tend to be nervous when speaking
English in front of people(p.12). Students demonstrated anxiety when verbal
confrontations are required in the communication process.

30
Lee states that the inferiority complex towards the Caucasian West has played a major
role for Japanese people to feel anxiety in English as a second language.
Spielmann (2001) studied about 200 American students in a French school for 7
weeks. Students at all levels were divided into two groups, a true beginners class called a
101 as a control group and a false beginners class referred to as 201 as a treatment
group. In the 201 classrooms, a traditional grammar-driven instruction and L2-only
(second language) approach was used. In the 101 classrooms, by contrast, a
communicative approach was used. Observations and in-depth interviews were conducted
during and after the study. Throughout the observations, students in the 201 classes
exemplified high anxiety. One student in a 201 traditional class stated thought it was bad
for his brain because he had no conversation in class for 3 weeks. He left frustrated and
anxious because he was used to having conversations at home. Another student in the
traditional 201 classes who seemed extremely shy in the observation claimed that it was
difficult for her to be herself in the classroom, and that she hated herself for being there.
She maintained that she is actually a conversationalist and what she mostly misses is
being able to express herself.
The findings of both Lee's (1998) and Spielmans (2001) studies indicate how
anxiety and cultural norms relate to each other in the second language acquisition
process. Japanese students demonstrated anxiety in a verbal communication setting
because they are from the culture where non-verbal factors weigh heavily, whereas
American students exemplified anxiety and even frustration in a non-verbal

31
communication setting because they are from the culture where verbal factors are
emphasized in the communication process. An additional two studies reported whether
second language anxiety varies according to a specific target language or is it
independent of the native language and second language pairing. Rodriguez and Abreu
(2003) studied 110 preservice language teachers who were majoring in both English and
French in two western universities in Venezuela. Two Spanish versions of the Foreign
Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) were used in the present study. There were
no significant differences found between general English and French anxieties. Horwitz
(2001) used the same FLCAS and examined American, Korean, and Turkish second
language learners. The finding was relatively different from Rodriguez and Abreus
findings. Whereas American students exhibited similar levels of second language anxiety
as Korean second language learners who have shown higher levels, Turkish learners
exhibited lower levels of anxiety. Rodriguez and Abreu hypothesized from the findings
that Venezuelans tend to be more outgoing and less anxious than Americans or Koreans
and may resemble Turkish language learners with respect to language anxiety.
The research on cultural factors indicate that people feel anxiety when they
encounter a cultural gap between their culture and a new culture (Umeda, 1998). In this
case, their communicative and cultural values are violated in the second language
learning process; therefore, the students start feeling anxiety in a new environment.
Regarding gender differences, since Mexican girls are raised to interact interpersonally

32
with adults more than boys, they are intimidated in a mainstream classroom where they
are required to be independent.
Linguistic Factors
Linguistic factors are also important in the context of second language anxiety.
Aida (2000) proposed that one of the linguistic factors to shape students second
language is the language distance between the two languages. Aida stated that the
difficulty of learning language depends on how different the new language is from the
language that the learner already knows. Koba, Ogawa, and Wilkinson (2000) found that
Japanese English learners often express high anxiety because English is far different from
Japanese. Thompson (2000) stated that the more similar two languages are, the more
possible it is to translate between them. For example, in English, the order of words in a
sentence is Subject-Verb-Object. Swahili tends to be similar to English in these ways,
and therefore it is easier for an English speaker to learn Swahili than to learn other
languages. Thompson claims that Western European languages are similar to English
words, and the cultures are also similar making language acquisition easier.
Woodrow and Chapman (2005) studied 275 (136 female, 139 male) advanced
English learners for academic purposes (EAP) studying at accredited language centers in
Australia. The students were from China, Korea, Japan, Europe, Vietnam, Indonesia,
Thai, South America, and Taiwan. All of the students completed the anxiety subscales
and oral performance was assessed using a type of International English Language

33
Testing System (IELTS) interview. The finding indicated that performing in front of the
class was rated the highest on the in-class anxiety subscale, while talking to native
speakers rated high on the out-of-class subscale. Taiwanese students scored the highest
means on both in-class and out-class anxiety, Korean students scored the second, and
Japanese students scored the third highest means. On the other hand, Europeans scored
the lowest mean on in-class anxiety and Vietnamese followed. The Vietnamese scored
the lowest mean on out of class anxiety and European students were the second lowest.
All the other Asian participants scored relatively high on both in and out class anxiety.
The Vietnamese participants differed from the other Asian participants because they were
scholarship students who had already experienced speaking English in a selection
procedure.
The result of this study is related to Aidas (2000) statement that the difficulty of
learning language depends on how different the new language is from the language that
the learner already knows. It also supports Thompsons theory that Western European
languages are similar to English words, and the cultures are also similar, so that what is
talked about and how it is talked about will be similar. Therefore, it is assumed that Asian
students showed high anxiety and Europeans demonstrated low anxiety in speaking
English. Yoneyama (2003) looked at the language differences between English and
Japanese from the grammatical and linguistic point of view. The English and Japanese
languages are grammatically very different (Yoneyama, 2003). For example, in Japanese,
a verb comes at the end of the sentence and the indication of tense (past, present or

34
future) follows the verb. Whereas in English, a verb comes right after a subject in most
cases. Therefore, it is difficult for Japanese people to say a verb correctly when they
speak English. Consider these two sentences:
English sentence: I will not go out tomorrow.
Japanese sentence: I tomorrow go out not.
English sentence structure is formed to convey information directly while Japanese
is structured to describe things indirectly. For example, in an English sentence such as I
dont want to go to a movie, we immediately know whether this person wants to go.
Whereas in Japanese, the same sentence would be said like this: I movie go do want not.
We have no idea if the person wants to go to a movie or not until listening to the last
word of the sentence. This difference in sentence structure reflects the fact that English
speakers prefer to be direct and Japanese speakers indirect. Here is a good example of
how Japanese people speak indirectly. Consider how yes and no are used in Japanese. Yes
sometimes means No, depending upon how it is said. It is considered too direct or rude to
say No directly. For example, if we say, Yes, only to be polite, we may actually be feeling
the opposite. It is the manner in which yes is said that gives its true meaning. For
example, if a Japanese businessperson says, Yes, I will think about it. He has already said
No in his mind. The American leaves the meeting still thinking that there is a possibility
for whatever they were discussing.

35
One significant linguistic difference between English and Japanese is that Japanese
has vowels after all (consonant) sounds (Takemura, 2004). The number of the vowels
determines the number of the syllables. Whereas English does not have this kind of rule,
and this leads learners to incorrectly place vowel sounds at the end of most words they
say in English. In English, the number of vowel sounds. For example, the word bread is
pronounced in Japanese as bu-re-e-do, leaving Japanese speakers to think that bread has
four syllables. However, the word bread in English has only one syllable. Since our
brains only program the sounds that we have heard before the ages of eight to ten as the
sounds of our language (Nash, 1997), it is difficult for Japanese students to pronounce or
hear the sounds that they have learned after the age of ten (Takemura, 2004). Linguistic
factors affect students reading anxiety. Saito, Garza, and Horwitz (1999) studied the
possibility of second language reading anxiety. Three hundred eighty three students
enrolled in first-semester university French, Japanese, and Russian courses participated in
this study. They were expected to read a textbook after receiving a short explanation of
the alphabet and pronunciation. The result demonstrated that students with higher levels
of second language anxiety tended to have higher levels of second language reading
anxiety. Students who scored high on reading anxiety reported I get upset when I am not
sure whether I understand what I am reading; I feel intimidated whenever I see a whole
page in front of me; By the time you get past the funny letters and symbols, it is hard to
remember what you are reading about (p. 214). Anxious students seem to feel
overwhelmed when confronted with a second language text. Japanese learners

36
levels of reading anxiety were the highest among the three language groups because of
the unfamiliar and complex orthographic system.
In sum, when students are not sure how to pronounce new words or they do not
understand what they are reading, they are removed from their comfort zone and
therefore their anxiety levels increase due to a lack of confidence. The studies reviewed
in this section demonstrated the difficulty of learning language depends on how different
the new language is from the language that the learner already knows. EL students tend to
have high anxiety when their native language (L1) and English as a second language (L2)
are very different.
Psychological Factors
Many psychological factors are related to second language anxiety. There tend to
be relationships between personality traits and second language learning (Thompson,
2000). A person with high tolerance of ambiguity will not insist on identifying and
understanding every last detail of a sentence she hears in the new language before being
willing to guess at the meaning of the whole sentence. A perfectionist might be inhibited
from using a language because of the awareness that his or her speech is far from perfect
(Thompson, 2000). Generally, the personality trait of extroversion seems to be
advantageous to a language learner because an extroverted person tends to enjoy a lot of
involvement with other people and it is considered helpful to develop conversational

37
skills in a second language (Kezser, 1987). However, it is possible that the strong social
needs which underlie ones extroversion may work against the extroverted language
learner. In other words, if an extroverted English language learner is forced to be actively
involved with people who only speak English, the strong social needs of the extrovert
will be a pressure and may cause him or her anxiety to avoid relationships with
monolingual speakers of the new language (Thompson, 2000).
Another important factor that causes foreign language anxiety is a lack of selfconfidence (Lee, 1998). Lee examined 45 Japanese university freshmen majoring in
Business to investigate the interrelationships among the affective factors such as
impression (the image of English class), oral conversation practice, preference,
importance, and linguistic self-confidence. A 22-item questionnaire was given to the
students and the participants answered by circling 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly
agree). The results demonstrated that self-confidence was the only variable, which
showed a significant path to language proficiency. Lee also found that anxiety had a
negative effect on linguistic confidence. In Spielmanns (2001) study of the French
school, he found that individuals self-confidence level was reduced as their anxiety level
increased in a traditional grammar instruction class where instructors used a strict Spartan
method (2001). Lee stated that students desired motivation in acquiring the second
language becomes linguistic confidence that becomes self-confidence. Japanese learners
of English do not feel an immediate need to acquire English because they live in a

38
homogeneous linguistic society. Since they have less desired motivation in acquiring
English, they have less linguistic confidence which means less self-confidence.
Therefore, their English language anxiety levels are high due to a lack of self-confidence.
People are not willing to communicate due to anxiety, introversion, alienation, or a lack
of communicative competence (McCroskey & Richmond, 1987). Two studies examined
the relationships between perceived competence and anxiety to foster a willingness to
communicate. Hashimoto (2002) examined 56 Japanese EL undergraduate and graduate
students attending the University of Hawaii to investigate the relationships among
anxiety, perceived competence, and willingness to communicate in a second language
(L2). Hashimoto (2002) studied a students attitude and motivation test battery, willing to
communicate (WTC), perceived competence, communication anxiety, and frequency of
communication. There were a high number of low scores on the measure of
communication anxiety. There was also a significant negative correlation between
communication anxiety and perceived competence, which means that lower L2 anxiety is
associated with higher L2 perceived competence and higher motivation (Hashimoto,
2002). MacIntyre, Baker, Clemen, and Donovan (2003) studied 59 undergraduate
university student volunteers in first-year conversational French courses. Testing was
given during regular class times about 20 minutes. Students were asked about prior
immersion experience and language, perceived competence, communication
apprehension and frequency of communication. The result showed that WTC correlates
with perceived competence but not with communication apprehension. The researchers
concluded that increasing communication opportunities in the classroom is likely to

39
provoke anxiety and fostering WTC will be a key to enhance motivation and reduce
anxiety.
Horwitz (2002) examined the relationship between second language anxiety and
perfectionism. Anxious and non-anxious students (n=78) from second-year English
language classes at the university of Chile were interviewed. The anxious students
demonstrated high personal performance standards and procrastination. Brophy (1999)
stated that long delays in completing assignments occur because perfectionists believe
that their work must be perfect from beginning to end. They claimed that they began to
get nervous about being very slow in doing things. The anxious students also tend to have
fear of negative evaluation and concern over errors. This study exemplified that
perfectionism plays a greater role in anxiety in students (Gregersena & Horwitz, 2002).
In this section, extroverted personality, self-confidence, perceived competence,
willingness to communicate, and perfectionism have been discussed as key related
psychological factors of second language anxiety. It is clear that extroverted people are
generally happier to communicate with other people; however, if they were put in a
situation where they need to use a language in which they do not have confidence, this
individuals extroversion will become the cause of anxiety and he or she may avoid
communicating with people who speak the target language (Kezser, 1987). The studies
also showed that lack of self-confidence and lack of perceived competence could be
anxiety factors to lose willingness to communicate with target language speakers

40
(Hashimoto, 2002). Since perfectionists are afraid of making mistakes, they tend to delay
completing a task. Therefore, it is hypothesized that teachers giving limited time to
complete sentences in second language classrooms might increase anxiety levels of the
students (Horwitz, 2002). It is important that ESL teachers provide a relaxed classroom
environment and give EL students communication opportunities to enhance motivation
and reduce second language anxiety.
Pedagogical Factors
Interpersonal dynamics between students and teachers affect anxiety and
motivation in second language acquisition. The classroom realities are perceived
differently by students and teachers (Horwitz, 1989). There are conflicts among teacher
expectations, instructional practices, and individual student differences. Teachers usually
share their commonsense assumptions about students ability; therefore, many classroom
requirements and high teacher expectations make the students feel anxious. Ehrman and
Dornyei (1998) propose that an unconscious learning alliance between teachers and
students permits them to take mutual risks and suspend ordinary power relationships.
Promoting a sense of safety, interpersonal boundaries, and student-centered approaches
are the crucial responsibilities of teachers which can help reduce students anxiety
(Ehrman, 1998). Palacios (1998) found significant relationships in classroom
environment variables, such as teacher support, affiliation, and involvement. Casado
(2004) studied 114 university students in the United States and 154 first-semester

41
university students in Spain in order to identify the perceptions towards feelings of
anxiety experienced during second language learning. The survey was conducted based
on the FLCAS questionnaire. The result showed that students in both Spanish and US
groups experienced some levels of anxiety and that classroom setting, experiences with
the language, and instructors could have affected the levels of anxiety and confidence of
students (p. 34).
Worde (2003) utilized qualitative research methods to study students' beliefs,
experiences, and feelings of second language anxiety. Worde (2003) interviewed
American students who took French, German, and Spanish classes. The interview
revealed extremely negative experiences with the language classes. Many students
complained that the teacher spoke too fast, or refused to use any English at all, and that
this made it difficult to keep up during class. Several students were concerned that their
language classes moved so quickly that they did not have time to digest the grammar
rules. Covering an excessive amount of material was complained about as well. Many
students expressed frustration that most teachers call on students one after another in
seating order. They thought that builds tension and anxiety knowing that they are about to
be called on in a few minutes. The most negative comments were regarding the teachers.
The students used descriptors such as very intimidating, apathetic, condescending,
very stern, mean, obnoxious, and one who tries to scare students. Students
reported becoming frustrated when the teacher would correct the error before they had
time to formulate a response. Teacher interruptions to correct speaking errors causes

42
students to lose their focus and increase anxiety. Test anxiety was mentioned during the
interviews. The students were asked during what part of the test taking procedures they
felt anxiety the most. One student admitted to being upset, shaking and sweating when he
had to give an oral presentation during the final examination. Spielmann and Radnofsky
(2001) found that expectations are crucial in determining how an event or situation can
generate tension and anxiety. In their study of 201 American students who attended a
seven-week intensive French language program, they found that the students who took no
separate grammar instruction were tense and anxious since they came from traditional
backgrounds of grammar-centered teaching. Even though the classroom environment was
relaxed and communicative, the students felt anxiety because the instructional strategy
was something that the students were not expecting.
In sum, the studies showed that in a classroom setting, students experiences with
the language, instructors attitude, and the students expectations impact second language
anxiety. An interesting finding was that anxiety occurs when students expectations were
not met. Students felt anxiety when they had expected a class to be taught in a different
way than expected. It is hypothesized that when students encounter a sudden change or
unexpected situation in the second language learning process, their lack of selfconfidence in the target language and the unfamiliar and uncontrollable environment
increases students anxiety levels. Young (1991) noted that the best way to reduce
anxiety is to make the content of the lesson so interesting that the students forget they are

43
in a language class. Whatever motivation exists in foreign language classrooms tends to
be instrumental motivation (Brown, 1993; Dornyei, 1994).
The key anxiety factors can be identified from the literature review that EL
students feel anxiety 1) when they encounter a cultural gap between their culture and a
new culture, 2) when their native language (L1) and English as a second language (L2)
are very different, 3) when the levels of their self-confidence, perceived competence, and
willingness to communicate are low, and 4) when a relaxed classroom setting, students
experiences with the language, instructors positive attitude, and the students
expectations are lacked. Figure 2.1 shows the anxiety factors and attributions that form
second language anxiety.
Figure 2.1: Intercorrelations of Second Language Anxiety Factors

Cultural Anxiety Factors:

Linguistic Anxiety Factors:

Language Difference
Pronunciation
Grammar

Lifestyle, Food, Fashion,

Religions, Value, Habit

Second Language Anxiety

Factors
Pedagogical Anxiety Factors:

Psychological Anxiety
Factors:
Communication
Affective Filter
Fear of Failure

Teachers
Group/Individual Work
Speaking, Listening, Reading, Writing
SEI Program
Classroom Participation

44
Implementations and Instructional Strategies to Reduce Anxiety
It is crucial to identify affective strategies when teaching EL students in order to
reduce second language anxiety. Rossiter (2003) examined adult intermediate level EL
learners and found that students were more relaxed in the class where the teacher used
strategies such as deep breathing, positive self-talk, visualization exercises, relaxation
techniques, taking ones emotional temperature, self-rewards, persistence, and risk-taking
skills than the other class used a regular EL class methods. The Communicative
Orientation of Language Teaching (COLT) Observation Scheme (Spada & Frohlich,
1995) was used to observe the teachers of the control and treatment groups.
The result showed that the affective strategy instruction was well received by the
students except the relaxation and visualization exercises. Duff (2001) examined 1,300
EL students in the mainstream classrooms. Two-years of observations were recorded to
investigate the relationships between students anxiety levels and teachers instructions.
He found that students performed better whose teachers provided excellent explanations,
had a thorough command of the material, illustrated great creativity, were resourceful and
interested in students cultural backgrounds, and demonstrated a concern for students
learning and engagement with social topics. Students whose teachers provided teacherdirected instruction and discussion performed less well. Thompson (2000) administered a
survey regarding teacher effectiveness and instructional practices from EL students in a
Hispanic school in Southern California. The students demonstrated a great interest and
less anxiety when the teachers emphasized the importance of 1) individual help from

45
teachers, tutors, and instructional aids, 2) peer interaction, 3) acquiring fun materials such
as games to learn English, 4) creating a welcoming environment, 5) knowing and
understanding students, 6) remembering that students learn at different rates, and 7)
building confidence. Ariza (2004) also emphasized the importance of effective teacher
instructions such as creating a nonthreatening classroom environment, giving students
opportunities to experience success, getting to know students, and adapting to the
students cultural backgrounds in order to reduce students anxiety in second language
acquisition.
Conclusion
Major anxiety factors in second language learning have been discussed in cultural,
linguistic, psychological, and pedagogical contexts. All the reviewed literature identified
that anxiety affects second language learning strongly. Thompson (2000) concludes that
cultural knowledge and second language knowledge interact to make communication
successful or unsuccessful. If a second language learners cultural life experience bears
little relationship with their previous cultural experiences, they are likely to have great
difficulty understanding others even if they have a good understanding of the words
which are being spoken. Aida (2000) proposes that one of the linguistic factors to shape
students second language is the language distance between the two languages. The
difficulty of learning language depends on how different the new language is from the
language that the learner already knows. Thompson (2000) states that many
psychological factors are related to second language anxiety. There tend to be

46
relationships between personality traits and second language learning. A person with high
tolerance of ambiguity will not insist on identifying and understanding every last detail of
a sentence she hears in the new language before being willing to guess at the meaning of
the whole sentence. Horwitz (1989) states that interpersonal dynamics between students
and teachers affect anxiety and motivation in second language acquisition. The classroom
realities are perceived differently by students and teachers.
After studying the literature on the relationships between anxiety factors and
second language learning, several gaps were found in the research. First of all, most
studies focused on what causes second language anxiety, but why anxiety occurs in
varying contexts has not been discussed. Second, when and where certain anxiety occurs
in the second language learning process has not been studied, either. Furthermore,
although several instructional strategies have been implemented to develop second
language learners language proficiency, effective instructional strategies to reduce
second language anxiety have not been found in the research. In addition, anxiety within
various groups and across social contexts should be explored including gender
differences in different cultures. Since there is no record of research done in these areas,
several hypotheses have been made based on the literature findings as mentioned in this
paper. Based on a thorough review of the literature and the researchers own professional
experience, it is suspected that EL students from different cultural and socio-cultural
backgrounds will experience second language anxiety in different ways. Since second
language learners experience the affective filter and a certain amount of anxiety in the

47
learning process, cultural factors are important contributing factors to the amount, the
types, and the characteristics of the anxiety that learners' experience. Therefore second
language classrooms require a new conception of curricula, a different approach to
materials, and more effective motivational strategies to reduce individual students
anxiety problems.

48
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This study investigated the different factors that cause second language anxiety in
EL students from different cultural backgrounds. The focus was to find effective
motivational strategies for EL students to help reduce second language anxiety. This
study paid special attention to how EL students from culturally and linguistically diverse
backgrounds experience second language anxiety. The four main variables for research
were Cultural, Linguistic, Psychological, and Pedagogical anxiety factors. Descriptions
of these four factors were based on the following conclusions:
1. Cultural Anxiety Factors:
a. The extent of cultural difference between the two cultures determines the level of
anxiety experienced by EL students (Thompson, 2000).
b. Asian students feel anxiety in making a direct eye contact with others when they speak
(Umeda, 1998).
2. Linguistic Anxiety Factors:
EL students feel less anxious learning English when there is a similarity
between their native language (L1) and their target language (L2)
(Aida, 2000).
3. Psychological Anxiety Factors:
a. EL students feel anxious about expressing their feelings in English because
of a lack of self-confidence (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991).
b. EL students feel they are presenting a less positive, intelligent, and sensitive
version of themselves to the world when they speak English (Horwitz, 2001).

49
4. Pedagogical Anxiety Factors
a. EL students react in a nervous manner when speaking, listening, reading,
or writing in English (Kempf, 1995).
b. EL students cope with high levels of anxiety when they are speaking and
listening English (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993).
c. Spanish-speaking students are accustomed to a cooperative classroom
structure (Delgado-Gaitan, 1992; Engelbrecht, 1983; Losey, 1997).
d. Chinese-speaking students are accustomed to a teacher-centered classroom
(Xiao, 2000).
The research utilized both quantitative and qualitative methods in order to satisfy
accuracy and in-depth data gathering. The study of second language anxiety required
accuracy and personal information; therefore, both quantitative and qualitative data was
used to measure the language anxiety experienced by Spanish and Chinese speaking EL
high school students. The Chinese language used in this study was Taiwanese.
The main research question for this dissertation was:
What are the factors associated with second language anxiety for Spanish and
Chinese speaking English learners?
The sub-research questions that guided this study were as follows:
1. What are the salient features of second language anxiety?
2. What do English learners attribute to feelings of anxiety in classrooms?
The hypotheses to the research question were:
Hypothesis 1 (H1): Cultural Anxiety Factors are the most anxiety causing factors for
Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students.

50
Hypothesis 2 (H2): Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students feel the most
anxiety when listening and speaking in English.
Hypothesis 3 (H3): Spanish speaking ELs feel the most anxiety when working
independently in classroom settings.
Hypothesis 4 (H4): Chinese speaking ELs feel the most anxiety when working in
cooperative groups in classrooms settings.
Design of Study
Mixed-method (quantitative and quantitative data) was used in this study. Mixedmethod is a way to come up with creative alternatives to traditional or more monolithic
ways to conceive and implement evaluation (Greene, 1997). The quantitative data was
gathered through a questionnaire. Quantitative research takes a scientific approach to a
real life situation and creates a statistical analysis of the subject being researched, while
maintaining an objective perspective that can be measured. Horwitzs (1986) Foreign
Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) was used to construct the questionnaire for
measuring second language anxiety. Only the 13 items out of the 33 FLCAS items by
Horwitz (1986) were used in order to satisfy the total of the 40 questions with the four
key anxiety factors (Cultural, Linguistic, Psychological, and Pedagogical). Since the
FLCAS only included speaking and classroom anxiety factors (items 1 to 13), ten
additional items were added from Saito, Garza, and Horwitz's (1999) Foreign Language
Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) in order to identify reading and writing anxiety factors
(items 14 to 24). After reviewing items and coding them based on the four key anxiety
factors, it was determined that FLCAS was mainly focused on psychological, classroom,
and speaking aspects of anxiety (Han, 2003). Therefore, more questions that contain

51
cultural, linguistic, and pedagogical aspects of anxiety were added (items 25 to 40) in
order to measure the four key aspects of anxiety (Cultural, Linguistic, Psychological, and
Pedagogical). These questions were created based on Thompson (2000) for Cultural and
Aida (2000) for Linguistic factors. In addition, some statements were added to Horwitz
scales to examine what was the most anxiety-causing aspect of language development
and production; speaking, listening, reading, or writing (Kempf, 1995). Since this study
specified students English language anxiety, the words foreign language used in both
FLCAS and FLRAS were replaced with English language. Item 5, 22, 31 are reserve
items. It is recommended that both standard and reverse items be included in applied
research instruments so as to control for response biases such as agreement response
tendency (Schrieheim and Eisenbach, 1995). For example, the item 5 of the questionnaire
I am usually at ease during tests in my English class is a reverse item because an
Agreement or Strong Agreement with the item indicates a relatively low level of anxiety.
By its nature, quantitative data does not depict the in depth opinions and feelings of
informants' self perceptions. Since quantitative research mostly takes place in settings
which are not completely natural for the informants, it creates limited information
(McCullough, 2003). In order to supplement the limitations of quantitative research
methods, qualitative methods were also used in this study. Qualitative research provided
personal and in-depth information even though reliability and generalizability were
limited (Creswell, 2003). To answer what factors were associated with language anxiety
from the students perspective, qualitative data were collected through interviews with

52
selected students with higher anxiety scores to gather in-depth information on second
language anxiety. The interviews unlike the questionnaire helped reveal details about the
causes for the students anxiety and how they cope with it.
The Sample and Population
In this study, Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students who are the
two largest immigrant groups in the U.S. were studied. The purpose of the study was to
find if there is a relationship between students second language anxiety and their cultural
and linguistic backgrounds.
The students were selected from two schools, one where the majority of students
are Spanish-speaking ELs, the other where primarily composed of students who are
Chinese-speaking ELs. For the purpose of this study pseudonyms were used to protect the
identity of the school and its students. Purposeful sampling was used because subjects
were selected by the principals of each school. Purposeful sampling is used when there
are clear rationale or criteria for selecting the participants for the sample group to be
studied (Champion, 2002). A total of 40 EL students in the beginning ESL classes from
two schools, 20 students from each school, were selected by the principals. a total of
eighteen students from the two schools, nine students from each school, were selected by
the researcher for follow-up interviews. Three high anxious students, three middle
anxious students, and three low anxious students were selected based on the results of the
questionnaire.

53
Sunflower High School
Spanish-speaking EL students were selected from Sunflower High School located in Los
Angeles County, California. The school serves about 1,392 students including 88%
Spanish-speaking students. 26% of whom are EL students. The remaining 12% of the
school population includes 4% White, 3% Asian, 3% Filipino, 2% African American, and
1% Pacific Islanders. The average class sizes are 30 students for Grade 9, 37 for Grade
10, 33 for Grade 11, and 37 for Grade 12. The percentage of students participating in the
free or reduced-price lunch program is 50%, comparable to the state average of 51%. The
drop rate of the students is 3% also equivalent to the state average. Overall quality of the
school rated by the parents is three out of five stars (California department of Education,
2005-2006).
Rose High School
Chinese-speaking students were selected from Rose high school located in Los
Angeles County, California. Rose High School serves 1,920 students including 44%
Taiwanese students. 20% of whom are EL students. The remaining 56% comprise of 45%
Asian, 41% Hispanic or Latino, 9% White, 2% African American, 3% Filipino, 1%
Pacific Islander, and 1% American Indian The average class sizes are 30 students for
Grade 9, 31 for Grade 10, 30 for Grade 11, and 28 for Grade 12. Language spoken by
English learners include 71% Mandarin, 13% Cantonese, 4% Spanish, 4% Korean, 1%
Indonesian, and 1% Japanese. The ratio of the students participating in free or reduced-

54
price lunch program is 23% . The drop rate of the students is less than 1 %. Overall
quality of the school rated by the parents is three out of five stars (California Department
of Education, 2005-2006). All consent forms can be found in Appendix B-C. A
demographic breakdown of students who participated in the study by grade level is
presented in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: EL High School Students by Grades
Grades

Frequency(n) (%)

Gender (n)

___________________________________________________________________
Spanish-Speaking Students
Ninth (9)

(22.5)

Male 4 Female 5

Tenth (10)

(17.5)

Male 3 Female 4

Eleventh (11)

(10.0)

Male 2 Female 2

11

(27.5)

Male 4 Female 7

Tenth (10)

(15.0)

Male 3 Female 3

Eleventh (11)

( 7.5)

Male 1 Female 2

Chinese-Speaking
Ninth (9)

f (x) = 40

55
Instrumentations and Data Collection Procedures
The principals of both schools were asked for permission to study their beginning
EL Spanish and Chinese speaking students through a questionnaire and follow-up
interviews. It was explained to the principals that the purpose of the study was to find
factors associated with second language anxiety in high school students from different
cultural backgrounds. In addition, this study would be a guide for EL teachers to reflect
and evaluate their teaching in a way that accounts for students diversity.
After gaining verbal permissions, the principals from the two schools were visited.
Each principal was asked to select one ESL class serving Beginning and Intermediate EL
students. The ESL teachers from each class chosen were asked to allow their students to
participate in the study. Parental Consent forms and Student Assent forms were
distributed to students in each ESL class selected. All forms were available in the
students language of choice, English, Spanish or Chinese. During the quantitative part of
the study, Horwitzs (1986) Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and
Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) were used to gather information on
the four key aspects of second language anxiety factors, cultural, linguistic,
psychological, and pedagogical, along with learning anxiety features of speaking,
listening, reading, and writing.
The questionnaires were conducted on one day in each school during their regular
ESL class in the Spring 2007. The questionnaire took approximately 30 to 45 minutes to

56
complete. Spanish and Chinese translators were provided from each school during the
administration of the questionnaire for support. The instructions were written in English,
Spanish, and Chinese and were explained verbally in the classroom before the survey
began. The students were asked their personal information, such as number of family
members, the length of stay in America, and agreement/disagreement to participate in a
possible follow-up interview (see Appendix D). Numbers were assigned to the
questionnaire, and only the principal investigator had access to student names so that they
might be contacted for possible follow-up interviews. The students were notified that the
questionnaire would be confidential and that no results or data would be used for any
purpose other than this study.
Each item in the questionnaire was explained to the students both in English and in
their primary language before beginning the questionnaire. This helped clarify the
purpose of the study and any uncertainties. In the questionnaire, a Likert-type scale with
five possible responses were used. Students responded to the questions by indicating the
frequency of occurrence for each situation and choose from a scale of SA (Strongly
agree), A (Agree), N (Neutral), D (Disagree), and SD (Strongly disagree). Based on the
results of the questionnaire, a total of eighteen students from the two schools, nine
students from each school, were selected for follow-up interviews. Three students from
each school who demonstrated the least anxiety on the questionnaire were selected for
interviews and identified as Low Anxiety Students. Three students from each school who
demonstrated middle anxiety on the questionnaire were selected for interviews and

57
identified as Middle Anxiety Students. Three students from each school who
demonstrated the highest anxiety on the questionnaire were selected for interviews and
identified as High Anxiety Students. Interviews were held during regular class hours and
participants were called one by one to come to an interview room. They were permitted
by their teachers to leave a class to attend interviews. The interviews were conducted
between a student, the researcher, and the translator and each interview took
approximately 20 to 30 minutes. The interviews contained ten questions based on the four
aspects of anxiety (cultural, linguistic, psychological, and pedagogical) and the English
language learning anxiety features (speaking, listening, reading, and writing). The
questions were created based on the conclusions from the literature review. The students
were asked about their experience with anxiety when learning English. All interviews
were tape-recorded, transcribed, and translated for document analysis.
Data Analysis
Systematic coding aligned with FLCAS (Horwitz, 1986) and FLRAS (Saito, Garza,
and Horwitz, 1999) survey subscales. Themes emerged from an analysis of literature and
subscales from Horwitz, Saito, and Garza. Deductive methods were used as a means of
corroborating themes to analyze the data. Deductive analysis requires existing data to be
analyzed based on an existing framework (Patton, 2002). The analysis of data were
categorized into the four key anxiety factors (cultural, linguistic, psychological, and
pedagogical factors). The differing types of anxiety factors were carefully analyzed in
light of the research studies discussed in Chapter 2.

58
Analysis of cultural anxiety factors focused on how students' cultural values and
lifestyles would affect EL students' second language anxiety using Diaz-Rico and Weed,
2004; Thompson, 1998, 2000; and Umeda, 1998. Analysis of linguistic anxiety factors
were focused on how the language difference would affect EL students' second language
anxiety using Aida, 2000; and Gardner and MacIntyre, 1991. Psychological anxiety
factors were analyzed based on Ehrman, 1998; Gardner and MacIntyre, 1991; and
Krashen, 1997 identifying how nervousness and self-confidence would affect second
language anxiety. Analysis of pedagogical anxiety factors were identified by how
classroom activities would affect second language anxiety based on Delgado-Gaitan,
1992; Gardner and MacIntyre, 1993; Horwitz, 1989; Kempf, 1995; and Xiao, 2000.
After quantitative data were collected via the questionnaires the following steps
were taken. The data analysis was organized and prepared by gathering calculated
questionnaire scores. The descriptive statistical analysis (SPSS) program was used for
calculating the mean and standard deviation, frequency distribution and percentages to
summarize the results for the questions (Han, 2003). A scale of SA (Strongly agree) was
scored 5 points, A (Agree) was scored 4 points, N (Neutral) was 3 points, D (Disagree)
was scored 2 points, and SD (Strongly disagree) was scored 1 point. The mean of each
item of the questionnaire was calculated by adding the total points of the 5 scale and
divided by the number of the students answered for measuring students' anxiety level.
Interview data was then used to advance the quantitative findings based on questionnaire
results.

59
Validating the Findings
Validity is established to determine whether the findings are accurate from the
standpoint of the researcher, the participant, and the readers on an account (Creswell &
Miller, 2000, as cited in Creswell, 2003). One of the important indicators of validity is
reliability. Internal consistency reliability is concerned with the homogeneity of the items
comprising a scale (DeVellis, 1991). The FLCAS shows high internal reliability .93 and
significant correlation between every item and the total anxiety grade, high test-retest
reliability after eight weeks .83, p< .01, and high validity (Horwitz, 1986). In this study,
internal consistency reliability was computed using Cronbach's coefficient alpha in order
to indicate a scale's quality is reliable. Classroom anxiety including speaking/listening,
and psychological anxiety factors was operationalized by the FLCAS, and writing and
reading factors were operationalized by the FLRAS. In order to bring additional light to
the nature of the FLCAS and the FLRAS, this study also investigated these two anxiety
constructs with cultural and linguistic factors. An internal consistency reliability check
was computed on the FLCAS, FLRAS, and the cultural and linguistic related anxiety
factors. Cronbach's coefficient alpha for the FLCAS computed on 40 participants was .95
and the FLRAS was .94. Cronbach's coefficient alpha for the cultural related items was
.90 and the linguistic related items was .93. These results have demonstrated satisfactory
reliability in terms of their internal consistency.
Another method to indicate validity is a pilot study. The purpose of a pilot study
was to test protocols, data collection instruments, and other aspects of a study in

60
preparation for a larger study (Polit and Tatano, 2004). The questionnaire was piloted
with two Spanish speakers and two Chinese (Taiwanese) speakers from different high
schools with a similar student profile. The two Spanish speakers are beginning ESL
students from Hydrangea High School located in Los Angeles County, California. The
school serves about 1,245 students including 90% Spanish-speaking students. The two
Chinese speakers are beginning ESL students from Pine High School located in Los
Angeles County, California. The school serves about 1,200 students including 85%
Chinese-speaking students. The researcher met the two Spanish-speaking students with
their parents and the two Chinese-speaking students with their parents outside the school
in two different days. The parents permitted their children's participating in the pilot
study. The four students took the questionnaire and the average time that they spent to
answer was 20-30 minutes. After completing the questionnaire, they were asked to give
their opinions if there were any ambiguous parts found or any correction needed. Both
Spanish-speaking students answered that the questions were easy to read and there was
no confusing question. One Chinese-speaking student pointed out that some Chinese
characters were not the traditional Chinese that people in Taiwan use but the simplified
Chinese that people in Mainland China use. Since the 20 Chinese participants will be all
Taiwanese, the simplified Chinese characters were modified to the traditional Chinese
characters. Both Chinese-speaking students responded that the contents of the
questionnaire were clear and there was no grammatical mistake. Overall, the two Spanish
and the two Chinese speaking students responded in the questionnaire as the researcher
expected.

61
To analyze interview transcripts, Creswells (2003) procedures were used to
validate the findings. First, the questions of the interviews were carefully selected to
support the quantitative data. The questions contained the four aspects of anxiety
(cultural, linguistic, psychological, and pedagogical) to build a coherent justification for
themes. Second, any biases brought to the study were discussed and clarified. Creswell
(2003) stated that this self-reflection creates an open and honest narrative that will
resonate well with readers. For example, an unconscious bias may have been created
when interviewing students from two different cultures by leading them to respond in a
way that satisfies the researcher's hypothesis that cultural difference would affect
students second language anxiety. When that occurred, it had been clarified. Finally, a
pilot study was used to indicate validity of the interview questions. The same students ,
two Spanish-speaking students from Hydrangea High School and the two Chinesespeaking students from Pine High School participated in the pilot study. The interviews
were conducted after they finished the questionnaire. They were asked to answer the ten
interview questions. They verified that there was no mistake in the ten interview
questions. They answered each question and the results were satisfactory. Their parents
translated the conversation between the researcher and the students during the interviews.
Ethical Considerations
The study was reviewed and approved by the University of Southern California's
Institutional Review Board (IRB) before the research was conducted. Recruitment letters
were sent to the principals of the schools and approval from the principals was received

62
before participants were contacted. Upon approval, parental consent and student assent
forms were sent to all parents and students to sign before starting the research study. Any
information that was obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified
with students remained confidential. All audiotapes, field notes, and questionnaire will be
kept in a locked cabinet in a secured office in the principal investigator's home to prevent
access by unauthorized personnel. After three years, personal data and audiotapes will be
shredded and erased. The physical, psychological, social, and legal risks to the students
were minimal.
Conclusion
This section discussed the design of the study, research questions, sample and
population, and explained how the instruments for data collection would be constructed
and how the data would be analyzed. Both quantitative and qualitative research was
conducted in order to satisfy the studys reliability and gather personal and in-depth
information. Both research contained the questions on four key aspects of anxiety
(cultural, linguistic, psychological, and pedagogical factors) and language learning
anxiety features (speaking, listening, reading, and writing). Two separate high schools
were selected with beginning Spanish-speaking and Chinese-speaking ELs to study the
relationships between cultural differences and second language anxiety.

63
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
This study sought to investigate the relationship between the cultural backgrounds
of EL students and their second language anxiety. This research was an attempt to get
inside the lived experiences of second language learners from different cultural
backgrounds to try and understand how, why and in what ways they experience anxiety
when learning English as a second language.
The quantitative data was collected from 20 Spanish-speaking and 20 Chinesespeaking students in the two different beginning EL classes through questionnaires. The
means, standard deviations, sample ns of four key anxiety factors (cultural,
psychological, pedagogical, and linguistic) were calculated and descriptive statistics
computations were applied to the results. In order to provide personal and in-depth
information to further explore the findings from the quantitative research and examine the
three research questions in depth, interviews were administered to nine Spanish-speaking
and nine Chinese-speaking students in beginning English classes whose overall anxiety
levels were high, medium, and low.
The quantitative and qualitative research data gathered was analyzed in order to
determine: What are the factors associated with second language anxiety for Spanish and
Chinese speaking English learners?
Sub-research questions that further guided this study included:
1. What are the salient features of second language anxiety?
2. What do English learners attribute to feelings of anxiety in classrooms?

64
Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1 (H1): Cultural Anxiety Factors are the most anxiety causing factors for
Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students.
Hypothesis 2 (H2): Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students feel the most
anxiety when listening and speaking in English.
Hypothesis 3 (H3): Spanish speaking ELs feel the most anxiety when working
independently in classroom settings.
Hypothesis 4 (H4): Chinese speaking ELs feel the most anxiety when working in
cooperative groups in classrooms settings.
This chapter presents the quantitative and qualitative findings of anxiety factors
and salient features of second language anxiety. The four key anxiety factors (cultural,
linguistic, psychological, and pedagogical) will be presented along with four additional
salient language learning anxiety features (speaking, listening, reading, and writing).
Factors Associated with Second Language Anxiety for Spanish and Chinese Speaking
English Learners
The purpose of this study was to identify in what extent Spanish and Chinese
speaking EL high school students feel anxiety in culturally, linguistically,
psychologically, and pedagogically related factors. The main intention of the analysis of
the four key anxiety factors was categorized as follows:
1. Cultural Anxiety Factors The extent of cultural difference between the two
cultures determines the level of anxiety experienced by Spanish and Chinese
speaking EL high school students.
2. Linguistic Anxiety Factors The extent of language difference between the two
cultures determines the level of anxiety experienced by Spanish and Chinese
speaking EL high school students.

65
3. Psychological Anxiety Factors The extent of the difference in personality and
self-confidence level determines the level of anxiety experienced by Spanish and
Chinese speaking EL high school students.
4. Pedagogical Anxiety Factors The extent of difference in learning style in the
classroom between the two cultures determines the level of anxiety experienced
by Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students.
Cultural Anxiety Factors
The category of cultural anxiety factors is based on Thompson's (2000) theory that
cultural knowledge and second language knowledge interact to make communication
successful or unsuccessful. If a second language learner's cultural life experience bears
little relationship with their previous cultural experience, they are likely to have great
difficulty understanding others even if they have a good understanding of the words
which are being spoken. Items 25, 26, 29, 39, and 40 from the questionnaire were
categorized as the cultural anxiety factors. Table 4.1 shows the results from the
questionnaire of cultural anxiety factors for Spanish-speaking students.
Table 4.1: Cultural Anxiety Factors for Spanish-Speaking Students
Cultural Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

_____________________________________________________________
25. Looking into the eyes
when speaking English

3.33

1.39

26. Native English speakers

speak and act differently.

4.26

0.13

29. American lifestyle is different.

4.79

0.08

N=5

66
Table 4.1: Continued
Cultural Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

N=5

_____________________________________________________________
39. I have to know much about English
language and American culture.

4.12

1.73

40. American culture and ideas are

foreign to me.

4.87

0.13

American culture and ideas were rated the highest mean, 4.87 (0.13). American
lifestyle was the next highest mean, 4.79 (0.08). The results from the questionnaire
indicated that Spanish-speaking students felt high anxiety in cultural difference in the two
cultures. However, the results from the interviews contradicted the results from the
questionnaire. In the interviews, six out of nine Spanish-speaking students answered that
they do not feel anxious about the difference in the two cultures. They feel comfortable
living in the United States because the life is better even though they still miss their
country for their relatives, friends, food, and the language.
Student1 and 2 mentioned in the interviews how they feel about living in a different
country:
Student 1: I don't have difficulties in living here. Many things
are different. I miss my friends and relatives in my country. I miss
speaking Spanish and I miss food in my country. But I like living
here because the life is better off here than my country. The
lifestyle in America is very different from that of my country but
it doesn't bother me.
Student 2: I experienced that living in this country is very different from
living in my country, but the life is better here because America is
more free.

67
The results from the interviews indicated that Spanish-speaking EL high school
students feel the life style of America and that of their country are very different
(Thompson, 2000) but they do not feel anxious about it because American life is better
than the life in their country. This finding indicated that students' cultural anxiety level
stays low if they feel comfortable about living in the new culture even though their
cultures are different. This contradicted Thompson's conclusion that students feel anxiety
if a second language learners cultural life experience bears little relationship with their
previous cultural experiences. Why they differ can be interpreted that the recognition and
hope that their and their family's life will be better in the United States make Spanishspeaking students enjoy the process adjusting to a new culture even though they feel
anxious about the difference between the two cultures.
The cultural anxiety factors resulting from the questionnaire for Chinese-speaking
students are presented in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Cultural Anxiety Factors for Chinese-Speaking Students
Cultural Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

_______________________________________________________
25. Looking into the eyes
when speaking English

4.58

0.02

26. Native English speakers

speak and act differently.

4.35

0.01

29. American lifestyle is different.

4.86

0.17

N=5

68
Table 4.2: Continued
Cultural Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

N=5

_______________________________________________________
39. I have to know much about English
language and American culture.

4.89

0.20

40. American culture and ideas are

foreign to me.

3.56

0.79

Chinese-speaking students answered they feel overwhelmed because they have to

know a great deal of English and American culture in order to get along with native
English speakers. The mean was rated highest, 4.89 (0.20). American lifestyle was the
next highest mean, 4.86 (0.17). Chinese-speaking students feel most anxious about their
lack of knowledge about English language and culture. The results supported the
literature that students feel anxiety when the life style of a new culture and that of their
country are different (Thompson, 2000).
The results from the interviews supported the questionnaire. Seven out of nine Chinesespeaking students felt anxious about living in the United States because the culture is
very different from their culture and everything in the new culture is new to them. This
can be interpreted that they are in the honeymoon stage of culture shock, that is they feel
everything is new and they have not decided whether they like or dislike life here. Six out
of nine Chinese-speaking students responded that they miss their country because they
think the life style in their country is better than the life style in the United States.

69
One student complained about her parents' bringing her to this country.
I did not want to come here but I had no choice. My parents brought me here
without asking my opinion. I had to leave my best friend and now I have no
friends here. I miss my friends and really want to go home.
From the interviews, there were some students who mentioned that they live in this
country alone. Their parents brought them here and left for their country. The parents of
one student bought a house for the child and the parents went back to their country
because of their jobs. Other students live in boarding houses.
I live by myself in a big house. My parents left me here alone
because they have to work. I learned how to cook and clean the
house. My parents send me money so I don't have to worry about it.
I feel uncomfortable living here. It is boring living alone because I
cannot go anywhere because I cannot drive yet.
This kind of kids is called a typical Parachute Kid (Hamilton, 1993). Parachute
kids are children who were sent to a new country to live alone or with a caregiver while
their parents remain in their home country. There used to be about 40,000 Taiwanese
parachute kids whose ages are from 8 to 18 in the United States. However, the number
of the parachute kids has decreased since the visa status has become more strict after
2001. The parents who are mostly from Taiwan send their children to the United States to
benefit from the U.S. school systems (Hamilton, 1993). Many are teenagers who left
behind academic competition in Taiwan, where performance on entrance exams
determines placement in the best high schools and universities (Lee, 1999).
Parachute kids usually stay in the United States with a student visa until they graduate
from a prestigious university in order to succeed when they go back to their country.

70
After they become fluent in English with a college degree, they are finally allowed to go
back to their country to their parents. These students are very lonely and miss their
family. There are significant differences in cultural anxiety levels between Chinesespeaking students whose parents live here with them and the students who live here
alone. Chinese-speaking students living with the parents answered both in the
questionnaire and the interviews that they feel comfortable living in the United States
even though they miss their country. Whereas students living by themselves answered
they do not feel comfortable living here alone and they want to go home. This study
found that not only cultural differences but also environmental differences play a
significant role to increase cultural anxiety.
Students who live with the parents feel secure even though they feel anxious about
cultural difference. They can get parental support when they have a problem. On the
contrary, parachute kids have no one to ask for help when they feel anxiety. Loneliness
and insecurity make them feel more anxious about dealing with cultural differences and
living the United States.
Direct eye contact was the next highest mean, 4.58 (0.02) in the questionnaire of
cultural anxiety factor for Chinese-speaking students. In the interviews, seven out of nine
students answered that they feel uncomfortable making direct eye contact when they talk.
This result provided evidence of the conclusion by Umeda (1998) that Asian students feel
uncomfortable looking directly into the eyes of the other when they talk and they are told
not to do so by their parents because it is considered impolite.

71
One Chinese-speaking student mentioned in the interviews:
I was told by my Mom that I should look into another's eyes when I talk in
America. But I learned from my Mom not to do so when I was in my country
because it is not polite. It is very difficult to do something I
have never done before and I believe it is not good to do.
In Asian countries, direct eye contact is considered aggressive behavior while
speaking with somebody (Umeda, 2000). Asian people value harmony and politeness
with others; therefore, they are told not to make eye contact. Therefore, Chinese-speaking
students find it very difficult to make direct eye contact even though they are told to do
so. The results indicated that Spanish-speaking EL high school students feel American
culture is very different from the culture of their country; however, they do not feel
anxious about the difference because American life is better than the life in their country.
Chinese-speaking students also think the two cultures are very different. But unlike
Spanish-speaking students, Chinese-speaking students showed high anxiety in living in
the United States because they think the life style in their country is better than the life
style in the United States and they miss their country. Avoiding direct eye contact is one
of the main cultural anxiety factors for Chinese-speaking students. The results provided
evidence that living standard is the main cultural anxiety factors for Spanish-speaking
students and and cultural value is the main anxiety factors for Chinese-speaking students.
Linguistic Anxiety Factors
The category of the linguistic anxiety factors is based on Aida's theory that the
difficulty of learning language depends on how different the new language is from the
language that the learner already knows (Aida, 2000). It is also based on Krashen's

72
literature that English learners carry with them insecurity and anxiety because of their
low level of English language proficiency (Krashen, 1985).
Table 4.3 shows the means of Spanish-speaking students' linguistic anxiety factors
from the questionnaire results. Item 10, 16, 31, and 35 were categorized as the linguistic
anxiety factors.
Table 4.3: Linguistic Anxiety Factors for Spanish-Speaking Students
Linguistic Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

N=5

______________________________________________________________
10. The number of grammar rules

3.46

0.56

16. I can't pronounce English words.

4.38

0.40

31. English and my language are

different.

4.11

0.01

35. Many English words are

foreign to me.

4.89

0.46

Spanish-speaking students illustrated highest mean, 4.89 (0.46) that many English
words are foreign to them. However, only three out of nine Spanish-speaking students
agreed in the interviews that there are many English words and grammar that are different
from their language. This can be interpreted that the Spanish-speaking students think
their language is similar to English even though there are many English words that are
new to them. In the interviews, eight out of nine Spanish-speaking students answered
they think English is similar to Spanish and that helps their English learning.

73
A Spanish-speaking student supported that:
Yes. I think Spanish and English are similar. I think it helps
learning English.
The results supported Aida's conclusion that the difficulty of learning language
depends on how different the new language is from the language that the learner already
knows (2000).
Table 4.4 shows the means and standard deviations of Chinese-speaking students
linguistic anxiety factors resulting from the questionnaire.
Table 4.4: Linguistic Anxiety Factors for Chinese-Speaking Students
Linguistic Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

N=5

___________________________________________________________
10. The number of grammar rules

2.65

2.77

16. I can't pronounce English words.

4.98

0.44

31. English and my language are

different.

4.87

0.31

35. Many English words are

foreign to me.

4.76

0.20

Chinese-speaking students showed the highest mean, 4.98 (0.44) that they cannot
pronounce English words. The next highest anxiety, 4.87 (0.31) was that they think
English and Chinese are different. All nine Chinese-speaking students responded in the
interviews that Chinese and English words are completely different and they have
difficulty in pronouncing English words. They feel English and Chinese are completely
different and the knowledge of their first language (L1) affects their learning English(L2)
negatively. This study supported Krashen's (1997) affective filter theory. When the filter

74
is turned on, the learner blocks out input due to anxiety, self-consciousness, low self
esteem, or low motivation. In the interviews, students expressed their frustrations to
support the anxiety on the difference of the languages:
Student 1: English and Chinese are very different. I have to think a
sentence in Chinese first and change a whole thing in English. It
takes time. I do not like it.
Student 2: Chinese is very different from English. I often make English
sentences with Chinese grammar structure and nobody
understands.
Based on the findings, Chinese-speaking students demonstrated high linguistic
anxiety because they feel their language is very different from English. Spanish-speaking
students also showed high anxiety in the questionnaire that they think many English
words are foreign to them. However, Spanish-speaking students responded in the
interviews that their language is similar to English and that helps their English learning.
Both groups had the lowest means with grammar rules. This finding suggests that
Spanish-speaking students feel less anxious about grammar rules because they think
Spanish and English grammar rules are similar. On the contrary, Chinese-speaking
students responded in the interviews that Chinese and English grammar rules are very
different; however, they demonstrated the lowest means which suggest that Chinesespeaking students feel less anxious about grammar rules because they learned English
grammar in their country when they were middle school students. English education in
Chinese-speaking countries is focused on learning grammar rules, reading, and writing
(Xiao, 2000).

75
Psychological Anxiety Factors
The category of psychological anxiety factors is based on Krashen's theory that the
affective filter tends to block out input due to anxiety, self-consciousness, a low selfesteem, or low motivation (Krashen, 1997). It is also based on Gardener and MacIntyre's
theory that second language anxiety can have a negative effect on the language learning
process. Anxious students have more difficulty expressing themselves and tend to
underestimate their level of ability compared with more relaxed students (Gardeners &
MacIntyre, 1991). The mean of overall anxiety level of Spanish-speaking students in the
5 point scale survey questions was 3.84. Table 4.5 shows the means and standard
deviations of Spanish-speaking students' psychological anxiety factors. Items 1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 23, 27, 33, and 38 were categorized as the psychological anxiety
factors.
Table 4.5: Psychological Anxiety Factors for Spanish-Speaking Students
Psychological Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

___________________________________________________________
1. To be called on in my English class.

2.35

0.53

2. I don't understand what the teacher

is saying in English.

2.84

0.06

3. I think about things that have nothing

to do with the English course.

3.22

0.02

4. Other students are better at speaking

English than I am.

3.56

0.23

6. To speak English without preparation

in class.

4.23

1.33

N=5

76
Table 4.5: Continued
Psychological Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

N=5

___________________________________________________________
8. To volunteer answers in class.

2.52

0.31

11. The other students will laugh at me

when I speak English.

3.16

0.01

12. I don't feel relaxed to go to my

English class.

1.89

1.41

13. I forget things I know in class.

2.56

0.27

15. I see a whole page of English

in front of me.

2.21

2.37

23. Too many students in class.

2.59

0.24

27. Raising my hands in class.

4.21

0.15

33. To speak English with native speakers.

4.57

0.29

38. I get nervous even if I am prepared

for my English class.

2.68

0.16

The Table 4.5 showed that speaking English with native speakers was rated highest
mean of 4.57 (0.29). Speaking English without preparation in class was the next highest
mean of 4.23 (1.33). Students feel nervous speaking English with native speakers because
they cannot understand what they are saying. They agreed strongly that they become
overwhelmed because native speakers speak and act very differently.
The responses from the interviews supported the results from the questionnaire:
Student 1: I get nervous when I talk to native English speakers. I know I have
a strong accent and I get embarrassed.

77
Student 2: Teachers and students speak English very fast.
I don't understand what they are saying.
Student 3: If I can speak better English, I think I will be able to communicate
with native speakers well. I want to mimic what native speakers say
and act because I think they look cool, but I am embarrassed to do
so.
Many students selected disagree on the questionnaire that they don't feel relaxed
when going to their English class. The mean was rated lowest (M=1.89). They also
disagreed that they get embarrassed to volunteer answers in their English class (M=2.52).
This finding can be interpreted that Spanish-speaking students get nervous speaking in
English; however, they do not get intimidated by learning English or expressing
themselves by volunteering in classrooms.
Table 4.6 shows the frequency of Chinese-speaking students linguistic anxiety
factors resulting from the questionnaire.
Table 4.6: Psychological Anxiety Factors for Chinese-Speaking Students
Psychological Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

___________________________________________________________
1. To be called on in my English class.

4.23

0.07

2. I don't understand what the teacher is saying. 4.52

0.31

3. I think about things that have nothing

to do with the English course.

4.26

0.09

4. Other students are better at speaking

English than I am.

3.22

0.55

6. To speak English without preparation

in class.

4.87

0.82

8. To volunteer answers in class.

4.91

0.90

N=5

78
Table 4.6: Continued
Psychological Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

N=5

__________________________________________________________
11. The other students will laugh at me
when I speak English.

4.55

0.34

12. I don't feel relaxed to go to my

English class.

3.26

0.49

13. I forget things I know in class.

3.69

0.07

15. I see a whole page of English

in front of me.

3.17

0.63

23. Too many students in class.

4.46

0.25

27. Raising my hands in class.

4.26

0.09

33. To speak English with native speakers.

3.69

0.07

38. I get nervous even if I am prepared

for my English class.

2.12

3.40

Unlike Spanish-speaking students, Chinese-speaking students showed highest

anxiety (M=4.91) in volunteering answers in class. The next highest anxiety (M=4.87)
was that students are afraid of speaking English when they are not prepared. The results
support Thompson's (2000) conclusion that the perfectionism inhibits Chinese-speaking
students from using English because of the awareness that his or her speech is far from
perfect. In the interviews, Chinese-speaking students responded that they feel anxious
about speaking with native speakers:

79
Student 1: I don't talk to native speakers. I am afraid of being laughed at by them.
Student 2: Native speakers speak and act very actively. They speak very fast
and I often lose what they say. Teachers speak very fast. I have no
idea what they are saying in class. It is very frustrating to just sit in
class not knowing what is going on. I wish somebody will translate
for me.
Student 3: I don't want native speakers to know I speak weird English. I don't talk
to them much.
One significant difference between Spanish-speaking and Chinese-speaking
students resulting from the interviews was that Spanish-speaking students let others know
when they feel anxiety whereas Chinese-speaking students are afraid of letting others
know when they have problems. In the interviews, seven out of nine Spanish-speaking
students answered they don't pretend that they are OK when they are not. In other
words, Spanish-speaking students are not afraid of telling friends or teachers that they
feel anxiety. They feel comfortable asking for help. They appreciate sharing problems
with others and work together to solve the problems. This finding supported the literature
by Losey (1997) that Spanish-speaking students are accustomed to a cooperative
classrooms structure because classrooms in their country have a familial relationship
between students and teacher (Losey, 1997).
One Spanish speaking student responded that she feels comfortable asking for help:
I don't act like I am OK. When I don't understand, I will say so. I
usually ask for help to my friends.
Chinese-speaking students, on the other hand, showed the opposite reaction toward
expressing themselves. In the interviews, all nine students answered that they try to hide
their anxiety. Chinese-speaking students feel that she hides when she feels anxiety:

80
Student 1: I dont ask for help because I don't want others to think they are
better than I. I dont want my friends think that I am not OK.
Student 2: I usually smile to hide my anxiety because I want everybody to
think that I am OK and have no problem.
The results supported Horwitz' (2001) conclusion that students with second
language anxiety feel they are presenting a less positive, intelligent, and sensitive version
of themselves to the world when they speak English. Spanish-speaking students feel
psychological anxiety in speaking with native speakers because they do not understand
what they are saying; however, they are not afraid of asking for help to their teachers or
friends when they do not understand. Chinese-speaking students feel high psychological
anxiety in speaking English with preparation. A different finding from Spanish-speaking
students was that Chinese-speaking students try to act OK even though they feel
anxious about not understanding English. They think that showing they are not OK is
an embarrassing thing and their perfectionism does not allow them to ask for help.
Pedagogical Anxiety Factors
The fourth category of pedagogical anxiety factors is based on Horwitz' classroom
anxiety (1989). Students who experience anxiety in the classroom often imagine danger
where it does not exist and they do not have an effective action to cope with their anxiety
(Burden, 2004). Burden states when students engage in communicative behaviors that are
negative, second language anxiety may become a regular occurrence and the students
become nervous and perform poorly. The Horwitz' Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety
Scale (FLCAS) was used in the questionnaire to analyze potential sources of anxiety in

81
an English classroom. The FLCAS integrates three related anxieties, communication
apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation (Worde, 2003).
Table 4.7 shows the rate of pedagogical anxiety factors for Spanish-speaking
students. Items 5, 7, 9, 14, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28, 30, 32, 34, 36 and 37 were
categorized as pedagogical anxiety factors.
Table 4.7: Pedagogical Anxiety Factors for Spanish-Speaking Students
Pedagogical Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

__________________________________________________________
5. Test taking is better than speaking.

2.07

1.50

7. To fail the English class.

4.12

0.68

9. To get left behind.

2.36

0.88

14. I am not sure if I understand what I am

reading.

4.16

0.75

17. To learn to read is the hardest.

3.55

0.06

18. To read out loud without preparation.

2.14

1.34

19. English composition

2.68

0.38

20. To organize ideas in writing an English

composition.

4.25

0.91

21. To write essays to be evaluated.

2.13

1.36

22. To speak English is better than reading.

2.66

0.40

24. I am not sure what the author is saying

when reading English.

4.68

1.92

28. Speaking and listening are more

difficult than writing.

4.58

1.65

N=5

82
Table 4.7: Continued
Pedagogical Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

N=5

__________________________________________________________
30. American teachers are less friendly.

3.54

0.06

32. Group work is easier than individual

work.

4.77

2.17

34. Group activities

2.13

1.36

36. American teachers ask more questions

than the teachers in my country.

3.74

0.20

37. To give my opinions in a group discussion.

2.47

0.68

The highest rated mean, 4.77 (2.17) was that group work is easier than individual
work. Spanish-speaking students feel relaxed in group work. The result supported
Delgado-Gaitan's (1992) conclusion that EL students feel comfortable in a cooperative
learning classroom. This suggests that Spanish-speaking students feel more comfortable
with group work because they can ask their classmates for help. They feel more relaxed
and productive working together in group to solve problems. The interviews also
supported the results from the questionnaire:
Student 1: I like to go to my English class because that is the only class where
I can work with my friends who speak Spanish.
Student 2: I like group work because my friends can help me in Spanish if I
don't understand what the teacher is saying.
Student 3: I like when the teacher says to work in groups. I can ask my friends
if I don't understand and I relax and learn more when I study with
my friends. Lecture is boring.

83
Table 4.8 shows the means and standard deviations of pedagogical anxiety factors
for Chinese-speaking students.
Table 4.8: Pedagogical Anxiety Factors for Chinese-Speaking Students
Pedagogical Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

_________________________________________________________
5. Test taking is better than speaking.

4.22

0.02

7. To fail the English class.

4.68

0.09

9. To get left behind.

3.21

1.36

14. I am not sure if I understand what I am

reading.

2.63

1.78

17. To learn to read is the hardest.

when I speak English.

2.11

3.43

18. To read out loud without preparation.

3.54

0.18

19. English composition

English class.

2.76

1.45

20. To organize ideas in writing an English

composition.

3.25

0.51

21. To write essays to be evaluated.

4.87

0.82

22. To speak English is better than reading.

3.22

0.55

24. I am not sure what the author is saying

when reading English.

2.46

2.26

28. Speaking and listening are more

difficult than writing.

4.44

0.09

N=5

84
Table 4.8: Continued
Pedagogical Anxiety Factors

Means

SD

N=5

_________________________________________________________
30. American teachers are less friendly.

2.14

2.50

32. Group work is easier than individual

work.

2.11

3.43

34. Group activities

4.78

0.67

36. American teachers ask more questions

than the teachers in my country.

4.29

0.68

37. To give my opinions in a group discussion. 4.68

0.51

The highest rated anxiety was to write essays to be evaluated (M=4.87). Failing
the English class is another high anxiety among Chinese-speaking students (M=4.68).
These two results supports Xiao's (2000) conclusion that the education in Chinesespeaking countries is very competitive and students study and compete at school in order
to pass the college entrance examination. Students were told by the teachers and parents
that they must pass the examination in order to have a successful life and they have to
pass no matter what it takes. Failure is not acceptable. Therefore, it can be interpreted that
Chinese-speaking students showed highest anxiety when their essays are evaluated
because they are afraid of failing the class. In the interviews, students demonstrated their
anxiety in failing the class:
Student 1: I can't get bad grades because my parents expect me to get only
good grades. I can't fail because they will be very upset. I have to
make them happy.

85
Student 2: I don't want my classmates think I am stupid. That's why I can't get
bad grades. I can't fail any classes.
Student 3: I am afraid of taking tests. I get nervous speaking, writing, and
reading English whenever I know it will be evaluated. If I fail the
tests, I won't be able to go to college.
The next two highest anxiety items were group activities (M=4.78) and to give my
opinions in a group discussion (M=4.68). Chinese-speaking students answered that they
feel uncomfortable giving their opinions in a group discussion. The findings from the
interviews supported the results:
Student 1: I get nervous when I have to work in groups. I don't know how to ask
questions and I am not good at joining discussions. I am very used to
the lecture type of classes that only the teacher speaks and students
take notes. I never had group activities when I was in my country.
Student 2: I learn more when the teacher lectures. I can concentrate more. In a
group work, students start chatting and I can't learn at all. There is a
student who usually teach the students who don't understand but I am
not sure if the student is teaching correctly. I want to learn directly
from the teacher. I think group work is a waste of time.
Student 3: I don't like group work. I don't learn much with students. I like when
the teacher lectures and we take notes. I can concentrate more.
Student 4: I like individual work. I want to learn quietly. In group work, students
usually just chat and do nothing.
Student 5: I am used to individual work. I don't know how to work with other
students and I feel uncomfortable to share my work with them.
The results showed that Spanish-speaking students feel comfortable working in
group whereas Chinese-speaking students feel comfortable working individually. These
findings supported Delgado-Gaitan's (1992) conclusion that Spanish-speaking students
feel comfortable in a cooperative learning classroom and Xiao's (2000) conclusion that

86
Chinese-speaking students prefer teacher-centered classroom where students work
individually.
Hypothesis 1 (H1): Cultural Anxiety Factors are the most anxiety causing factors for
Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students.
The mean ratings of each four key anxiety factor from the questionnaire for Spanish
and Chinese speaking EL high school student are illustrated in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Frequency of The Means of Four Anxiety Factors for Spanish and Chinese
Speaking Students

5.0
4.5
4.0

Means

3.5
3.0
2.5

Spanish-Speaking
Students

2.0

Chinese-Speaking
Students

1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Cultural

Linguistic

Psychological

Pedagogical

Four Key Anxiety Factors

The graph supported Hypothesis #1(H1) that both Spanish-speaking and

Chinese-speaking students feel highest anxiety with Cultural factors. While Chinesespeaking students showed their anxiety with cultural difference especially the
difference in cultural value both in the questionnaire and the interviews, Spanish-

87
speaking students responded in the interviews that they do not feel anxious about
cultural difference. They think American culture and lifestyle are better than those of
their country even though they are very different. Spanish-speaking students
demonstrated the least anxiety with Linguistic factors. This result can be interpreted
that the language similarities between English and Spanish make Spanish-speaking
students feel less anxiety in English classrooms. Spanish-speaking students agreed that
there are many English words that are similar to their language and that helps when
they learn English. However, they feel anxious when they have to read out loud in class
because there are differences in pronunciation between Spanish and English. Chinesespeaking students also feel nervous in front of native speakers because they speak and
act very differently. Unlike Spanish-speaking students, Chinese-speaking students
think their language and English are very different. They think if English and their
language were more similar, they would be more proficient in English.
The least anxiety factor for Chinese-speaking students was Pedagogical factor.
However, the interviews contradicted this result. All nine students responded that they
feel anxiety in the ELS class because they are afraid of group work and discussion.
They were also anxious about being behind or failing the class because they do not
understand English. The results of the questionnaire and interviews on pedagogical
anxiety factors exemplified that Spanish-speaking prefer to work in groups and
Chinese-speaking students prefer to work individually. Chinese-speaking students
demonstrated high anxiety in fear of failure.

88
They get frightened when they do not understand what the teacher is saying in English
and they worry about the consequences of failing their English class. They also showed
perfectionism that they start panicking when they have to speak or take a test without
preparation. Chinese-speaking students feel more relaxed during individual work and
feel uncomfortable giving their opinions in a group discussion whereas Spanishspeaking students prefer to work in group. This finding supports Shoebottom's
statement (2001) mentioned inChapter one that Spanish-speaking students feel
comfortable working with other peers in groups. It also supports the conclusion of
Delgado-Gaitan (1992), Engelbrecht (1983), and Losey (1997) that Mexican students
are more accustomed to a cooperative classroom structure because classrooms in
Mexico have a familial relationship between students and teacher. Whereas, Chinesespeaking students are accustomed to a teacher-centered educational system. In a
teacher-centered educational system, instructors control the class and students often are
passive receivers (Weimer, 2002). For example, many Chinese, Korean, and Japanese
students who are from very competitive educational systems feel more comfortable
studying in a teacher-centered classroom and doing individual work rather than
studying in a learner-centered classroom and doing group work (Umeda, 1998).
Classroom Anxiety
Classroom anxiety occurs when anxious students feel uncomfortable due to varied
factors and learning experience in the classroom. If the experiences are negative, second
language anxiety begins to develop and students begin to routinely expect to be nervous
and perform poorly (Burden, 2004). MacIntyer and Gardner (1991) conclude that anxious

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students who perceive the second language anxiety in an uncomfortable experience tend
to withdraw from voluntary participation to avoid making mistakes and confront
uncertain or novel linguistic forms.
In the interviews, Spanish-speaking students noted the difficulty with raising
hands, presentations, speaking English, exams, writing English, oral class participation,
teacher-centered classroom, and reading aloud in class. Chinese-speaking students
responded that participation in class, making mistakes, failing class, exams, speaking
English, raising hands, communication, group activities, and writing English were the
classroom anxiety factors.
What are the salient features of second language anxiety?
Hypothesis 2 (H2): Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students feel the most
anxiety when listening and speaking in English.
Kempf indicated that the main classroom anxiety factors to make students anxious
in their English classes are reading, speaking, listening, and writing anxieties (1995). In
this section, Spanish and Chinese speaking students second anxiety caused by reading,
speaking, learning, and writing was analyzed based on the results from the questionnaire
and interviews. In the interviews, students were asked to rank the easiest to the most
difficult of the four learning features, speaking, listening, reading, or writing.
Listening and speaking were combined because the FLCAS questionnaire used speaking
and listening together as a set of learning. Results from both the questionnaire and
interviews exemplified that speaking/listening is the most difficult feature in classroom
settings. Students responded in the interviews that they get scared when they have to

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speak/listen in class. Students responded in the interviews that they get scared when they
have to speak/listen in class:
Student 1: I don't want nobody know I can't speak or listen English well.
Student 2: I don't like speaking English in class because my pronunciation
is very bad.
Student 3: I hope teacher never call on me. I always look down so teacher
not see me.
Student 4: Pronunciation is very different between Spanish and English.
For example, the word 'name' you don't pronounce 'e' in
English.'na' is not N-a- but N-e-i. Speaking and listening English
are very difficult.
Student 5: Writing and reading are easier than speaking or listening.
I can understand what it says in the book but I don't understand
what native speakers are saying.
Seven out of nine students answered in the interviews that they feel anxious about
speaking and listening English but they like to learn. It is interpreted that Spanishspeaking students still have problems and feel anxious in speaking and listening English
but they like to improve their speaking skills. Students answered in the interviews:
Student 1: I like to learn how to speak English. I want to say what I want to
say in English.
Student 2: I can't understand what my teacher is saying in English. I want to
learn speaking and listening so I can communicate with native
speakers.
Spanish-speaking students showed high anxiety in reading comprehension
(M=4.68) and reading in front of the class (M=4.14); however, they demonstrated reading
as the easiest in the interviews.

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Spanish-speaking students mentioned that:
Student 1: I like to read better than speaking. I can read well.
Student 2: I don't get nervous when I read in class because I can read
slowly.
Spanish-speaking students demonstrated low anxiety in writing essays (M=2.11) in
the questionnaire. During the interviews, students exemplified high anxiety in writing and
low anxiety in writing.
A high anxious Spanish-speaking student stated:
I don't like writing class. I know what I want to write but I don't know how
to organize my thinking in writing.
It is interpreted from the finding that Spanish-speaking students felt that reading
and writing were easier than speaking and listening because they can take the extra time
and decision making that can take place when reading and writing. They are not forced to
process and respond in English immediately as they would in listening and speaking.
They can take their time to think about it.
In the same way, Chinese-speaking students were asked to rank the easiest to the
most difficult of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Results from the interviews
and questionnaire showed that speaking/listening is the most difficult feature in the
classroom settings for Chinese-speaking students. The students responded that
speaking/listening is the most difficult and reading is the easiest both in the interviews
and in the questionnaire.

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Chinese-speaking students shared:
Student 1: Speaking is the most difficult. I get nervous when I speak
because I have to speak fast in order for native speakers to
understand me.
Student 2: I think speaking and listening are the most difficult ones and
reading is the easiest. Reading does not require creativity.
Student 3: I like writing and reading but don't like speaking and listening.
We all learned only English writing and reading in our country
so we are used to it. We never learned English speaking or
listening. English teachers who are Chinese can't speak English.
One time we met an American on our field trip and we asked
our English teacher to speak with him but the teacher ran away.
I think it is very strange that English teachers can't speak
English and just know how to teach English writing and
reading.
Student 4: I feel native speakers speak very fast and it is difficult to get
along with them. Writing is easier because I can write and think
slowly.
Four other students agreed with these answers. Chinese-speaking students feel the
least anxiety in reading. The students responded in the questionnaire that they think the
easiest part of learning English is to read (M=2.77). Chinese-speaking students scored
fairly high anxiety in writing English in the questionnaire. Chinese-speaking students
were afraid of writing essays in English when they know they will be evaluated
(M=4.87). They illustrated anxiety when they face a pass or fail situation as taking exams
or when their work will be evaluated. In the interviews, One student responded:
I like writing better than speaking because I can take my time
organizing what I really want to say so I can express my real feelings. In
speaking, I have to make an English sentence in my head and then
speak. I don't know many words so it takes time. I get nervous and can't
say what I want to say. It doesn't feel good that people wait for me to
finish a sentence.

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The following helps explaining why Chinese-speaking students felt that reading
and writing were easier than speaking and listening:
1. They can take their time to think about it when reading and writing as Spanishspeaking students responded.
2. Chinese-speaking students are afraid of being laughed at by their classmates when
speaking. They are sensitive about how others think about them.
3. Chinese-speaking students learned English writing and reading in their country.
The results supported the hypothesis that Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school
students feel the most anxiety when speaking/listening in English. The results also
supported the literature that EL students produce high levels of anxiety in speaking and
listening (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993). While Spanish-speaking students concern more
about their performance, Chinese-speaking students seem to worry about what other
students think about their performance. In other words, Spanish-speaking students feel
anxious when their own performance is not sufficient whereas Chinese-speaking students
feel anxious when others perform better than they. This finding reflects their cultural
influences that Spanish-speaking students lay stress on their own performance not others'
whereas Chinese-speaking students concern about others' performance if other students
are better.
The Figure 4.2 indicates the frequency of the means of Speaking/Listening, Reading, and
Writing for Spanish and Chinese speaking students.

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Figure 4.2: Frequency of The Means of Learning Anxiety Features for Spanish and
Chinese-Speaking Students
5.0
4.5
4.0

Means

3.5
3.0
2.5

Spanish-Speaking
Students
Chinese-Speaking
Students

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
S/L

Learning Anxiety Features

S/L: Speaking/Listening R: Reading W: Writing

What do English Learners Attribute to Feelings of Anxiety in Classrooms?

Classroom Participations
Chinese-speaking answered in the questionnaires that they feel embarrassed
participating orally in class (M=4.88). In the interviews, eight out of nine Chinesespeaking students feel participation in class makes them anxious. Whereas Spanishspeaking students feel less embarrassed to participate in class (M=3.06) and only three

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out of nine students answered they get nervous when they volunteer in classroom.
Spanish-speaking students answered in the interviews that:
Student 1: I don't feel embarrassed to volunteer in classroom if I know the
answers.
Student 2: It does not bother me much to volunteer in classroom. I don't
mind making mistakes. I am a foreigner and it is normal to make
mistakes.
Student 3: I like to participate in class by volunteering. It is fun.
The finding from the questionnaires and the interviews for Spanish-speaking
students contradicted the conclusion of MacIntyer and Gardner (1991) that anxious
students tend to withdraw from voluntary participation to avoid making mistakes and
confront uncertain or novel linguistic forms. On the contrary, Chinese-speaking students
feel high anxiety in volunteering because they avoid making mistakes and confront
uncertain or novel linguistic forms:
Student 1: I get nervous in classroom thinking if the teacher will call on
me. I don't want to make any mistakes in front of the class so I
don't want to answer even though I know the answer.
Student 2: I am afraid of saying something funny in English. That' why I
don't like to volunteer. I am not good at saying something in
English in front of everybody. When I speak Chinese, I like to
participate because I know most of the answers.
Student 3: I usually look down so the teacher won't catch my eyes. I am
not used to say something in front of the class.
It is assumed that Chinese-speaking students have higher anxiety with failure than
Spanish-speaking students. It supports the finding that most Chinese-speaking
participants answered that they act 'OK' even though they feel anxiety whereas Spanish-

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speaking students are willing to ask for help when they feel anxiety. The perfectionism of
Chinese-speaking students makes them feel like a failure by disgracing themselves when
they make mistakes. In Chinese-speaking countries, education is focused on passing
college entrance examinations. Students are taught that passing the exams means success
of their school life. Therefore, Chinese-speaking students act 'OK' when they feel anxiety
so that their classmates will not find out they are afraid.
Teachers
Horwitz indicates that interpersonal dynamics between students and teachers affect
anxiety and motivation in second language acquisition (1989). The Worde's interview
revealed that American students had extremely negative experiences with the language
classes and the teachers. Many students complained that the teacher spoke too fast, or
refused to use any English at all which made it difficult to keep up during class. Xiao
indicated that Chinese students feel intimidated in classrooms because teachers are
authoritative and less personally involved with students (2000).
Two Chinese-speaking students responded in the interviews that they are currently
in the teacher's class who is very strict and not supportive. One student was sent to a
counselor because she did not bring her homework several times. The teacher reduced her
grade points without trying to ask her why she did not bring the homework. The student
expressed her frustration that she did not know that there was a homework assignment
because she did not understand what the teacher was saying:
The teacher doesn't understand my problem at all. If I had somebody
who helped me translate what the teacher said, I could have done all the
assignments.

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Another student has not said a word for almost a year in class. She is in the second
stage of culture shock. At this stage, students feel overwhelmed because there are so
many new and unfamiliar things around them. They are frustrated and depressed because
they cannot decipher unreadable social signals. At this stage students who are torn
between two cultures feel anxiety about losing their identity (Shoebottom, 2001). Her
teacher called on her during the class and sent her to a counselor because her
performance is poor. The student expressed her anger that it was too embarrassing to bear
that everybody was looking at her when the teacher told her to go to a counselor. She
closed her even more than before because she believes her classmates must think her as
an insane person:
I will never forget the day that the teacher called on me in front of
everybody to send me to a counselor. She could have just called me
privately instead of humiliating me in class.
These cases occur when teachers do not value the importance of the cultural differences.
Without this knowledge, teachers might inadvertently cause students second language
anxiety problems.
Besides these two cases, both Spanish and Chinese speaking students answered that
they like American teachers. Five out of nine Spanish-speaking students answered they
like both American teachers and teachers in their country and seven out of nine students
answered they like American teachers. Both Spanish-speaking and Chinese-speaking
students answered that American teachers are friendly, treat everybody equally, have a
sense of humor, and are easy to talk to. This study supported Palacios' finding that there

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are significant relationships in classroom environment variables, such as teacher support,
affiliation, and involvement (1998).
Fear of Failure
The interviews of Chinese-speaking students provided evidence that their fear of
failure and perfectionism prevent them from expressing their feelings of anxiety. A
student answered that she smiles to hide her anxiety. She described in the interview that
she had not said a word in her English class for almost one year. She was very scared in
class because she did not understand what teacher was saying in English. She was afraid
of the teacher finding out that she had anxiety so she tried to keep smiling in class. She
was afraid that her points would be reduced if the teacher found out she was not
comprehending the delivery of instruction in English. One Chinese-speaking student
described that she sometimes pretends everything is OK. She gets in panic when she
has not prepared or when she gets behind. However, she hides her anxiety because she
believes showing fear to others is what a loser does.
Chinese-speaking students showed high anxiety in fear of failure. They get
frightened when they don't understand what the teacher is saying in English and they
worry about the consequences of failing their English class. They also demonstrated
perfectionism that they start panicking when they have to speak or take a test without
preparation. The results show that Chinese-speaking students feel high anxiety in failing
their English class. This result correlates with the Chinese-speaking students' showing
much less anxiety when they are well prepared they feel less anxiety. Their perfectionism

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plays a greater role in anxiety and they feel less fear of failure in them when well
prepared. It also supports the previous conclusion by Gregersena and Horwitz (2002) that
the anxious students also tend to have fear of negative evaluation and concern over
errors.
Group vs Lecture
Hypotheses 3 and 4 sought to identify that Spanish and Chinese speaking students
prefer different learning styles in classroom settings. The researcher seeks in Hypothesis
3 if Spanish-speaking students prefer group work and they feel anxiety in independent
work in classroom settings. Hypothesis 4 is aimed for finding if Chinese-speaking
students prefer independent work and feel anxious about group work in classroom
settings.
The results from the questionnaire and interviews supported Hypotheses 3 and 4.
Spanish-speaking students responded that they prefer group work and Chinese-speaking
students responded that they prefer a teacher-centered lecture type class. As mentioned in
Pedagogical Anxiety Factors earlier in this chapter, the highest rated mean for Spanishspeaking students was that group work is easier than individual work (M=4.77). Spanishspeaking students feel relaxed in group setting. The result supported Delgado-Gaitan's
(1992) and Shoebottom's (2001)conclusions that EL students feel comfortable in a
cooperative learning classroom. Spanish-speaking students prefer to work with their
classmates because they can help one another. Unlike Chinese-speaking students,
Spanish-speaking students are not competitive when learning. The finding supported that

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Spanish-speaking students believe they can learn better when they are relaxed by
communicating and helping each other.
Working in group was the second highest anxiety in the questionnaire for Chinesespeaking students (M=4.68). Chinese-speaking students answered that they feel
uncomfortable giving their opinions in a group discussion. The results supported Umeda's
statement (1998) that many Chinese, Korean, and Japanese students who are from very
competitive educational systems feel more comfortable studying in a teacher-centered
classroom and doing individual work rather than studying in a learner-centered classroom
and doing group work. A significant difference between the answers of Spanish-speaking
and Chinese-speaking students was that eight out of nine Chinese-speaking students
answered they like lecture whereas only two Spanish-speaking students preferred lecture
and the other seven students chose that they like group work.
Only one Chinese-speaking student chose group work. These pedagogical anxiety
factors have some connections with the early mentioned psychological anxiety factor that
Spanish-speaking students are not afraid of telling others about their anxiety feelings
because they prefer cooperative classroom structure whereas Chinese-speaking students
tend to hide their anxious feelings from others; therefore, they prefer individual work
settings to group work.

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Conclusion
The study illustrated that there were some significant differences in the anxiety
factors between Spanish-speaking students and Chinese-speaking students. The Spanishspeaking students prefer to work in groups by helping one another. Whereas, Chinesespeaking students feel more comfortable working individually than working in groups.
The Spanish-speaking students feel their language and English are similar and that helps
their English learning. Chinese-speaking students feel their language is very different
from English and their first language interferes their learning English by translating a
whole sentence from L1 (first language) to L2 (target language). The Chinese-speaking
students expressed that the real meaning of what they really want to say fades during the
brain operation that they translate from L1 to L2.
Both Spanish-speaking and Chinese-speaking students feel comfortable with
American teachers. Chinese-speaking showed positive feelings toward American teachers
compared to the teachers in their country. Seven out of nine Chinese-speaking students
responded in the interviews that American teachers are more friendly, have a sense of
humor, and smile when they talk to the students. The Chinese-speaking students have
negative feelings toward their teachers in their country. They responded that the teachers
there were very strict and punished them physically when they did not perform well in
class. The interviews provided evidence that the four key anxiety factors (cultural,
psychological, pedagogical, and linguistic) are all interrelated. Spanish-speaking students
are well adjusted to a new environment because they have families and friends who speak
same language and share same culture. Even though they feel that American culture is

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very different from theirs, they like living in this country that provides a better life for
them. The language similarities also help them acquire the new language. The linguistic
similarities and their bringing their culture to a new culture help reduce Spanish-speaking
students' psychological anxiety. The psychological factor also affects pedagogical factor.
Spanish-speaking students prefer a cooperative learning structure by sharing information
and working together in groups. Many Chinese-speaking students live in Chinese
communities and have a same kind of culturally familiar environment around them as
Spanish-speaking students do. However, Chinese-speaking High Anxious students (CH)
experience difficult time living in the United States because the life in their country is
more convenient (cultural anxiety factor) and the language is completely different
(linguistic anxiety factor). They are accustomed to working individual (pedagogical
anxiety factor) and the competitive learning style in their country make their anxiety
increase by fear of failure. (psychological anxiety factor).

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
General Findings
This dissertation examined factors associated with second language anxiety for
Spanish and Chinese speaking English learners. The quantitative and qualitative research
studies successfully provided evidence to answer the question:
What are the factors associated with second language anxiety for Spanish and
Chinese speaking English learners?
Hypothesis 1 (H1): Cultural Anxiety Factors are the most anxiety causing factors for
Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students.
Both Spanish-students and Chinese students showed highest anxiety in cultural
factors. They feel the culture of the United states and the culture of their country are very
different. Even though They still miss their country, Spanish-speaking students feel that
American life style is more comfortable and they are satisfied with the new life that is
better than the life in their country. On the contrary, Chinese-speaking students expressed
fear living in the United States. They think that the life in their country is better and they
want to go back. Chinese-speaking students feel anxious about the difference of cultural
value. For example, almost all Chinese-speaking students demonstrated high anxiety both
in the questionnaires and the interviews that they have difficulties in direct eye contact
when they speak. In their country, making a direct eye contact while talking is considered
a threatening attitude and hey acquired an habit not to do so. Since direct eye contact
while talking is a sign of trust in the United States that is opposite to their cultural value,

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Chinese-speaking students are very confused and having a hard time adjusting to the
cultural differences.
Hypothesis 2 (H2): Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students feel the most
anxiety when listening and speaking in English.
This study supported MacIntyre and Gardner's communication apprehension that
listening and speaking produce high levels of anxiety. Speaking in the second language
can be especially anxiety provoking (1991b). Five out of nine Spanish-speaking students
and eight out of nine Chinese-speaking students responded that listening and speaking are
the most difficult to learn. The results supported Hypothesis 2 (H2) that both Spanish and
Chinese-speaking students feel the highest anxiety when listening and speaking in
English. Spanish-speaking students feel anxious about speaking English because English
pronunciation is different from Spanish. Even though they think English and Spanish are
similar and that similarities help their learning English, they still feel embarrassed to
speak English because they are afraid of pronouncing English words incorrectly.
Chinese-speaking students answered both in quantitative and qualitative studies
that the Chinese language is completely different from English and their first language
(L1) interrupts their acquiring English (L2) because they have to think in Chinese first
and then try to put words together to make an English sentence. As previously studied,
Aida stated the difficulty of learning language depends on how different the new
language is from the language that the learner already knows (2000). Thompson
indicated that the more similar two languages are, the more possible it is to translate
between them (2000).

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Hypothesis 3 (H3): Spanish speaking ELs feel the most anxiety when working
independently in classroom settings.
Based on the findings, Spanish-speaking high anxious students prefer a cooperative
structure. Spanish-speaking students feel comfortable working with other peers in groups.
In a competitive classroom Spanish-speaking students prefer to to open up to their friends
and teachers about their anxiety. Spanish-speaking students described that they feel very
assured and relaxed in their English class. In the class, they are not afraid of being called
on and are willing to volunteer answers. The quantitative research finding provided
evidence that Spanish-speaking students are accustomed to a cooperative classroom
structure (Delgado-Gaitan, 1992; Engelbrecht, 1983; Losey, 1997). Fifteen out of twenty
students disagreed that they prefer to work individually. The results from both
quantitative and qualitative research support previous conclusions by Valdes (1996) and
Valezuela (1999) that Spanish-speaking students are accustomed to a school environment
that includes teacher-student relationships and working with other peers in groups.
Students responded in the interviews that teachers in America and their country are both
friendly and easy to talk. They feel comfortable working with their classmates in groups.
Hypothesis 4 (H4): Chinese speaking ELs feel the most anxiety when working in
cooperative groups in classroom settings.
Chinese-speaking students are accustomed to a teacher-centered educational
system (Shoebottom, 2001) where instructors control the class and students often are
passive receivers of information (Weimer, 2002). Chinese teachers are less personally
involved with students (Xiao, 2000) and students are accustomed to working
individually. Chinese-speaking students prefer to hide their anxiety.

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They are afraid of being treated as a loser or losing their grade points by expressing other
students their feelings of anxiety (fear of failure). This study showed that Chinesespeaking students try not to let others know by acting OK when they have anxiety in
class. The finding supported Gregersena and Horwitz's theory that the anxious students
tend to have fear of negative evaluation and concern over errors (2002).
This study exemplified that perfectionism plays a greater role in anxiety in
students. Chinese-speaking students answered that they pretend they are OK because
they do not want to be laughed at by other students. The high anxious Chinese-speaking
students answered that they are afraid of being called 'stupid' or 'wimp' if they show their
anxiety to other students. It supports the previous conclusion by Shoebottom (2001) that
anxious students prefer to remain silent for fear of losing face by giving the wrong
answer.
Implications
Multi-Cultural Education
Based on the findings that cultural differences cause second language anxiety, EL
teachers should employ multi-cultural, culturally relevant practices in order to have a
better understanding of the importance of learning about the cultural differences of their
students. Multicultural education is a field of study and an emerging discipline to create
equal educational opportunities for students from diverse cultural groups (Banks and
Banks, 1995). The essential principles for learning in a multicultural classroom setting
are as follows (Banks, 1995):

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1. All students should have opportunities to participate in co-curricular activities that
develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes that increase academic achievement and
foster positive interracial relationships.
2. Schools should create crosscutting group memberships in order to improve
intergroup relations.
3. Students should learn about the values shared by virtually all cultural groups.
4. Teachers should help students acquire the social skills needed to interact
effectively with students from different racial, ethnic, cultural, and language
groups to under conditions designed to reduce fear and anxiety.
Ladson-Billings (1994) proposes the use of culturally relevant pedagogy that
empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by using cultural
referents to impart knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The National Commission on
Teaching and American's Future (1996) proposes that teachers must understand how
students of different language backgrounds and cultures can be supported in learning
academic content and how those with a range of approaches to learning can be met with a
variety of teaching strategies in a culturally relevant instructional program (p.13).
This can be implied one of the findings that Spanish-speaking students prefer group work
and Chinese-speaking students prefer individual work. If only group activities were
introduced in an ESL classroom, it might work effectively for Spanish-speaking students
but not for Chinese-speaking students. Therefore, it is important for ELS teachers to
create a lesson plan that includes both group and individual work so that Spanish and
Chinese speaking students can work comfortably.

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Primary Language Support
Based on the findings that Spanish and Chinese speaking EL high school students
feel the most anxiety when listening and speaking in English, primary language support
should be implemented in ESL classrooms. A Structured English Immersion programs
(SEI) has been implemented since 1998 in the school where the study was conducted. In
the school, translators are only allowed to help students in Specially-Designed AcademicInstruction in English (SDAIE) classes. Students in EL classes are instructed only in
English and students are not allowed to use their primary language.
The results of the study provided evidence that Structured English Immersion
programs (SEI) increase students' second language anxiety. English only instruction
prohibits beginning English learners from using their primary language to support their
L2 development.. According to a translator who has been working at same school for 20
years, the school used to provide a translator in the beginning ESL classes before SEI was
implemented in 1998. After the SEI program was implemented, the translator was only
allowed to help advanced English learners in Specially-Designed Academic-Instruction
in English (SDAIE) classes. The beginning EL students described in the interviews that
they usually sit in class all day without saying anything because they do not know how to
ask for help in English and if they try to ask their friends in their language, the teacher
will lower their grade.
All of the interviewees answered that they need a translator in class who can
explain what the teacher is saying. Chinese-speaking students expressed a strong desire
that they need the help of a translator in their ESL classes. In the beginning ESL class,

109
almost all the students do not understand what the teacher is saying. One student
complained about his situation in the interviews. One day he did not bring his homework
because he did not understand what was assigned. Every time that happened, he got a
ticket and his points were reduced. He said that he could have done all the assignments if
he had understood what teacher was saying and if he could get a translator's help by
letting him know what was assigned. If students do not understand what the teacher
wants them to do, there will be no meaningful learning. Some students were frequently
sent to a counselor because they had not spoken in class. They experienced an unbearable
anxiety feeling they were being treated as a problem child.
The purpose of the SEI programs is to push students to use only English so that
they can be motivated to learn the language faster. However, this study showed that the
SEI programs do not seem to be working affectively in the beginning ESL classes. A
native speaker of the students L1 is needed at least until students are able to understand
what the teacher is saying in order to make the anxious students feel that they are part of
the class and not being ignored. The interviews supported previous conclusions by
Palmer and Garcia (2000) regarding the fear that children will fall behind in academic
subjects without the support they previously had received in their primary language.
Teachers and counselors must understand it is not that they do not participate in
class intentionally but they cannot participate because they are not yet ready to express
themselves in English. They do not understand how to say in English or how to
communicate. They may understand what is being said, but they are not yet ready to talk
about it. There is a 'silent period' during which children acquiring a new language.

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During a 'silent period', children concentrate on comprehension by only a non-verbal way
or by making use of a set of memorized phrases. This stage could last for as long as one
year. English language learners should not be forced to speak until they are ready to do
(Krashen, 1985). Their anxiety levels increase when they are insecure. These anxious
students should not be treated as they have learning disabilities Terrell (1977) points out
that the standard problem of embarrassment is reduced considerably by allowing the
students to respond in their first language. If a translator is provided and he/she interacts
in the ESL classroom, EL students will be able to participate in the classroom sooner.
They will feel less anxiety or shyness when attempting to speak in English. L1 support is
needed not just in the ESL classroom but throughout EL students' content areas.
Differentiated Instruction
Based on the findings that Spanish-speaking students feel anxiety during individual
work and Chinese-speaking students feel anxiety during group work. Varied approaches
to learning need to be introduced in the ESL classroom.
In the interviews, eight out of nine Chinese-speaking students answered they like
teacher-centered lecture type of classroom setting and they feel anxiety in group work.
Therefore, communicative teaching methods and cooperative learning might be effective
for Spanish-speaking students; however, the methods may not work to Chinese-speaking
students. The literature concluded that increasing communication opportunities in the
classroom is likely to provoke anxiety and fostering Willing To Communicate (WTC) is
a key approach to enhance motivation and reduce anxiety (Hashimoto, 2002).

111
However, it contradicted the findings from the interviews to the students in the beginning
ESL class. Beginning EL students responded that they became anxious when
communication activities were required. Since speaking their language with friends was
strictly prohibited in their ESL class, they became very nervous communicating with
others in group. Hashimoto's theory might be suitable only for students who have more
confidence in their English skills. In other words, WTC approach will develop as a key to
enhance motivation and reduce anxiety only when the students' English proficiency skills
develop to the point that they can use the language as a communication tool.
It is suggested that both cooperative and individual learning opportunities be
employed with attention to the needs of the students. Both should be used to provide
differentiated means by which students can learn, individually, from the teacher or from
their peers. Teachers should determine the balance of these learning opportunities based
on what they know about pedagogical second language anxiety of the students from
different cultural backgrounds.
Positive Classroom Environment
Ariza (2004) emphasized the importance of effective teacher instructions such as
creating a nonthreatening classroom environment, giving students opportunities to
experience success, getting to know students, and adapting to the students cultural
backgrounds in order to reduce students anxiety in second language acquisition.
Based on the findings that Spanish-speaking students showed high anxiety in
cultural factors, speaking, reading, volunteering answering in class, and individual work,
some affective teaching strategies are recommended:

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1. provide communicative learning environment,
2. focus on pronunciation lesson and reading comprehension lesson,
3. develop participation skills,
4. make comfortable environment so students can volunteer answering in class,
5. and provide family-like and less competitive environment.

Since Chinese-speaking students showed high anxiety in cultural factors, speaking,

writing, and group work classroom setting, suggestions for affective teaching strategies
for Chinese-speaking students can include:
1. reduce competitive environment,
2. create an environment so students can ask teachers for help comfortably,
3. provide follow-ups by sending a translator or a student helper so that students can
review what they learned in class in their primary language,
4. focus on grammar, speaking, writing, and comprehension lessons,
5. develop group skills so they feel comfortable working in group,
6. and make a comfortable environment for students to visit a counselor.
Recommendations for Practice
Newcomer Programs
A unique educational program to help immigrant students reduce language anxiety
is called Newcomer Programs. These programs are designed to meet the needs of
immigrant students to work effectively to develop their academic and linguistic skills
(Friedlander, 1991). Friedlander defined Newcomer Programs as temporary transitional

113
programs designed to enhance student potential for success in transition to
comprehensive high schools, and beyond. Newcomer Programs emphasize rapid English
language acquisition including oral English language proficiency and comprehension,
English reading and writing proficiency, and Specially Designed Academic Instruction In
English (SDAIE). The purpose of the English program is to teach immigrant students
school content-based English so that they will not feel any gap or delay when they are
sent to mainstream classrooms.
Newcomer Programs do not allow EL students to be locked into classrooms only
for foreigners; therefore, most schools locate Newcomer Programs in the main building,
not in a detached bungalow. Immigrant students are educated under specially designed
curriculum for about a year. After testing and teachers approval, they are sent to
mainstream classes. The program also provides meetings held in several languages so
that parents can keep abreast of school events. Newcomer Programs offer immigrant
students academic and support services tailored to their special needs. They include
orientation to the American society and school system, a specially designed curriculum
for immigrant students, counseling services, parent and family support services,
information and referral services, access to bilingual support personnel, such as nurses,
psychologists, and peer counselors, extracurricular activities, transportation,
immunization and other health services, career orientation, and tutoring. In a work
entitled Pilot Study on Newcomer Program Literacy and Assessment Practices (Short,
Boyson & Coltranel, 2003), one Newcomer Program that demonstrated significant

114
student progress is the Spanish and English bilingual Newcomer Program at Cesar
Chavez Multicultural Academic Center in Chicago called La Prueba. English reading
growth from 1996-1997 to 1997-1998 by La Prueba was significant. Forty three percent
of the fifth grade students made 2.8 years of growth, forty two percent of the sixth grade
students made 2.4 years growth, sixty percent of the seventh grade students made 4.1
years of growth, and sixty percent of the eighth grade students made 5.5 years of
growth in their English reading skills.
These results demonstrate the strength of providing students with instruction in
their native language as well as in English. Another Newcomer Program that had a
significant impact upon students English proficiency levels is called Elementary School
Newcomer Center in New York. Students from first to sixth grade who entered the fullday Newcomer Program had been in the United States for less than one year. Students
from first to fourth grade obtained English reading skills through teacher-directed skills
instruction, literature-based, integrated language arts instruction, and oral and written
language practice, phonemic awareness, phonic instruction, and individual tutoring.
Students from fifth and sixth grade obtained English reading skills through theme-related
non-fiction texts for guided reading practice, small group literacy instruction, and
extended-day and Saturday classes. The Language Assessment Battery (LAB) test results
show that ninety-five percent of the students made Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).
LAB is an English language proficiency test primary used to identify for placement
purposes. It is used to test non-native speakers whose grades are K-1 through 12.

115
The placement tests include the Oral Screening Test, Oral Competency Test, Aural
Comprehension Test, Dictation Exercise, Structural Competency Test, and Informal
Reading Inventory (Rivera and Lombardo, 1979). AYP requires all public school
campuses, school districts, and the state to meet AYP criteria on Reading/Language Arts,
Mathematics, and either Graduation Rate for high schools and districts or Attendance
Rate (for elementary and middle/junior high schools) under the accountability provisions
in the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (CA Department of Education, 2001). Eighty
seven percent made two times the AYP norm, and seventy five percent made times the
AYP norm. These results show that the age-appropriate instructional styles that are
specially designed for EL students helped to develop their English reading skills.
The findings demonstrate that students significantly improved their English skills
in Newcomer Programs compared to their skills before entering the program. Friedlander
(1991) indicated the effective strategies to reduce immigrant students second language
anxiety include:
1. respect their cultural beliefs and values,
2. interpret nonverbal cues,
3. learn students personal background, cultural environment, educational history,
school experience, and health conditions,
4. provide a no threatening environment so that immigrant students can play with
English without being afraid of making mistakes,
5. value a students first language,

116
6. be aware that second-language learners will experience nonverbal or Krashens
silent period as they absorb English,
7. recognize that it takes two to three years to develop Basic Interpersonal
Communication Skills (BICS) and five to seven years to develop Cognitive
Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) according to Cummins Threshold
Hypothesis (1979),
8. communicate with students families in person and in their primary language,
9. and empower students by saying If you try, you can do it ( p. 25).

Pre-service and Ongoing In-service Teaching Programs

Based on the findings of this study, it is strongly recommended that EL teachers
have a better understanding of the importance of learning about the cultural differences of
their students. Without this knowledge, teachers might inadvertently cause students
second language anxiety problems. They may mistakably utilize teaching strategies and
approaches that do not facilitate learning for all EL students from different cultural
backgrounds. Thus, Pre-service and ongoing In-service services are crucial for teachers to
gain knowledge on culturally relevant pedagogical approach and curriculum to ensure
that they can provide all students from different cultural backgrounds an equal
opportunity to learn. The use of service-learning programs during Pre-service and Inservice training sessions is ideal for EL teachers to to gain both culturally relevant
pedagogical knowledge and an instructional method. Service-learning increased
dramatically in both K-12 and teacher education throughout the decade of the 1990s
(Anderson, 1998). Service-learning is described as a blending of a philosophy of
education and an instructional method. The following approaches based on the examples
of service-learning activities in teacher education programs by Anderson (1998) and

117
Eyler and Giles (1999) are recommended for EL teachers in Pre-service and In-service
training:
1. preservice teachers taking a social and cultural foundations of education course,
2. engage in problem-solving by requiring participants to gain knowledge of the
specific context of culturally relevant problems,
3. offer opportunities to acquire the habits of critical thinking to be able to identify
important questions and issues within a multi-cultural school environment,
4. help teachers to review students' cultural backgrounds,
5. advise teachers on good techniques and effective teaching strategies to deal with
students from different cultural backgrounds,
6. and establish a system of follow-up support and monitoring.
Recommendation for Research
In this study, only Spanish-speaking and Chinese-speaking students were studied.
Observation and follow-up of their progress after implementing effective teaching
strategies to reduce anxiety are recommended for future research. More extensive
investigation of different anxiety factors for EL high school students from other cultural
backgrounds is recommended. A larger sample size would make it possible to generalize
the findings to other cultural groups of students. High school students who were born in
the United States may be a target for the future study in order to examine how anxiety
factors of the students who were born here differ from the anxiety factors of the students
who came from other countries. Future research should also explore more in-depth how
other anxiety factors may or may not affect the students' school performance.

118
Conclusion
The results of this study supported the main hypothesis that there are differences in
factors associated with second language anxiety factors depending on students' cultural
backgrounds. This study also provided evidence that the four key anxiety factors
(Cultural, Psychological, Pedagogical, and Linguistic) affect students' second language
anxiety and they are interrelated. Findings revealed that students from different cultural
backgrounds experience second language anxiety in different way. Therefore it is crucial
for EL teachers to have a better understanding of the importance of learning about the
cultural differences of their students. Classroom activities and teaching materials must be
planned carefully with cultural sensitivity to ensure that all students have an opportunity
to learn.
The findings of this study reinforced the need for educators' working with diverse
student populations to learn more about the students cultural backgrounds and carefully
create curriculum that contain a variety of lessons and activities that are suitable for all
students from different cultural backgrounds.

119
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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter
English
Recruitment Letter
My name is Emi Kojima. I am a Doctor of Education candidate from the Rossier School
of Education at the University of California. I would like to ask you to participate in my
research study.
The purpose of the study is to understand to what extent English Learning (EL) high
school students feel anxiety when they are participating in the mainstream classrooms
and if there is a relationship between their cultural backgrounds and anxiety. This study
will further investigate causes for anxiety that affect second language learning and how
second language anxiety can be decreased. The focus is to find effective motivational
strategies for the EL students to help reduce second language anxiety.
In this study, Spanish-speaking or Chinese-speaking EL high school students who are the
two largest immigrant groups in the U.S. will be studied. Random samplings of a total of
40 EL students, 20 Spanish-speaking and 20 Chinese-speaking students will be studied.
At the school site, students will first receive parental permission form (2 copies) and
student assent form (2 copies). The forms will be distributed in class by the teachers or
myself if possible. Students will bring both forms home to review and discuss with
parents/guardians, and will return the parental permission form and student assent form to
their teachers before a specified deadline (approximately one week after distribution of
the forms). The second copy of each form is for the student and parent to keep. All
students will be asked to return both forms, even if they are not participating in the study,
to help me track participation and to avoid students feeling embarrassed if they do not
have anything to turn in. After collecting the forms from the students, I will select all the
students who agreed to participate in the study and contact the principal and the teachers
to set a date for surveys.
I will gain permissions from the principal and the EL teachers that interviews to the EL
students will be audiotaped. All subjects may choose not to participate in the interviews,
and still participate in surveys. All subjects are given the choice of declining to be
audiotaped.
The questionnaire will be conducted on one day during regular ESL classroom hours. I
will bring translators that can speak Spanish and Chinese. The instructions will be written
in English, Spanish, and Chinese and will be explained verbally in the classrooms before
the survey begins.

131
The students will be asked their personal information such as numbers of family
members, the length of stay in America, and agreement/disagreement to participate in a
possible follow-up interview. Code numbers will be used to identify each student to
increase confidentiality. The students will be explained that the survey will be
confidential. There are 40 questions and the questionnaire will probably take about 30 to
45 minutes to complete.
Interviews will be conducted when a total of 18 students (9 Spanish-speaking and 9
Chinese-speaking students whose anxiety scores of the questionnaire are high, middle,
and low) are selected and all agree to participate. I will visit the school for two days, one
day for interviewing Spanish-speaking students and another day for interviewing
Chinese-speaking students. Each interview will take approximately 15 minutes and
conducted in the preferred language of the student. The interviews will be translated and
transcribed by Spanish and Chinese translators.
Upon the completion of this study, I expect that EL students from different cultural and
linguistic backgrounds experience second language anxiety in different ways.
This study will help EL teachers have a better understanding of the importance of
learning about the cultural differences of their students. Without this knowledge, teachers
might inadvertently cause students second language anxiety problems. I hope that this
study will be a guide for EL teachers to reflect and evaluate their teaching in a way that
accounts for students diversity. It is important for educators working with diverse
student populations to learn more about the students cultural backgrounds and carefully
create curriculum that contain a variety of lessons and activities that are suitable for all
students from different cultural backgrounds.

132
Spanish
Recruitment letter
Mi nombre es Emi Kojima. Estoy estudiando para mi doctorado en la escuela de
educacin en la universidad del sur de California. Les pido participacin en mi
investigacin.
El proposito de mi estudio es para investigar las razones por la cual estudiantes en la
secundaria se ponen ansiosos cuando participan en sus clases de Ingles. Tambien
investigo maneras de mejorar las experiencias de alumnos para encontrar la manera de
ayudarlos en sus estudios y el desarollo de su ingles.
Estudiantes de decendencia China Mexicana participaran en el estudio porque
representan los dos grupos mas grandes de imigrantes. Sesenta estudiantes, 20 de
decendencia China y 20 de decendencia Mexicana seran elejidos para participar.
Al comienzo del estudio, se les pedir permiso a los paps para que participen sus hijos.
Tambien les mandar una forma de participacin a los estudiantes. Por favor platiquen
con sus hijos sobre este estudio y regresen las dos formas. Les voy a mandar copies de las
dos formas desupes de llenarlas. Les pido que regresen las formas aunque deciden no
participar. Despues de coletar todas las formas, me comunicar con el director y las
maestras de los estudiantes para organizar y planear las entrevistas.
Todos los estudiantes que acceptan participar tendran la opcion de ser entrevistados. Con
su permiso la entrevista sera audio-grabada.
Su hijo(a) completar una encuesta. Para evaluar los resultados se usar el Horwitzs
(1986) Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and Foreign Language
Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS). Este instrumento da informacin acerca de las temas
ms comn de todas las respuestas y cuales areas causan ms ansiedad, o sea al hablar,
escuchar, leer, o escribir el Ingls.
Si sus hijos necesitan alguien que les traduzca las direcciones, hara alguien dispuesta para
contestar sus preguntas en espaol. Las preguntas y la encuesta sern traducidas y tienen
la opcin de llenarla en Ingls o Espaol.
Los estudiantes completarn la encuesta durante su clase de Ingls. Hay 40 preguntas en
la encuesta, les tomar 30-45 minutos para teminarla. Les pidar un poco de informacin
personal tal como el nmero de miembros de la familia, tiempo en los Estados Unidos, y
el acuerdo/desacuerdo de su hijo(a) a participar en una entrevista depende los resultados
de la encuesta. No usar el nombre de su hijo(a), les asignar un numero para protejer su
identidad.

133
Depende los resultados de la encuesta, dieciocho estudiantes sern elejidos para participar
en una entrevista (9 estudiantes Mexicanos y 9 estudiantes Chinos con resultados de
experiencias anxiosas altas, medianas, y bajas). Visitar las escuelas dos veces, la primera
vez para completar la encuesta y el segundo da par las entrevistas. La entrevista tomar
unos quince minutos para completer y los estudiantes tienen la opcin de participar en
Ingls o Espaol.
A completer mi estudio espero que los estudiantes de diferentes culturas tienen diferentes
raznes por la cual siente ansiosos cuando aprenden y estudian el Ingles. Le va a ayudar a
las maestras de Ingles para mejorar sus programas de estudio.

134
Chinese
(Recruitment Letter)
Emi Kojima Rossier

EL

EL

40 EL 20 20

EL EL

ESL

40 30 45
18 9 9

15

135
EL

ESL

ESL

136
Appendix B: Parental Consent Forms
English
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Waite Phillips Hall, Suite 802
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
INFORMED CONSENT FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

******************************************************************
CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH SECOND LANGUAGE ANXIETY

IN ADOLESCENTS FROM DIFFERENT CULTURAL
BACKGROUNDS
Your child is asked to participate in a research study conducted by the principal
investigator Emi Kojima, Ed. D. candidate under the supervision of the faculty advisor
Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores Ed. D., from the Rossier School of Education at the University
of Southern California because I am trying to learn more about the different factors that
cause second language anxiety in English Learning (EL) students form different cultural
backgrounds. The results of the study will be contributed to my dissertation. Your child
was selected as a possible participant in this study because the target students of my study
are Spanish-speaking or Chinese-speaking EL students. A total of 40 subjects will be
selected from the Spanish-speaking or Chinese-speaking EL students to participate. Your
childs participation is voluntary. You should read the information below, and ask
questions about anything you do not understand, before deciding whether or not to
participate.

137
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand to what extent ESL students feel anxiety when
they are participating in the mainstream classrooms and if there is a relationship
between their cultural backgrounds and anxiety and investigate causes for anxiety that
affect second language learning and how second language anxiety can be decreased.
This study will specifically look at Spanish-speaking or Chinese-speaking EL high school
students who are the two largest immigrant groups (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000).
PROCEDURES
If your child volunteers to participate in this study, we would ask him/her to do the
following things:
Your child will be asked to participate in answering survey questions. The questionnaire
will be conducted on one day in each school during regular ESL classroom hours in the
Spring of 2007. Horwitzs (1986) Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)
and Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) will be used to construct the
questionnaire for measuring second language anxiety and examining what the most
anxiety-causing subject is in speaking, listening, reading, or writing.
I will bring one translator that can speak Spanish or Chinese. The instructions will be
written in English and Spanish or Chinese and will be explained verbally in the classroom
before the survey begins. Your child will be asked for personal information such as
numbers of family members, the length of stay in America, and agreement/disagreement
to participate in a possible follow-up interview. All subjects will be assigned codes at the
beginning of the survey so that the data sets are linked. The principal investigator will
code the data to increase confidentiality. Contact information and key codes will both be
kept separately from the questionnaires, tapes and transcriptions. Your child will be
explained that the survey is confidential. The questionnaire will take about 30 to 45
minutes to complete.
Interviews will be conducted when a total of 18 students whose FLCAS language anxiety
scores are high, middle, and low all agree to participate. Each interview will take
approximately 15 minutes and will be conducted in the preferred language of the student.
The interviews will be translated and transcribed by a Spanish or Chinese translator.
Interviews will be audio-taped.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
The physical, psychological, social, and legal risks to you are minimal.

138
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Your child will not benefit from this research study. Free evaluation is not considered a
benefit. However, this study will help ESL teachers have a better understanding of the
importance of learning about the cultural differences of their students. This study will
be a guide for ESL teachers to reflect and evaluate their teaching in a way that accounts
for students diversity. It is important for educators working with diverse student
populations to learn more about the students cultural backgrounds and carefully create
curriculum that contain a variety of lessons and activities that are suitable for all students
from different cultural backgrounds.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
Your child will not be paid for participating in this research study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified
with your child will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission
or as required by law.
All audiotapes, field notes, transcripts, and surveys will be kept in a locked cabinet in a
secured office in the researchers office to prevent access by unauthorized personnel.
After three years, personal data and audiotapes will be shredded and erased.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no
information will be included that would reveal your childs identity. If audiotape
recordings of your child will be used for educational purposes, your identity will be
protected or disguised. You or your child has the right to review/edit the audio-taped
interviews. Your child may continue answering questions in the interviews regardless if
they decline to be audio-taped.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You or your child can choose whether to be in this study or not. If your child volunteers
to be in this study, they may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind.
Your child may also refuse to answer any questions he/she doesnt want to answer and
still remain in the study. The investigator may withdraw your child from this research if
circumstances arise which warrant doing so.

139
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the
followings:
Principal Investigator: Emi Kojima
(310) 308-3693
Faculty Sponsor: Eugenia Mora-Flores, Ed.D.
(213) 821-2727
USC Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway WPH1003D
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a
research subject, contact the University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for
Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695, (213)
821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

SIGNATURE OF PARENT OR LEGAL GUARDIAN

I understand the procedures described above. My questions have been answered to my
satisfaction, and I give permission for my child to participate in this study. I have been
given a copy of this form.
I agree for my child to be audio-taped.
I do not agree for my child to be audio-taped.
Name of Subject
Name of Parent or Legal Guardian (if applicable)
Signature of Parent or Legal Guardian Date

140
SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
I have explained the research to the parent or his/her legal guardian, and answered all of
his/her questions. I believe that he/she understands the information described in this
document and freely consents to participate.
Name of Investigator
Signature of Investigator Date (must be the same as subjects)

SIGNATURE OF WITNESS (If an oral translator is used.)

My signature as witness certified that the subject or his/her legal representative signed
this consent form in my presence as his/her voluntary act and deed.
Name of Witness
Signature of Witness Date (must be the same as subjects)

141
Spanish
Universidad del Sur de California
(University of Southern California)
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Waite Phillips Hall, Suite 802
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
Concentimiento para participar en investigacin

Factores associados con el aprendizaje del segundo idioma con

adolecentes de diferentes culturas.
Su hijo(a) ha sido elejido para participar en un estudio sobre los factores associados con
el apredizaje del Ingls con adolecentes de diferentes culturas. La investigadora, Emi
Kojima, es estudiante en la universidad del sur de California en el Rossier School of
Education donde est estudiando por su doctorado en educacin. Su consejera, la Dr.
Eugenia Mora-Flores supervisar la investigacin. Los participantes sern de familias
Mexicanas Chinas porque hemos encontrado que son dos de los grupos ms grandes en
nuestras secundarias (censo 2000). 40 estudiantes sern elejidos, 20 que hablan espaol y
estn estudiando el Ingls en la escuela. La participacin de su nio es voluntaria. Si tiene
alguna pregunta, por favor se comunica con la investigadora antes de firmar el permiso.
PROPOSITO DEL ESTUDIO
El proposito de esta investigacin es para aprender los diferentes factores associados con
el aprendizaje del segundo idoma (Ingles) con adolecentes de diferentes culturas.
Tambien queremos ver como la ansiedad puede ser disminuida.
PROCEDIMIENTOS
Su hijo(a) completar una encuesta. Para evaluar los resultados se usar el Horwitzs
(1986) Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and Foreign Language
Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS). Este instrumento da informacin acerca de las temas
ms comn de todas las respuestas y cuales areas causan ms ansiedad, o sea al hablar,
escuchar, leer, o escribir el Ingls.
Si sus hijos necesitan alguien que les traduzca las direcciones, hara alguien dispuesta para
contestar sus preguntas en espaol. Las preguntas y la encuesta sern traducidas y tienen
la opcin de llenarla en Ingls o Espaol.

142
Los estudiantes completarn la encuesta durante su clase de Ingls. Hay 40 preguntas en
la encuesta, les tomar 30-45 minutos para teminarla. Les pidar un poco de informacin
personal tal como el nmero de miembros de la familia, tiempo en los Estados Unidos, y
el acuerdo/desacuerdo de su hijo(a) a participar en una entrevista depende los resultados
de la encuesta. No usar el nombre de su hijo(a), les asignar un numero para protejer su
identidad.
Depende los resultados de la encuesta, dieciocho estudiantes sern elejidos para participar
en una entrevista (9 estudiantes Mexicanos y 9 estudiantes Chinos con resultados de
experiencias anxiosas altas, medianas, y bajas). Visitar las escuelas dos veces, la primera
vez para completar la encuesta y el segundo da par las entrevistas. La entrevista tomar
unos quince minutos para completer y los estudiantes tienen la opcin de participar en
Ingls o Espaol.
RIESGOS Y MALESTAR POSIBLES
Fsicamente, socialmente, y psicolgicamenta no habr el mas mnimo riesgo a su
persona.
VENTAJAS QUE SEAN POSIBLES PARA LOS ESTUDIANTES Y LA COMUNIDAD

Este estudio ser como gua a los maestros de ESL para que aprendan la cultura de sus
estudiantes y as poder preparar una variedad de lecciones y actividades que sean
apropiadas a sus estudiantes de diferentes culturas.
PAGO PARA PARTICIPAR
No hay pago, la participacin de sus hijos ser voluntaria.
DISRECIN
Cualquier informacin que se obtiene en relacin con este estudio no se podr
identificarse con su hijo(a). Permanecer confidencial y slo se descubrir con su
permiso o como requerido por ley.
Se guardarn todos los cassettes, notas del campo, transcripciones y estudios en un
armario cerrado con llave en una oficina asegurado en la oficina de la investigador para
impedir el acceso por personal desautorizado. Despus de tres aos, datos personales y
cassettes se borrarn.
Cuando se publican los resultados de la investigacin o durante presentaciones en
conferencias, ninguna informacin ser incluida que revelara la identidad de su hijo. Si
se usarn grabaciones del cassette de su hijo(a) para los propsitos educativos, su
identidad se proteger o se ocultar. Usted o su hijo(a) tienen el derecho para repasar
revisar las entrevistas audio-grabadas. Su nio puede continuar contestando las preguntas
en las entrevistas indiferente si rechazan ser audio-grabados.

143
PARTICIPACIN O RETIRARSE
Usted o su nio pueden escoger participar en este estudio o no. Si su hijo(a) decide
participar, pueden retirarse cuando quiera sin consecuencia. Su hijo(a) tambin puede
negar a contestar cualquier pregunta que l/ella no quiere contestar y todava permanecer
en el estudio.
IDENTIFICACIN DE INVESTIGADORES
Si hay alguna pregunta por favor comunicarse con la investigadora:
Investigadora principal: Emi Kojima
(310) 308-3693
Profesora : Eugenia Mora-Flores, Ed.D.
(213) 821-2727
USC Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway WPH1003D
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
DERECHOS DEL PARTICIPANTE
En cualquier momento si no quieren seguir participando en la investigacion se pueden
retirar sin consecuencia. No ests renunciando ninguna demandas legal, los derechos o
los remedios debido a tu participacin en esta investigacin. Si tienen alguna pregunta
sobre sus derechos por favor comunicarse con University Park IRB, Office of the Vice
Provost for Research, Grace Ford Salvatori Hall, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 900891695, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu

FIRMA DE PADRES DE FAMILIA

Comprendo y estoy de acuerdo con todo lo que le acerca de la investigacin y le doy
permiso ha mi hijo(a) para participar en esta investigacin. La investigadora les dejar
una copia de esta forma para sus archivos.
Estoy de acuerdo que graben a mi hijo(a) durante la entrevista.
No, no estoy de acuerdo que graben a mi hijo(a) durante la entrevista
Nombre del estudiante
Nombre de padres de familia
Firma de padres de familia Fecha

144
FIRMA DE LA INVESTIGADORA
Les he explicado al participante todo sobre la investigacin y contest todas sus
preguntas. Creo que l/ella entiende la informacin descrita en este documento y
libremente consiente participar
Nombre de la Investigadora
Firma de la Investigadora Fecha (debe de ser igual a la del estudiante)
FIRMA DEL TESTIGO (Si necesita traduccin)
Mi firma como testigo certifica que firmaron esta forma de consentimiento en mi
presencia como su acto voluntario y hecho.
Nombre del testigo
Firma del testigo Fecha (debe de ser igual a la del estudiante)

145
Chinese

Rossier
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Waite Phillips Hall, Suite 802
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038

******************************************************************

Rossier Emi
Kojima , Eugenia Mora-Flores

Emi Kojima
ESL
40

ESL

2000 ESL

146

2007 ESL
Horwitz1986FLCAS
FLRAS

30 45
6 FLCAS
15

ESL
ESL

147

UPIRB

: Emi Kojima
(310) 308-3693
: Mora-Flores, Ed.D.
(213) 821-2727
USC Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway WPH1003D
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038

University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research, Grace
Ford Salvatori Building, Room 306, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1695, (213)
821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

148

//
//

149
Appendix C: Student Assent Forms
English
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
ASSENT FORM FOR RESEARCH
Page 1 of 2

ASSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH SEDOND LANGUAGE ANXIETY IN
ADOLESCENTS FROM DIFFERENT CULTURAL BACKGROUNDS
1. My name is Emi Kojima.
2. We are asking you to take part in a research study because we are trying to learn
more about the different factors that cause second language anxiety in English
Learning (EL) students from different cultural backgrounds.
3. If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to answer survey and interview
questions referring to how you feel about learning English. If audiotape recordings
of you will be used for educational purposes, your identity will be protected or
disguised. You have the right to review/edit the audiotaped interviews. You may
continue answering questions in the interviews regardless you decline to be
audiotaped.
4. The physical, psychological, social, and legal risks to you are minimal.
5. This study will be a guide for ESL teachers to learn more about the students

cultural backgrounds and carefully create curriculum that contain a variety of

lessons and activities that are suitable for all students from different cultural
backgrounds which should help ESL students reduce their second language
anxiety. The research has no effect on your class standings or class grades.
Payment and free evaluation are not considered benefits.

150
6. Please talk this over with your parents before you decide whether or not to
participate. We will also ask your parents to give their permission for you to take
part in this study. But even if your parents say yes you can still decide not to do
this.
7. If you dont want to be in this study, you dont have to participate. Remember,
being in this study is up to you and no one will be upset if you dont want to
participate or even if you change your mind later and want to stop.
8. You can ask any questions that you have about the study. If you have a question
later that you didnt think of now, you can call me at 310-308-3693 or ask me next
time.
9. Signing your name at the bottom means that you agree to be in this study. You and
your parents will be given a copy of this form after you have signed it.

I agree to be audio-taped.
I do not agree to be audio-taped.

_________________________________ ____________________
Name of Subject Date

____________________________________
Subjects Signature

___________________________________ ____________________
Name of Investigator Date (must be same as Subjects)
___________________________________
Investigators Signature

151
Spanish
Universidad del Sur de California
(University of Southern California)
Rossier School of Education
Concentimiento para participar en investigacin
Pgina 1
Factores associados con el aprendizaje del segundo idioma con adolecentes de diferentes
culturas.
1. Mi nombre es Emi Kojima
2. Les pedimos participacion en esta investigacion para aprender los diferentes
factores associados con el aprendizaje del segundo idoma con adolecentes de
diferentes culturas.
3. Si esta de acuerdo con este estudio se le pedira que conteste las preguntas acerca
de la investigacin y lo que opinas del aprendizaje del idioma ingls. Si graba la
entrevista puede revisarla y se puede mantener a su discrecin.
4. Fsicamente, socialmente, y psicolgicamenta no habr el mas mnimo riesgo a su
persona.
5. Este estudio ser como gua a los maestros de ESL para que aprendan la cultura
de sus estudiantes y as poder preparar una variedad de lecciones y actividades
que sean apropiadas a sus estudiantes de diferentes culturas. Esta investigacin no
afectar sus grados.
6. Por favor hablen con sus paps antes de decidir si van a participar o n en este
estudio. Tambin le vamos a pedir permiso a sus paps, pero aunque les den el
permiso ustedes no estn obligados de participar si no quieren.
7. Si tienen alguna pregunta acerca de este estudio pueden hacerla o llamar al
telfono 310-308-3693.
8. Al firmar usted est de acuerdo en participar en este estudio.
9. Sus padres recibirn una copia de esta forma firmada por usted.

152
___ Estoy de acuerdo que me graben la entrevista
___ No, no estoy de acuerdo que me graben la entrevista
________________________________ ______________________
Nombre del estudiante Fecha
________________________________
Firma del estudiante
_________________________________ _______________________
Nombre de la investigadora Fecha
_________________________________
Firma de la investgadora

153
Chinese

Rossier

Page 1 of 2

1. Emi Kojima.
2.

3.

,
4.
5. ESL

ESL

6.

154
7.

8.

310-308-3693
9.

_________________________________ ____________________

____________________________________

___________________________________ ____________________

___________________________________

155
Appendix D: Questionnaire
English
Direction: Statements 1 through 40 refer to how you feel about
learning English. For each statement, please circle whether you
strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, or strongly disagree.
Please give your first reaction to each statement and choose one
that applies for every statement.

SA = Strongly agree,
A = Agree
N = Neutral
D = Disagree
SD = Strongly disagree

1. I tremble when I know that I am going to be called on in my English

class.
2. I get frightened when I don't understand what the teacher is saying in
English.
3.During English language class, I find myself thinking about things that
have nothing to do with the course.
4. I keep thinking that the other students are better at speaking English
than I am.
5. I am usually at ease during tests in my English class because I do
not have to speak the language.
6. I start panicing when I have to speak without preparation in my
English class.
7. I worry about the consequeces of failing my English class.
8. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my English class.
9. My English class moves so quickly I worry about getting left behind.
10. I feel overwhelmed by the number of grammar rules I have to learn to
speak English.
11. I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak
English.
12. When I am on my way to my English class, I do not feel very
assured and relaxed.
13. In my ESL class, I get so nervous and I forget things I know.
14. I get upset when I am not sure whether I understand what I am
reading in English.
15. I feel intimidated whenever I see a whole page of English in front of
me.

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA
SA
SA
SA

A
A
A
A

N
N
N
N

D
D
D
D

SD
SD
SD
SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA
SA

A
A

N
N

D
D

SD
SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

156
16. It bothers me to encounter words I can't pronounce while reading
English.
17. The hardest part of learning English is learning to read.
18. I start panicing when I have to read out loud without preparation in
my English class.
19. When I hand in an English composition, I know I am going to do
poorly.
20. I have a terrible time organizing my ideas in writing an English
composition.
21. I am afraid of writing essays in English when I know they will be
evaluated.
22. I would be happy just to learn to speak English rather than having to
learn to read as well.
23. I feel uncomfortable learning English in my ESL classroom because
there are too many students.
24. When reading English, I often understand the words but still can't
quite understand what the author is saying.
25. I feel uncomfortable speaking English because American people
usually look into my eyes when they talk.
26. I feel nervous in front of native speakers because they speak and act
very differently.
27. I feel uncomfortable raising my hands in my English class even
though I know the answer.
28. English speaking and listening are more difficult than English writing.
29. I feel uncomfortable living in America because the life style here is
very different from that in my country.
30. American teachers are less friendly than the teachers in my country.

SA
SA

A
A

N
N

D
D

SD
SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

SA
SA

A
A

N
N

D
D

SD
SD

SA
SA

A
A

N
N

D
D

SD
SD

157

31. If English and my language were more similar, I would be more

proficient in English.
32. I feel more relaxed during group work than individual work.
33. I feel nervous speaking English with native speakers because I can't
understand what they are saying.
34. I feel stressed in my ESL class because there are many group
activities.I prefer to work individually.
35. There are many English words that are different from my language.
36.Teachers in my ESL class ask more questions than the teachers in
my country.
37. I feel uncomfortable giving my opinions in a group discussion.
38. Even if I am well prepared for my English class, I feel anxious about
it.
39. I feel overwhelmed because I have to know so much about English
language and American culture in order to get along with native English
speakers.
40.American culture and ideas seem very foreign to me.

SA
SA

A
A

N
N

D
D

SD
SD

SA

SD

SA
SA

A
A

N
N

D
D

SD
SD

SA
SA

A
A

N
N

D
D

SD
SD

SA

SD

SA

SD

YES

NO

This is the end of the questionnaire.

Would you be willing to participate in a follow-up interview? (Yes,
No):

Thank you very much for your cooperation.

158
Spanish Questionnaire
P or favor proporcione su inform acin personal.

Su nmero: __________________________________
Sexo: __________________
Miembros de la familia, incluyendo Ud.: ___________________
Tiempo en los Estados Unidos: ______________________
Su nivel de ingls (Avanzado, Intermedio, Principante): ____________________________
Instruccines:Preguntas dela 40 se refieren a cm o se siente al
aprender Ingls.Para cada pregunta,por favor circule siest
com pletam ente de acuerdo,de acuerdo,neutral,no de acuerdo,de
deacuerdo.
C A = com pletam ente de acuerdo
A = de acuerdo
N = neutral
NA = no de acuerdo
DA = de desacuerdo
1. Tiemblo cuando s que voy a ser llamado adelante en mi clase inglesa.

CA

NA

DA

CA

NA

DA

nada que ver con esta clase.

CA

NA

DA

4. Sigo pensando que los otros estudiantes hablan el Ingls mejor que yo.

CA

NA

DA

CA

NA

DA

2. Me da miedo cuando no entiendo lo que el maestro est diciendo en

ingls.
3.Durante la clase de Ingls, me encuentro pensando en cosas que no tienen

5. Regularmente me ms relajado en mi exmen de Ingls escrito porque no

tengo que hablar el idioma.

159

6. Me pongo pnico cuando tengo que hablar en la clase de Ingls sin

preparacin.

CA

NA

DA

7. Me preocupo de que voy a reprobar la clase de Ingls.

CA

NA

DA

8. Me de verguenza participar en la clase de Ingls.

CA

NA

DA

9. Mi clase de Ingls va my rapido y me preocupo que me voy a atrazar.

CA

NA

DA

10. Me siento agobiado por tantas reglas gramticales que existen en el idioma
Ingls y que tengo que aprender.

CA

NA

DA

11. Tengo miedo de que los otros estudiantes se van a burlar de mi al hablar el
Ingls.

CA

NA

DA

12. Cuando camino a mi clase de ingls, me siento muy seguro y relajado.

CA

NA

DA

cosas.

CA

NA

DA

14.Me molesta cuando no estoy seguro si entiendo lo que estoy leyendo en

ingls.

CA

NA

DA

15.Me siento nervioso cuando veo una pgina entera escrita en ingls delante
de m.

CA

NA

DA

13. En mi clase de ESL me pongo tan nervioso que aveces se me olvidan las

160

16. Cuando estoy leyendo en Ingls me molesta ver palabras que no puedo
enunciation

CA

NA

DA

17. Lo mas difcil en aprender Ingls es leerlo.

CA

NA

DA

18. Me pongo nervioso cuando tengo que leer en voz alta en la clase de Ingls
sin preparacin.

CA

NA

DA

19. Cuando entrego una composicin en Ingls se que voy a sacar malas
calificacines.

CA

NA

DA

20. No puedo organizar bien mis ideas cuando escribo una composicin en
Ingls.

CA

NA

DA

21. Me pongo nervioso cuando tengo que escribir una composicin en Ingls
cuando se que la van a calificar.

CA

NA

DA

22. Yo estara feliz nada mas con aprender a hablar Ingls en lugar que
aprender lerlo.

CA

NA

DA

23. Me siento muy incomodo en mi clase de ESL porque hay demasiados

estudiantes.

CA

NA

DA

24. Cuando leo en Ingls, regularmente entiendo las palabras pero no entiendo
lo que el autor est diciendo.

CA

NA

DA

25.Me siento incomodo cuando hablo el Ingls porque la gente Americana me

ve los ojos cuando me hablan.

CA

NA

DA

161

26. Me pongo nervioso enfrente de los Americanos porque ellos hablan y

actan diferente a mi.

CA

NA

DA

27. Me siento incmoda levanter la mano en mi clase de Ingls, aunque s la

respuesta.

CA

NA

DA

28. Es mas difcil escribir el Ingls que hablarlo y escucharlo.

CA

NA

DA

29. Me siento incmodo viviendo en Amrica porque sus costumbres y su estilo

de vida son diferentes al de mi pas

CA

NA

DA

30. Los maestros Americanos son ms amables que los maestros de mi pas.

CA

NA

DA

31. Si el Ingls y mi idioma fueran ms similares, sera ms competente en

ingls.

CA

NA

DA

32.M e siento m s relajado cuando trabajo en grupo que cuando

trabajo individualm ente..

CA

NA

DA

CA

NA

DA

CA

NA

DA

33. Me siento nervioso hablar Ingls con los Americanos porque no entiendo

lo que dicen.
34. Me siento tenzo en mi clase de ESL porque hay muchas activities que se

trabaja en grupo. Yo prefiero trabajar individualmente.

162

35. Hay muchas palabras en Ingls similares a mi idioma.

CA

NA

DA

36.Mi maestra de ESL nos hace mas preguntas que mi maestra en mi pas.

CA

NA

DA

dar mi opinin.

CA

NA

DA

38. Aunque estoy bien preparado, me pongo nervioso en la clase de Ingls.

CA

NA

DA

39. Me siento agobiado porque para l evarme bien con los Americanos tengo
que aprender su idioma y cultura.

CA

NA

DA

40.Las ideas y cultura Americana se me hacen muy raras.

CA

NA

DA

37. Cuando trabajamos en grupos en mi clase de ESL me siento incomodo

ste es el final de la encuesta.

E stara U d. interesado participar en una entrevista?

M uchas gracias por su cooperacin.

No

163

Chinese Questionnaire

: __________________________________

: __________________

: ___________________

: ______________________

: ____________________________

164

140

SA =
A =
N =
D =
SD =

1. ,

SA

SD

2. ,.

SA

SD

3.

SA

SD

4.

SA

SD

5.

SA

SD

165

6.

SA

SD

7.

SA

SD

8.

SA

SD

9.

SA

SD

10.

SA

SD

11.

SA

SD

12.

SA

SD

13. ESL

SA

SD

14.

SA

SD

15.

SA

SD

166

16.

SA

SD

17.

SA

SD

18.

SA

SD

19.

SA

SD

20.

SA

SD

21.

SA

SD

22.

SA

SD

23. ESL

SA

SD

24.

SA

SD

25.

SA

SD

167

26.

SA

SD

27.

SA

SD

28.

SA

SD

29.

SA

SD

30.

SA

SD

31.

SA

SD

32.

SA

SD

33.

SA

SD

34. ESL

SA

SD

168

35.

SA

SD

36. ESL

SA

SD

37.

SA

SD

38.

SA

SD

39.

SA

SD

40.

SA

SD

169
Appendix E:Interview Questions
English
1. Name three things that make you feel anxious or nervous in your
language class.
2. What language do you speak at home? In your language, are there
many words that are same or similar to English words?
3. Are you having a hard time looking into the eyes when you talk to
your friends or teachers in class? Is there anything that you have
noticed that American students do but it is hard for you to do? (e.g.
raising your hands when you have questions.)
4. When you experience anxious feelings, do you get angry? Do you
feel sick? Do you freeze and do nothing?
5. Do you try not to let others know by acting OK when you have
anxiety in class?
6. What have you tried that helps you get over feeling anxiety? What
has worked the best?
7. Did you experience any difficulties in living in the United States?
How is the life style here different from that in your country?
8. Do you feel more comfortable with the teachers in American
school or the teachers in your school in your county? Why?
9. Do you like the English class that the teacher lectures during a
whole class or do you like the English class that you work in groups
with your classmates? Why?
10. Which one do you think is the easiest to learn, English speaking,
listening, writing, or reading? Why did you choose what you chose?

170
Spanish
1. Nombre tres cosas que lo ponen ansioso o nervioso en su clase del idioma Ingls.
2. Qu idioma habla en casa? En su idioma natal,
hay palabras que son iguales parecidas al Ingls?
3. Cuando habla con los amigos o maestros en clase es difcil verlos a los ojos?
Hay algo que ha notado en los estudiantes Americanos que ellos puedan hacer
y a usted le resulte difcil? (por ejemplo, levantar la mano cuando tiene preguntas.)
4. Cundo siente ansiedad o preocupacin, se enoja? Se siente enfermo?
se queda inmvil sin hacer nada?
5. Usted trata de hacerles ver que se siente bien cuando en realidad
se siente ansioso en la clase?
6. Que es lo que usted ha tratado de hacer para no sentirse ansioso en clase?
Qu es lo que ha resultado mejor?
7. Usted ha experimentado algunas dificultades al vivir en los Estados Unidos?
En que consiste la diferencia del estilo de vida aqu a la de su pas?
8. Con quien se siente usted mas comodo, con los maestros
de las escuelas Americanas con los maestros de las escuelas de su pas? Porqu?
9. Le gusta ms la clase que el maestro imparte por si solo la clase
donde se trabaja en grupo con sus compaeros? Porqu?
10. Segn su opinin, cual es la forma mas facil de aprender el Ingls;
el hablarlo, el escucharlo, el escribirlo el lerlo? El porqu de lo que escogi?

171
Chinese
1.
2.
3.

4.

5.
6.
7.

8.
9.

10.